Genetically modified crops and sustainable development: navigating challenges and opportunities

Abstract

The dominance of Genetically Modified (GM) crops in global agriculture is underscored by the production quantities of GM Maize and GM soybean. This review discusses the global statistics of GM crops mentioning the area of cultivation, production, and adoption rates of GM crops in detail. It relates the comprehensive overview of perception toward GM technology varying across regions, with the younger generation often displaying a preferable outlook. It highlights the environmental benefits of GM crops, explaining the decreased pesticide usage with potential health benefits, and hinting at an indirect decline in cancer occurrences. An overview of advancements in genetic tools have significantly evolved genome editing techniques in agriculture. The use of such tools in the field of agriculture shows promising effects in maintaining sustainable development goals. This review demonstrates that genetic techniques are a responsible and effective tool for generating GM crops to promote sustainable agriculture.

Introduction

Agriculture confronts formidable challenges in ensuring global food regulation and maintaining food security with sustainable practices. A methodology of cultivating crops for varying time durations without detrimental effects on the soil, air, and water considering our present and future, sets out to be Sustainable Agriculture (Tripathi et al., 2022). It’s not about only utilizing environmental resources efficiently but also increasing the quality of the crops and farmers’ lives delivering financial status within the society (Tseng et al., 2020). In their research, Sendhil et al. (2022) emphasize that the responsible application of genetic techniques in creating Genetically Modified (GM) crops is in harmony with the principles of sustainable agriculture practices. A GM crop can be understood as a plant with altered genetic sequence in a specific manner through the application of genetic techniques that have never existed naturally in the ecosystem (Sendhil et al., 2022). The agriculture sector is the pioneer field to make large investments in the development of genetic technology (Raman, 2017). The ongoing research in agri biotechnology has developed food crops for humans and feed crops for live stocks with desirable and commercial traits. The application of such tools for the incorporation of a gene from an incompatible gene source, and the suppression and activation of a particular trait in crops, have led to a remarkable proliferation of GM crops (Kumar et al., 2020). It has resulted in the proliferation of crops that exhibit disease resistance, abiotic stress tolerance, and enhanced nutritional quality (Batista et al., 2017). In the past 25 years, GM crop production has seen a more than 100-fold increase (Mathur et al., 2017). At present, farmers are cultivating GM crops on approximately 190 million hectares, similar to the area of Mexico (ISAAA, 2023a). As of 2019, Soybean (48.2%), maize (32%), cotton (13.5%), and canola (5.3%) along with other crops (1%) constitute the four primary cultivated GM crops (Statista, 2023). However, many products from these four major crops are not conventionally used for direct human use instead used for industrial application and processing that serves as commercial feed as well as raw material exported across countries rising the cultivation statistics (Aldemita et al., 2015). From 1992 to 2014 the approval of GM events for food was granted by 31 countries with a total of 1505 approvals indicating the acceptance of the benefit from commercialization of GM crops (Aldemita et al., 2015). In addition to that, 1992–2014 data shows the approval for cotton represents 79% of the overall cotton cultivation and continues to serve as a primary source of fiber (ISAAA, 2023a; 2023b; Townsend, 2020). Conversely, maize was primarily used for animal feed and later transitioned predominantly into ethanol industries, especially in the United (Ranum et al., 2014). As per the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), of total GM Maize produced globally, 55% was used for animal feed, 20% for other non-food applications, and merely 12% for human consumption (FAOSTAT, 2023).

GM crops are created by altering the DNA of plants through genetic engineering techniques (GETs). These techniques involve introducing foreign genes or modifying the expression of existing genes, which has significantly increased the development of GM crops (Kumar et al., 2020). This has led to the cultivation of crops that are resistant to diseases, tolerant of environmental stresses, and enhanced in nutritional value (Batista et al., 2017). By engineering plants to resist specific pests, the dependence on chemical pesticides is minimized. Additionally, some GM crops are designed to endure harsh environmental conditions, resulting in higher yields. Genetic modifications can also improve the nutritional profile of crops by adding essential vitamins and minerals. In the twenty-first century, genetic modification is seen as a promising strategy for sustainable agriculture (Oliver, 2014). Despite these benefits, the use of GM crops has sparked complex debates about their safety and sustainability. These discussions have led some nations to challenge the adoption, cultivation, and commercialization of GM crops (Kikulwe et al., 2011). Many countries in Europe and the Middle East have imposed full or partial restrictions on the commercialization of GM crops. Regulatory approval for GM crops is often delayed due to poor communication and awareness, which fosters consumer mistrust (Mustapa et al., 2021). GM crop cultivation and sales are regulated differently between countries. The international trade of GM crops regulated by the European Union set a threshold system of tracing and tracking GM, 0.9% for approved crops and 0% for crops assessed by the European Food Safety Authority (EFAS) for the import to EU market which opens the possibility of import ban from countries cultivating GM crops (Purnhagen and Wesseler, 2021). Such regulatory restrictions pose a significant impediment to developing countries' export markets suppressing the innovation in agriculture and opportunities (Diriba Balcha, 2022). Regulatory systems commonly evaluate the safety of GM crops in terms of their suitability for human consumption, their impact on the environment, and their potential socio-economic implications. The continuous progress and ongoing research in GETs have a significant role in the development and discourse surrounding GM crops. Instead of using mutagen to develop and select the desired traits and using DNA from foreign bodies like in Transgenic plants, New Breeding Techniques (NBTs) using CRISPR/Cas9 as a genetic scissor, genetic modification has become simple and rapid to boost agricultural research. Based on this the objective of this review was to examine the worldwide statistics of GM crops, specifically focusing on the extent of cultivation, production, and adoption rates of GM crops. This review presents a comprehensive analysis of how perceptions of GM technology differ across different locations. The ecological advantages of GM crops, specifically addressing the reduced need for pesticides and the potential positive impact on human health, including a potential drop in cancer cases are discussed. This review also examines the utilization of genetically modified enzymes, with a particular emphasis on important enzymes such as carbohydrases, proteases, and lipases.

