Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Food Science and Biotechnology logoLink to Food Science and Biotechnology
. 2024 Sep 18;34(4):871–883. doi: 10.1007/s10068-024-01712-y

Sustainable food systems transformation in the face of climate change: strategies, challenges, and policy implications

Babar Iqbal 1,✉, Khulood Fahad Alabbosh 2, Abdul Jalal 3,✉, Sultan Suboktagin 3, Noureddine Elboughdiri 4,5
PMCID: PMC11832833  PMID: 39974856

Abstract

Climate change-induced disruptions to agricultural systems and other socio-economic and geopolitical factors threaten food supply availability, access, and stability. The paper examines the crisis and explores the strategies, challenges, and policy implications of transforming food systems towards sustainability. It highlights the undeniable impact of climate change on agriculture, discussing how it affects crop yields and contributes to the increased frequency of extreme weather events. The paper discusses the extent and causes of food loss and waste in the supply chain, presents various technologies and initiatives to reduce it, and highlights models for efficient food distribution and surplus food redistribution. Lastly, it shifts its attention to food policy and governance, assessing the effectiveness of national and international policies in addressing food security and climate change. Conclusively, it underscores the pressing need for a holistic and sustainable approach to food systems transformation in the face of climate change.

Keywords: Food security, Climate change, Sustainable agriculture, Food loss and waste, Supply chain resilience, Digital technologies, Policy implications

Introduction

The global food security challenge is an increasingly urgent and complex issue against the growing global population and the impending threat of climate change (Saira et al., 2023a, b). This multifaceted crisis encompasses a range of interrelated challenges, from disruptions in agricultural systems to socio-economic and geopolitical factors that impact the availability, access, and stability of food supplies worldwide (Rabbi et al., 2023). The gravity of this challenge is underscored by the undeniable impact of climate change on agriculture, resulting in reduced crop yields and a heightened frequency of extreme weather events. These environmental shifts have far-reaching implications for food security, making it imperative to examine the strategies, challenges, and policy implications associated with transforming our food systems toward sustainability (Lesk et al., 2016). The climate change serves as a difficult force, strengthening the food security challenge. Its impact on agriculture is profound, with shifting weather patterns and increased temperature extremes disrupting traditional farming practices and crop production (Aragón et al., 2021). Understanding the role of climate change and exploring concrete strategies and policies to mitigate its impacts on food production and distribution is imperative.

Sustainable food systems transformation emerges as a pivotal solution to these pressing challenges. This review paper is structured to comprehensively explore various facets of this transformation, from sustainable agriculture practices like regenerative farming and precision agriculture to addressing food loss and waste in the supply chain. It delves into enhancing global supply chain resilience, leveraging digital technologies in agriculture, and evaluating the effectiveness of national and international policies. Furthermore, it examines the critical connection between food security and nutrition and offers insights from the COVID-19 pandemic to inform future preparedness strategies. This review underscores the significance of a holistic and sustainable approach to food systems transformation, urging collective action among policymakers, researchers, and stakeholders to address the complex challenges threatening global food security in the face of climate change.

Climate change and agriculture

Climate change is undeniably affecting agriculture globally, with adverse impacts on crop yields, agricultural productivity, and food security. The increased frequency of extreme weather events further exacerbates these challenges, disrupting food production and supply chains. Real-world case studies provide concrete examples of the consequences of climate-related agricultural challenges, emphasizing the need for comprehensive strategies and policies to mitigate and adapt to these changes. Addressing climate change in agriculture is crucial for ensuring food security and safeguarding the livelihoods of millions of farmers and the well-being of the global population (Bibi and Rahman, 2023).