Global statistics of GM crops

The worldwide production landscape of GM crops has witnessed a substantial rise from 1.72 million hectares (Mha) in 1996 to 202.11 Mha in 2022, signifying an approximately 117-fold escalation (ISAAA, 2023a). Subsequently, there was a substantial surge in the advertising of GM crops at a high rate within contemporary agricultural history. Presently, the United States stands as the foremost producer of GM crops worldwide, cultivating 74.69 million hectares with 217 GM events, wherein GM cotton, maize, and soybean collectively constitute 90% of total production (ISAAA, 2023a). Following closely, Brazil held the position of the second-largest producer of GM crops, accounting for 63.20 million hectares with 127 GM events, while Argentina secured the third-largest producer spot with 23.41 million hectares with 93 GM events. India and Canada claimed the fourth and fifth-largest producer positions, with cultivations of 12.35 and 11.32 million hectares with 11 and 195 GM events respectively. In 2019, the most extensive expanse of GM crops was dedicated to soybean 48% cultivation (Statista, 2023). Globally, GM maize encompassed an area of 60.9 million hectares, constituting approximately 32% of the worldwide maize production (Turnbull et al., 2021). GM cotton accounted for 14% of the global cotton production area in 2019, encompassing 25.7 million hectares.

According to (Ag bio Investor-GM, 2023) the predominant crop in production was GM Maize, followed by GM Soybean, which yielded 515.42 million tons (MT) and 295.75 million tons, respectively. Recent approvals for GM crops such as Brinjal, Rice, Sugarcane, and Wheat resulted in production quantities slightly exceeding or falling just below 2 million metric tons in 2022. In contradistinction to GM maize, soybean, canola, and cotton, several other GM crops were cultivated in various countries, encompassing sugarcane, papaya, alfalfa, squash, apples, and sugar beets. According to ag bio investor's data, GM sugar beet, yielding 30.8 million metric tons, ranked as the third most produced GM crop in countries where GM varieties are approved. In the production hierarchy, GM cotton and canola claimed the fourth and fifth spots, demonstrating robust yields of 22.37 and 21.57 million metric tons, respectively. To confine the prevalence of specific GM crops (Park et al., 2010) examined the inadvertent dispersion of GM maize during transit, discovering traces, and establishing plants near ports and feed facilities. Conversely, (Brookes and Barfoot, 2004) found that GM and non-GM maize coexisted smoothly in Spain without significant economic or commercial complications. (Gouse, 2012) concentrated on South African smallholder adoption of GM maize, though without direct comparison to the prevalence of GM maize concerning other GM crops. The assessment of attitudes towards GM technology in three post-Soviet nations, namely the Czech Republic, Russian Federation, and Ukraine, revealed that younger generations held a more favorable outlook compared to their parents. The Russian Federation exhibited the most adverse stance towards GM crops after the prohibition of cultivating GM seeds from 3rd July 2016 (Brosig and Bavorova, 2019; Nechaev et al., 2020). Thus, Russia aims to protect its market and farmers from adopting American GM seeds that would require royalties in debt (Brankov and Koviljko, 2019). The examination of existing literature distinctly highlights Nordic nations, including Finland, Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, as notable for their perspectives and evaluations of GM food and GM crops. This distinction may be attributed to the early incorporation of plant genetic technologies in this geographical area (Eriksson et al., 2018).

There has been a substantial surge in the authorization of plant species featuring GM varieties. As of September 2023, approximately 44 nations have granted regulatory approval for 32 GM crops, encompassing 566 instances of genetic modification, according to ISAAA. This data encompasses 41 distinct commercial traits intended for implementation in cultivation, food, and feed. Notably, the introduction of genes conferring herbicide tolerance (HT) and insect resistance (IR) traits in favored GM crops has reached the highest frequencies, with 284 and 237 respective instances. It is worth noting that, to date, only one event related to nematode resistance (NR) traits has been practiced in GM cropping.

Based on the data provided by (ISAAA, 2023b), it is evident that GM maize has garnered approvals for 263 distinct GM events across various countries. Similarly, GM cotton exhibits 68 GM events, followed by Argentine canola and soybean, each with 45 GM events. Additionally, both Potato and tomato have received approvals for 51 and 11 GM events respectively, as indicated in (Fig. 1A). The adoption rate of GM crops by country from 1996 to 2022 is presented in (Fig. 1B). Notably, the most recent approvals, granted in September and August of 2023 by the Philippines, pertain to canola and cotton. Likewise, Brazil has sanctioned the commercial cultivation of the wheat event Hb4 in the same year, as reported by (ISAAA, 2023a).

Fig. 1.

Evolution of genetically modified (GM) crops worldwide: Prevalence and adoption trends (A) Distribution of approved GM events among major crop categories globally. (B) Adoption rates of GM crops by country from 1996 to 2022

Addressing cancer incidence: proven methods for reduction

The emergence of insect-resistant cultivars has commenced a distinguishable trajectory toward enhancing human health by mitigating cancer incidence rates. Preceding the introduction of commercially available Bt crops, with a specific emphasis on maize, insect-induced damage to the harvested yield amplified the likelihood of detrimental health outcomes. An extensive 21-year investigation into quantified data illustrates that the production of GM maize, known as Bt maize, has measured diminished levels of mycotoxins (− 29%), fumonisins (− 31%), and thricotecens (− 37%) compared to near-isogenic lines (NILs) (Pellegrino et al., 2018). In Thomson and Thomson (2017) discourse, the environmental advantages of GM crops are expounded upon, encompassing a decline in the utilization of pesticides. Brookes and Barfoot (2018; 2020) underscore the diminished necessity for pesticide application and the resultant moderation in environmental divisions. These observations suggest that GM crops have the potential to alleviate health hazards associated with pesticide exposure, thereby potentially leading to an indirect reduction in cancer occurrences. Mycotoxins possess dual attributes of toxicity and carcinogenicity to both humans and animals. They present a notably heightened concern within food systems of developing economies, where accessibility to toxicity assessments for food safety is less widespread. Fumonisins, plant toxins related to a high risk of neural tube defects in populations with a predominant intake of maize-based diets (Missmer et al., 2006) represented in (Fig. 1A). Given the prevailing food security challenges in numerous developing nations, maize containing high mycotoxins is often included in household diets due to the scarcity of viable alternatives. This situation worsens concerns within the food systems of these economies, where access to comprehensive toxicity assessments for food safety remains limited. According to Pellegrino et al., (2018), there is an endorsement for the cultivation of GM maize, with reported advantages including elevated grain yield, diminished mycotoxin levels, and negligible impact on non-target organisms shown in (Fig. 2). Over the extended period, the cultivation of cis-genic potatoes from the Dutch research initiative Du RPh could potentially lead to a reduction in fungicide application by over 80% compared to prevailing agricultural practices, In the Netherlands, over half of the fungicides utilized are directed towards managing potato late blight, necessitating the application of approximately 1424 metric tons of active ingredient across 165,000 hectares. This regimen involves administering between 10 and 16 sprays throughout the growing season and accounts for approximately 10% of the overall expenses associated with potato production (Lotz et al., 2020). Atreya et al. (2020) conducted survey-based research and found a positive correlation between pesticide use history, including the fungicides, and chronic health problems in farmers. These findings collectively suggest that the use of fungicides in agriculture may increase the risk of cancer.

Fig. 2.

A detailed comparison of procedure of DNA recombinant plant developed using two genetic modification methods: transgenic and cisgenic biotechnology techniques and public perception towards environment and health impacts

Nutritional benefits

GM crops have a leading role in advancing the objectives outlined in the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, particularly targets alleviating poverty and diminishing hunger. The heightened crop yields have led to augmented household earnings, thereby mitigating impoverishment. Simultaneously, the amplified yields have bolstered household food assurance. Additionally, the adoption of biofortified GM crop has led to an elevation in the accessibility of micronutrients (Hefferon, 2015). In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), the adoption of Quality Protein Maize (QPM) varieties has outpaced that in Asia due to maize's primary role as a staple food in SSA. Conversely, in Asian nations like India, maize primarily serves as poultry feed (constituting around 60–70% of production), with synthetic lysine and tryptophan supplements being added. The development of QPM maize involved utilizing simple recessive alleles of opaque2 (o2o2) and opaque16 (o16o16) through Marker-Assisted Selection (MAS), resulting in a 30% increase in lysine and a 41% increase in tryptophan content compared to conventional cultivars (Prasanna et al., 2020). Enhancing macronutrients (comprising proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and dietary fiber) as well as micronutrients (including vitamins, minerals, and functional metabolites) often leads to notable enhancements in childhood health, such as mitigating instances of vision impairment resulting from vitamin deficiencies. Augmented nutrient levels in food, particularly the heightened accessibility of minerals, play a pivotal role in fortifying immune systems and mitigating the occurrence of stunted growth (Wesseler and Zilberman, 2014). In numerous developing nations, the entirety of an individual's nutrient intake is sourced from plant-based sources, underscoring the critical significance of nutritionally fortified crop-derived foods.

A recent survey unveiled that public perceptions towards GM foods have witnessed minimal alteration since their inception in the mid-1990s. A noteworthy 50% of Americans remain uninformed about GM foods and express resistance to their integration into the food system (Ali et al., 2021). Nonetheless, the reception of GM foods seems contingent on their creation and intended application, particularly concerning yields. Conversely, contingent upon the type of genetic modification performed, there is a prevailing preference for "cisgenic" alterations in comparison to "transgenic" modifications (Sandin, 2017), as depicted in (Fig. 2). A transgenic plant has nucleotide sequences that are sexually incompatible in nature, an example is Bt maize, where a bacterial gene is used to regulate the defense mechanism against lepidoptera larvae in maize (Ankeny and Bray, 2018) and cisgenic crops are developed from the original plant and/or naturally compatible species, some examples cisgenic apple, potatoes using resistance gene from parent lines of same species (Ricroch and Hénard-Damave, 2016).