Impact of climate change on crop yields and agricultural productivity

The impact of climate change on agriculture is a pressing concern due to its direct and cascading effects on global food security. As temperatures rise and weather patterns become increasingly erratic, the world’s agricultural systems face numerous challenges. One of the most pronounced effects is the alteration of crop yields and agricultural productivity. Rising temperatures can lead to heat stress in crops, particularly those sensitive to temperature changes, such as wheat, maize, and rice. Prolonged exposure to high temperatures can reduce photosynthesis rates and impair plant growth, resulting in lower crop yields. Moreover, changes in precipitation patterns can lead to droughts or floods, further exacerbating crop losses. These adverse conditions reduce food availability and disrupt the livelihoods of millions of farmers who depend on agriculture for their income (Tofu and Wolka, 2023).

Increased frequency of extreme weather events and their effects on food production

Climate change is also associated with an increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, including hurricanes, cyclones, droughts, and floods. These events have a profound impact on food production and supply chains. Hurricanes and cyclones can destroy entire crop fields, leading to crop failures and food shortages. Conversely, prolonged droughts can cause water scarcity, challenging irrigation and livestock farming. Flooding events can damage infrastructure, contaminate water sources, and disrupt transportation, affecting distribution and food access. The unpredictable nature of these extreme events adds to the uncertainty and vulnerability of agricultural systems, making it difficult for farmers to plan and adapt to changing conditions (Elahi et al., 2022).

Case studies illustrating climate-related agricultural challenges

Several case studies worldwide exemplify the real-world consequences of climate change on agriculture. For instance, in sub-Saharan Africa, prolonged droughts linked to climate change have significantly reduced crop yields, leading to food shortages and hunger. Farmers in this region struggle to adapt to changing conditions, with many forced to abandon traditional crops in favor of more resilient alternatives. In South Asia, extreme rainfall events and flooding have disrupted rice and wheat production, affecting local food supplies and global markets. In the United States, more frequent and severe heatwaves are jeopardizing the yields of staple crops like corn and soybeans, which has implications for global food prices. These case studies underscore the urgency of addressing climate change in agriculture, as the consequences are not isolated incidents but part of a global pattern of vulnerability and disruption (Table 1).

Table 1.

Case studies highlighting climate-related agricultural challenges and their implications worldwide

Region Climate-related challenge Impact on agriculture Implications Notes References
Sub-Saharan Africa Prolonged droughts Reduced crop yields, food shortages Hunger, displacement, shift to resilient crops Vulnerable to climate variability (Adesete et al., 2023)
South Asia Extreme rainfall events and flooding Disrupted rice and wheat production, local food supply disruptions Global market fluctuations, economic strain Monsoon-dependent agriculture (SAIRA et al., 2023a, b)
United States More frequent and severe heatwaves Jeopardized corn and soybean yields Global food price fluctuations, economic impacts Breadbasket of the world (Yang and Wang, 2023)
Australia Intensified droughts Decline in wheat production, livestock losses Reduced exports, economic strain Impact on agriculture sector (Hochman et al., 2017)
Brazil Increased deforestation and wildfires Loss of forested land, soil degradation Threat to Amazon rainforest, loss of biodiversity Environmental consequences ( Sanguinet et al., 2021)
Central Asia Glacial melt and water scarcity Reduced irrigation, crop failure Water conflict potential, food insecurity Transboundary water resources (Sorg et al., 2014)
India Changing monsoon patterns Variability in crop yields, water scarcity Regional food shortages, economic challenges Highly populated agrarian society (Rao et al., 2016)
China Increased desertification Reduced arable land, soil erosion Threat to food production, environmental degradation Strain on land resources (Jiang et al., 2014)
Western Europe Unpredictable weather events Crop yield variability, supply chain disruption Local and regional food shortages, economic strain Impact on European agriculture (Allam et al., 2022)
Southeast Asia Rising sea levels and saltwater intrusion Salinization of rice paddies, reduced yields Threat to rice production, food security issues Vulnerable to sea level rise (Elahi et al., 2022)
North Africa Water scarcity and desertification Declining agricultural productivity Food shortages, potential migration, regional instability Impact on Middle East & Africa (Wang et al., 2021)
Open in a new tab

Sustainable agriculture strategies

Sustainable agriculture strategies represent a transformative approach to food production and land management, seeking to harmonize the imperatives of ecological health, economic viability, and social well-being. These strategies encompass various techniques and principles, each tailored to promote long-term environmental resilience, food security, and economic prosperity.