Pesticide poisoning

Chemical applications, especially insecticidal treatments applied to crops such as cotton and brinjal, necessitate recurrent to mitigate insect-induced harm. However, these chemical exposures may result in detrimental health consequences, often referred to as pesticide poisoning, among those tasked with their administration. A comprehensive medical assessment of 246 Chinese agricultural workers, encompassing an examination of 35 health parameters, unveiled that fungicides utilized in the cultivation of non-Bt cotton were likely to cause liver damage. Furthermore, the insecticidal agents employed in non-Bt cotton farming demonstrated potential connections to substantial nerve impairment (Zhang et al., 2016a). GM crops, notably Bt cotton, have led to noteworthy declines in instances of pesticide poisoning, attributed to diminished applications and lowered levels of insecticidal exposure (Gassmann and Reisig, 2023). Despite these efforts, worldwide pesticide utilization has persistently escalated, reaching 3.5 million metric tonnes annually in 2021. This marks an escalation of nearly 97% from 1990 to 2021 (FAOSTAT, 2023). With a global agricultural population estimated at around 860 million, this implies that roughly 44% of farmers face pesticide poisoning on an annual basis (Boedeker et al., 2020). Nevertheless, certain studies provide evidence supporting the efficiency of GM crops in mitigating health risks associated with pesticide exposure. Through the analysis of statistics, Pray et al. (2002) and Huang et al. (2003) determined that Bt cotton farmers in China experienced lower incidences of pesticide poisoning compared to non-adopters. Similarly, using a similar cultivar in South Africa, Bennett et al. (2003) observed lesser incidents of pesticide poisoning among Bt cotton farmlands. Farmers in Pakistan cultivating non-Bt cotton listed up to seven occurrences of pesticide poisoning per season, while Bt cotton farmers listed up to six incidents (Kouser and Qaim, 2013; Shukla et al., 2018) provide an overview of the advancements in GM crop research within the Indian context, highlighting the regulatory and coordination challenges faced. To assess the health impact of Bt cotton adoption, (Kouser and Qaim, 2011) conducted an in-depth longitudinal study involving Indian cotton farmers over four rounds spanning from 2002 to 2008. The results of (Kouser and Qaim, 2011) study reveal a notably lower incidence of reported poisoning incidence per cotton season among Bt farmers (0.19 cases) compared to non-Bt farmers (1.60 cases), signifying a highly significant disparity. The analysis focused exclusively on acute poisoning, without accounting for potential enduring chronic conditions stemming from recurrent pesticide exposure. (Fig. 3) provides a visual representation of the data, revealing that a substantial most Bt farmers reported no incidents of poisoning. In contrast, non-Bt farmers exhibited a markedly high frequency of reported pesticide poisonings across various counts. This discrepancy underscores the distinct experiences between the two groups in terms of pesticide-related health incidents.

Fig. 3.

Comparison of frequencies of pesticide poisoning in Bt and non-Bt adopters in cotton

Public perception of GM crops, ethical concerns, and health risk

The main concern regarding GM crops pertains to their adverse impacts on health resulting in the risk of chronic diseases in the long run. There is a prevailing assumption that the ingestion of GM crops may lead to the emergence of specific diseases that could exhibit resistance to pharmaceuticals (Midtvedt, 2014). This resistance arises from the transmission of antibiotic-resistant genes from GM crops to humans (Midtvedt, 2014). The uncertainty surrounding the long-term consequences of GM crops has led to a diminished rate of their consumption. Moreover, certain ethnic and religious groups hold reservations against these crops, deeming them potentially harmful to human health. There exists a belief that GM crops may incite allergic responses in individuals. There has been a reported case of GM soybeans causing allergic reactions in a significant portion of consumers, this allergenic response was attributed to the insertion of the 2S-Albumin gene from a sexually compatible Brazil nut into the soybeans (Mullins et al., 2022) Allergenicity assessments on transgenic soybeans revealed allergic reactions in three subjects during skin-prick testing. To aim at augmenting the nutritional profile of soybeans, a methionine-rich protein derived from the Brazilian nut was introduced into transgenic soybeans. The Brazil nut is a known allergenic food since nuts are allergenic to the majority of the population. There are also speculations that GM crops may lead to the growth of malignant cells, and cancerous cells in humans (Touyz, 2013). It is contended that cancerous diseases result from alterations in genes, and the introduction of foreign genes into the human body may potentially instigate these genetic alterations (Mathers, 2007) Antibiotic resistance genes have the potential to be horizontally transferred to bacteria within the intestinal region of humans (Karalis et al., 2020). While the possibility of these events is found minimal, it warrants consideration when evaluating biosafety testing in field trials or during the approval for commercialization. The assessment of health risks associated with foods from GM crops remains a subject of ongoing debate within the scientific community, necessitating robust empirical evidence. Surveys conducted by (Sikora and Rzymski, 2021) revealed a decline in reluctance towards GM food among Europeans, dropping from 86% in 1999 and 66% in 2010 to 60% in 2019. In China, approximately 40% of 600 respondents agreed GM products are safe, 26% viewed unsafe, and 35% were uncertain about their safety. Furthermore, around 73% of consumers experienced GM products in their daily usage unknowingly. Intriguingly, 79% of consumers expressed an intention to buy GM food (Zheng and Wang, 2021). A survey conducted among Bt-brinjal (eggplant) farmers in Bangladesh (Rodríguez et al., 2022), indicated that 96% of respondents deemed Bt-brinjal to be safer for human health. Developed countries are expanding their cultivation of GM crops in response to increasing demand and acceptance among the populace. The adoption rates of GM crops in the top five countries are depicted in (Fig. 1B). This data illustrates that the level of education significantly influences public perceptions of plant gene methods. Within the realm of research, scholars demonstrating social sciences and humanities (SSH) play a crucial role in influencing policymaking and disseminating information to the broader public involving the pros and cons of GM products. Simultaneously, concerted efforts should be directed towards utilizing social media and reputable blogs for reliable scientific communication of biotechnology, and GM and GE foods.

Approaching potential impacts on social and community health

The health risks are an ethical concern related to GM crops that require a thorough examination and public education to acknowledge the benefits and drawbacks of GM crops. It is noted very little research has been conducted on the long-term effects of GM crop intake on human health (Garcia-Alonso et al., 2022). To address the health effects of GM crops, health authorities must perform comprehensive biosafety testing and risk analyses before consumption, promising biosafety testing regulatory control (Akinbo et al., 2021). Biosafety testing guarantees that food items generated from GM crops are as safe as non-GM goods, with accompanying labeling information. To far, no substantial evidence has been found that GM crops allowed in the United States and other nations pose a health risk or cause damage to animals or the environment. Scientific studies have continuously failed to discover any significant damage stemming from the usage of GM crops. According to (Rodríguez et al., 2022), scientific research has consistently failed to identify any substantial harm resulting from the use of GM crops. Instead, numerous studies have outlined a range of benefits encompassing economic gains, positive environmental impacts, and potential health advantages. Furthermore, (Waters et al., 2021), underscores that the safety of GM plants for both food and feed has been rigorously evaluated by more than 3500 independent regulatory agencies worldwide. These extensive assessments have consistently reaffirmed the safety of GM crops, further reinforcing their suitability for consumption. However, a contrasting perspective is presented by (Seralini, 2020) who, while raising concerns about the long-term effects of pesticides associated with GM crops, does not provide concrete evidence of direct harm from the crops themselves. This viewpoint emphasizes the importance of considering the broader agricultural practices surrounding GM crop cultivation. (Smyth, 2020) reinforces the positive aspects of GM crops, particularly in terms of their economic and environmental benefits. While (Smyth, 2020) research does not explicitly delve into potential harm to humans or animals, it underscores the significant contributions GM crops can make in terms of sustainability and agricultural efficiency.

GM crops integration with sustainable development goals, and environmental concerns in agriculture

Agriculture plays an important role in the interest of achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), encompassing essential objectives such as mitigating hunger, and poverty, instituting a sustainable framework for production and consumption, combating climatic variations, enhancing energy utilization, and upholding the integrity of ecosystem (Viana et al., 2022). These aims of SDGs have been listed in scientific communications and have been a challenging topic in the agriculture sector in recent years, as producing a large proportion of food with no or minimal environment degradation is a difficult task to practice. Therefore, with the rise of GM crop cultivation, the term ‘genetic pollution’ came into existence, the gene flow that transpires from GM crops to adjacent non-GM counterparts through the transmission of pollen (Fitzpatrick and Reid, 2019). Hence, a standard recommendation is to cultivate GM crops at least 50 m from non-GM counterparts when employing them in sustainable agricultural practices. This approach serves to mitigate the proportion of gene contamination (Carrière et al., 2021). The progression of tools for genetically modifying crops holds the potential to facilitate the realization of SDGs within the realm of sustainable agriculture. This achievement has primarily stemmed from agricultural intensification, albeit at the cost of environmental resource depletion, diminished biodiversity, harmful gas emissions, and extensive land removal (Liu et al., 2018). However, the integration of GM crops presents a moral and ethical quandary, necessitating a judicious assessment of their merits and demerits. This entails a comprehensive evaluation of the three interrelated dimensions of sustainability; environmental, societal, and economic considerations.

New opportunities- genome editing

The revolution of genetic technology in the agriculture sector created a massive opportunity to conduct rapid, efficient, and precise techniques to manipulate the genetic sequence of crops. The technique that has rapid traction in genetic modification is CRISPR/Cas9 (Khatodia et al., 2016; Georges and Ray, 2017). Genetic modification using CRISPR/Cas9 takes changes especially for minute portions in DNA for modification when compared with other conventional genetic tools (Lacchini et al., 2020). At present, this methodology has a wide range of uses, from modifying the DNA of crops to enhancing their growth attributes in harsh climates, and being tolerant against diseases (ISAAA Brief 55, 2019; Liang et al., 2017). The advancement in genetic tools happened gradually with the development of tools like Zinc finger nucleases (ZFN) derived from Nicotiana tabacum plants (Raza et al., 2022) transcription activators like nucleases (TALENs) have emerged as a genetic tool that utilizes DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), TALENs offer an alternative to zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs) for editing (Forner et al., 2022), CRISPR/Cas9 has shown results in targeting sequences within the genome leading to rapid advancements, in crop improvement (Nekrasov et al., 2013), Site-Directed Nucleases (SDN) for the sharp accuracy and (Raza et al., 2022) precision for incision of specific region of DNA (He and Zhao, 2020; Metje-Sprink et al., 2019). Integration of these tools available to humankind combinedly appears to be a substantial way to tackle prevailing agricultural productivity issues and improve food security. In the future, involving farmers, industry stakeholders, academic institutions, and public research sectors in cooperative dialogues regarding the potential of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) will enhance communication and facilitate substantive policy deliberations. GM crops have been useful in modern agriculture, revolutionizing the method of cultivation, and use of Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated plant transformation for the regeneration of plants with commercial traits (Jiao et al., 2022) seen in (Fig. 2). These GM plants are commercialized with desirable genes of interest. For instance, in the process of maize production, a multi-gene approach was successfully applied with the combination of 4114 × MIR604 × NK603 introducing cry1F, cry34Ab1, cry35Ab1, pat, mcry3A, pmi, and cp4 epsps genes into the maize genome. Further field trails through conventional breeding methods, this maize variant exhibits dual traits of herbicide tolerance (HT) and insect resistance (IR). This genetic amalgamation has bolstered the maize's ability to withstand both pest attacks and herbicidal applications, leading to more robust yields. According to (ISAAA, 2023a) list of other selected major crops with GM event names and commercial traits is mentioned in (Table 1).

Table 1.

Introduction of Genes into crops for commercial traits

GM crops	Event Name	Gene Introduced	Method of trait Introduction	Commercial traits	References
Alfalfa	J101	cp4 epsps	Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated plant transformation	Herbicide Tolerance (HT)	Mishra et al. (2020)
Argentine Canola	GT200 (RT200)	Cp4 epsps, goxv247	Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated plant transformation	Herbicide Tolerance (HT)	Pandolfo et al. (2018)
Cotton	COT102 × COT67B × MON88913	Cp4 epsps, vip3A, cry1Ab, aph4	Conventional breeding—cross hybridization and selection	Herbicide Tolerance (HT) + Insect Resistance (IR)	Trapero et al. (2016)
Maize	4114 × MIR604 × NK603	cry1F, cry34Ab1, cry35Ab1, pat, mcry3A, pmi, cp4 epsps	Conventional breeding—cross hybridization and selection	Herbicide Tolerance (HT) + Insect Resistance (IR)	Bonny (2016)
Potato	HLMT15-15	Cry3A, pvy_cp, nptll, aad	Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated plant transformation	Insect Resistance (IR) + Disease Resistance (DR)	Balaško et al. (2020)
Soybean	GTS 40-3-2	Cp4 epsps	Microparticle bombardment of plant cells or tissue	Herbicide Tolerance (HT)	Liu et al. (2022)
Sugarcane	NXI-1T, NXI-4T, NXI-6T	EcBetA, nptll, aph4, RmBetA	Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated plant transformation	Abiotic Stress Tolerance (ST)	Narayan et al. (2023)
Tomato	FLAVR SAVR™	Pg (sense or antisense), nptll	Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated plant transformation	Modified Product Quality (PQ)	Koukounaras et al. (2022)
Wheat	HB4 wheat	Hahb-4	Microparticle bombardment of plant cells or tissue	Abiotic Stress Tolerance (ST)	Habib et al. (2022)

Application of genetically modified enzymes in the food processing industry

Carbohydrases/glycosidases

According to (Møller and Svensson, 2016), starch is a polymer of glucose molecules with glycosidic bonds between α-1,4 and α-1,6. To break down the complexity of the starch chain and to separately break down amylose and amylopectin, many kinds of enzyme activity are needed. (Fig. 4). Enzymes that break down starch include α-amylases, α-glucosidases, pullulanases, isoamylases, and other debranching enzymes, which are all well covered (Fig. 4) provides a comprehensive summary). Usually focus is on starch degrading enzymes The widely used carbohydrase like Bacillus licheniformis α-amylase (EC 3.2.1.1) which is a freely available exoenzyme has many uses in the bread industry and exhibits thermostability but sensitivity to acidic conditions, making it useful for baking, brewing, making sweeteners, and other applications (Liu et al., 2014a). The starch structure is broken at the α-1,4 glycosidic linkage, and the second α-1,4 glycosidic bond from the non-reducing end of the chain is mostly hydrolyzed by β-amylase, an exoamylase. Glucomylase or α-glucosidase hydrolyzes the shorter chain products called dextrin produced by α-amylase and β-amylase to produce glucose molecules (Fig. 4) (Janeček et al., 2014). By replacing the His residues in the active region with Arg and Asp, new B. licheniformis α-amylases have been produced by controlled development. These enzymes exhibit great activity at a pH of 4.5 when compared to the original substrate (Liu et al., 2014c; 2017). An enzyme with a higher optimal temperature of 60 °C and a lower optimal pH of 4.0–4.5 was created from genetically engineered Rhizopus oryzae residues (Li et al., 2018b), these qualities are more appropriate for the manufacture of high maltose syrup. The saccharification of alkaline-treated bagasse was accelerated by using a modified version of Aspergillus aculeatus β-glucosidase (EC 2.3.1.21), which exhibited improved hydrolytic efficiency (Baba et al., 2016). Expanded loaf volumes were the outcome of using Endo-β-1,4-xylanases to produce bread from water-insoluble wheat arabinoxylan rather than non-water-soluble wheat (Leys et al., 2016). These enzymes are usually used in food processing to modify the properties of starch, produce syrups, or enhance culinary products. The main areas of focus include enzyme complexes with substrates and their counterparts with proteinaceous inhibitors, new enzyme structures, and novel enzyme types with enhanced stability and efficiency under varied pH and temperature settings (Møller and Svensson, 2016).

Fig. 4.

A detailed function of starch converting enzymes; Exoamylases, Endoamylases and Debranching enzymes acting at specific glycosidic bond to produce simple saccharides

Proteases/peptidases

Proteases/peptidases are commonly used enzymes in food processing to breakdown protein structures and improve the qualities and textural properties of animal-based products. These proteases can be derived from animals, plants, and microorganisms. Recent studies have focused on genetically modified proteases isolated from Aspergillus and Bacillus spp. called metalloproteases that exhibit improved substrate affinity due to site saturation mutagenesis of His224. This advancement could significantly reduce costs in Z-aspartame production (Zhu et al., 2018) commonly used as a sweetening ingredient in food, showcasing the dynamic modeling of enzyme–substrate interactions for enzyme engineering (Murthy and Kusumoto, 2015) and peak activity at pH 8.0 and 55 °C, aiding in debittering, and digesting food oils (Ke et al., 2012). Serin protease was engineered suggesting its potential as a cardiovascular medication for enhancing resistance to oxidation towards the substrates (Weng et al., 2015). Cold activity at 10 °C and alkali resistance in an alkaline protease from Bacillus alcalophilus (Liu et al., 2014c) to use in cool-temperature food preparation. Similarly, an alkaline serine protease from mesophilic Bacillus pumilus was designed to have enhanced hydrolytic efficacy by having application in the detergent business (Zhao and Feng, 2018). An alkaline protease derived from the metagenome of an oil-contaminated mud flat, changed using random mutagenesis, displayed excellent compatibility with laundry detergents under circumstances of low temperature (30 °C) and throughout an alkaline pH range extending from pH 8.0 to 11.0 (Gong et al., 2017).

Lipases

Lipase (EC 3.1.1.3) acts as a typical biological catalyst used for changing lipids, encompassing fats and oils. Bacillus lipases exhibit an ability to encompass enormous pH and temperature spectrums, with select enzymes demonstrating selectivity towards fatty acids. This modified enzyme was used as employed as a leavening agent, increasing the bread’s aromatic properties (Paciello et al., 2015). The advancements offer great potential for addressing industrial demands, notably within the edible oil and fat sectors, regarding the exploitation of Rhizopus lipase by judicious changes targeting the N-glycosylation sites (Yu et al., 2017). Lipase isozymes from Candida rugosa, displayed excellent catalytic efficiency in the synthesis of fatty acid methyl esters and diglycerides, functioning as efficient food emulsifiers. Additionally, these modified enzymes displayed competency in turning crude Jatropha curcas kernel oil into biofuel (Chang et al., 2014; Kuo et al., 2015). The lipase from Malassezia globosa, renowned for its particular activity towards mono and diacylglycerols, changed to boost its thermostability, suiting industrial scale needs for generating diacylglycerols in edible oils, delivering potential health advantages (Gao et al., 2014). Modified thermostable T1 lipases displayed decreased activity when applied to long-chain triacylglycerols, indicating their potential as biocatalysts for increasing taste in dairy products (Tang et al., 2017). Through semi-rational design, a modified Thermomyces lanuginosus lipase was deliberately developed to boost its tolerance to methanol. This alteration places the enzyme for future application in the synthesis of biofuels generated from waste food oils and grease(Tian et al., 2017).

Genetic modifications in food enzymes

A modified version of the enzyme D psicose 3 epimerase (EC 5.1.3.31) exhibited increased affinity, for its substrate improved efficiency in catalyzing the conversion of D fructose to D psicose and enhanced stability at temperatures. The breakdown of D fructose to D psicose is particularly significant as D psicose is a sweetener with few calories with preferable physiological functions (Zhang et al., 2016b). Similarly modified versions of cellobiose 2 epimerases CE2 from Caldicellulosiruptor saccharolyticus (EC 5.1.3.11) resulted in activity allowing for the direct conversion of lactose into lactulose without the unwanted production of epilactose improving lactulose yield of 70–80% and used as dietary food ingredient and in medicinal applications for conditions like constipation and hepatic encephalopathy (Shen et al., 2016), While it offers synergies with traditional lactulose production methods, such as reduced waste and greener processes, it also poses challenges like significant initial investment, regulatory hurdles, and ethical concerns regarding genetic modifications. In fact the synthesis of cellobiose 2 (CE2) requires a complex process of isolation from bacteria considered with dubious safety status so required culturing in host cell Escherichia coli or Bacillus subtilis for cultivation of recombinant cells and after inactivating lac repressor, CE in induce for synthesis in host cell which further needs costly purification process. Therefore, using hydrolysis i.e., transgalactosylation, lactulose is preferred to synthesis and scientist still find hydorlysis relevant to CE (Ryabtseva et al., 2023). Genetic modification is used in Yersinia phytases to enhance resistance to enzymes like pepsin and trypsin suggesting enhancement could improve absorption, from food sources (Niu et al., 2017). Changes in the enzyme nitrilase (EC 3.5.5.1) enhance its effectiveness, in producing acid, which's crucial in pharmaceutical manufacturing (Liu et al., 2014b). In another study, scientists engineered an Aspergillus niger α-l-rhamnosidase with an affinity, for reducing bitterness from naringin in orange juice (Li et al., 2018a). This enzyme's adaptation reduced bitterness, showcasing practical value in citrus juice processing. These various accomplishments, in the field of enzyme engineering demonstrate the possibilities for customized enhancements, in areas ranging from food and pharmaceuticals to biotechnology to improve specific purposes and processes.

Genetically engineered microorganisms

Over every phase of human history, microbes have played a critical albeit sometimes unacknowledged role in enabling food production, preying the recognition of their participation in the complicated processes of fermentation (Zhang et al., 2017). A timeline of the advancement of biomanufacturing depicting the important innovations and developments of scientific techniques is shown in (Fig. 5). Recent breakthroughs in biochemistry and molecular biology have greatly improved the utilization of Genetically Engineered Microorganisms (GEMs) for manufacturing therapeutic and food-related substances. These techniques are renowned for their ecologically friendly, cost-effective manufacturing. For instance, insulin manufacturing has changed from pig pancreatic extraction to microbial synthesis. Similarly, microbial replacements for trypsin and chymosin are replacing animal-derived supplies. GEMs are widely applied in creating food constituents like riboflavin, encompassing a considerable shift towards GEM-based techniques in commercial riboflavin manufacture since the 1990s (Schwechheimer et al., 2016). Currently, Genetically Engineered Microorganisms (GEMs) play a key role in manufacturing a variety of food components including vitamins, amino acids, functional proteins like texturants, nutritional proteins, oligosaccharides, flavors, and sweeteners (Adrio and Demain, 2010). Genetically engineered foods from changed microorganisms considerably increase nutritional content, flavor, texture, and shelf life in the food sector. These include soy-based goods, dairy items, additives, amino acids, vitamins, wine, and nutrient-rich meals. Their production and usage attempt to boost health by enhancing nutrient intake. Microorganisms not only raise food quality but also assist in nutritional absorption, texture, flavor enhancement, and avoiding rotting, boosting food product safety and capacity (Tamang et al., 2016).

Fig. 5.

A timeline of biomanufacturing revolution with important discoveries and gradual advancement in methods

Adverse effects/events of GM food consumption on animal and human

The enzymes in the food industry are derived from GMOs and hold safety issues like possible contamination with bacterial toxins, mycotoxins, allergies, or unidentified chemicals as constituents (de Santis et al., 2018; Srivastava, 2019). Altering enzymes by genetic alteration could also modify their allergenic characteristics, bringing significant health hazards. For instance, research including 813 employees from various food industries who are exposed to genetically modified enzymes suggested type I sensitization (Budnik et al., 2017). GM enzymes require permission from regulatory agencies including the US FDA, the European Food Safety, and the Association of Manufacturers and Formulators of Enzyme Products Authority before market entrance, with varied procedures between nations. Ethical and religious considerations surround these enzymes, notably in procuring raw materials or components for microbial fermentation (Ermis, 2017). Still, GM food has always been a trend of disputes regarding the technique utilized to manufacture a product claiming it is safe for ingestion for the public (Martinelli et al., 2013). While most peer-reviewed research has not identified major health hazards, there remains a possibility for publication bias (Klümper and Qaim, 2014). Notably, specific cases such as the “Monarch Butterfly” controversy (Losey et al., 1999), the “Pusztai case” (Ewen and Pusztai, 1999), and the “Séralini case” (Séralini et al., 2012) have garnered attention due to unexpected effects observed in GM crop studies, finding their place in scientific journals. Concerns stemming from these occurrences and study outputs involve possible dangers associated with cancer, teratogenesis (Domingo, 2016) fatality, and reproductive effects. The discourse about GM farming is an intriguing subject, with individuals and governments discussing its positive and negative aspects. Even if stories and data indicate health risks from GM food, it's not obvious yet. This ambiguity keeps people scared and the discussion alive.

The implementation and application of GM crops and products now support an environmentally friendly agricultural approach with major benefits for human health. It has proven to mitigate root factors hindering global development, including poverty, hunger starvation, and malnutrition. However, there exists a public skepticism about safety issues that genetically altered food products raise a sense of worry about consumer’s rights but these all continue to prevail due to lack of clarity and improper scientific communications. There is less evidence that claims GM crops are harmful to human health while numerous studies and research results with a positive side of GM crops. Overall, GM crops result in improvements in bio fortification and yield enhancement via genetic manipulation reinforcing food security, and nutritional staple food, and leading us closer to realizing sustainable development goals globally. Similarly, studies across several countries reveal, that the use of pesticides is considerably not required among farmers farming GM crops, particularly Bt cotton which eliminates the prevailing cases of pesticide poisoning among agricultural workers. Besides high-yielding traits, researchers focus on developing crops with enhanced nutritional factors to supply dietary requirements in poorer regions of the nation. Therefore, the application of genetic biotechnology is vast, in the food industries the necessity of stable enzymes to maintain food standards is crucial, without GM enzymes it would be impossible. Hence incorporating genetic techniques into sustainable agriculture is a key innovation. This approach fosters the path for improved crops that can adapt to a shifting world while ensuring food security and environmental health.

Funding

No funding was received for conducting this study. The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.

Data availability

The datasets generated and analyzed during this study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.

Consent to participate

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Consent to publish

Not applicable.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.