Overview of sustainable agriculture practices

Sustainable agriculture practices represent a critical paradigm shift in how we approach food production, emphasizing the need to balance ecological, economic, and social dimensions. Several approaches have gained prominence in recent years, each offering unique strategies for achieving sustainability. Regenerative farming is a holistic approach that focuses on rebuilding and enhancing the health of soils and ecosystems. It employs practices such as minimal tillage, cover cropping, crop rotation, and the use of compost and organic matter. These practices promote soil fertility, biodiversity, and carbon sequestration. By enhancing soil health, regenerative farming increases crop yields and resilience and reduces the need for synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, minimizing their environmental impact (Schreefel et al., 2020). By reducing input waste and enhancing resource efficiency, precision agriculture improves productivity and minimizes the environmental footprint of farming operations. Organic farming avoids synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in favor of natural and sustainable practices. It emphasizes soil health, biodiversity, and crop rotation to maintain ecosystem balance. Organic farming methods not only produce food with lower chemical residues but also contribute to improved soil structure and water retention. This approach prioritizes long-term soil health and environmental sustainability.

Potential of sustainable agriculture practices to mitigate climate change impacts on food production

Sustainable agriculture practices hold significant potential to mitigate the impacts of climate change on food production. Climate change-induced challenges, such as extreme weather events, shifting precipitation patterns, and temperature extremes, threaten traditional farming systems substantially. Both regenerative and organic farming promote the sequestration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the soil. This reduces atmospheric CO2 levels and improves soil fertility and water retention, which are crucial for food production. Precision agriculture helps reduce greenhouse gas emissions by optimizing inputs like fertilizers and pesticides. This minimizes agriculture’s carbon footprint, making it more sustainable in the long run. Precision agriculture maximizes resource use efficiency by applying inputs only where and when needed. This reduces waste, conserves resources, and lowers the environmental impact of agriculture (Abbass et al., 2022; Altieri and Nicholls, 2017; Mukhopadhyay et al., 2021).

Empirical evidence supporting the effectiveness of sustainable agriculture

Empirical evidence from various studies and on-farm experiments supports the effectiveness of sustainable agriculture practices (Adenle et al., 2019; Adnan et al., 2019). For example, long-term research trials have demonstrated that regenerative farming methods can improve soil health, increase crop yields, and reduce the need for synthetic inputs (Khanzada et al., 2022, 2024; Malko et al., 2022). Precision agriculture has been shown to boost productivity while minimizing resource wastage. When properly managed, organic farming has been found to yield competitive crop yields while reducing the environmental footprint (Arora, 2019). Additionally, numerous case studies highlight the real-world success of sustainable agriculture. For instance, regions that have adopted sustainable practices have witnessed increased resilience to climate-related challenges and improved food security. These empirical findings underscore the potential of sustainable agriculture to not only mitigate the impacts of climate change but also provide a path toward a more resilient and environmentally responsible food production system (Manda et al., 2016; Oya et al., 2018; Zeweld et al., 2017).

Food loss and waste reduction

Addressing food loss and waste is a complex yet critical endeavor with far-reaching implications. Understanding the extent and causes of food loss and waste in the food supply chain is essential for developing effective reduction strategies (Fig. 1). Technologies, initiatives, and models aimed at reducing food waste offer promising solutions to minimize waste, improve resource efficiency, and ensure that food reaches those who need it most. Combating food loss and waste is not only an ethical imperative but also a crucial step toward achieving a more sustainable and food-secure future (Wang et al., 2021).

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

Open in a new tab

Illustration of a comprehensive framework for reducing loss and waste along with the strategies for sustainable food management

The extent and causes of food loss and waste in the food supply chain

Food loss and waste represent a global challenge with profound economic, environmental, and ethical implications. A substantial portion of the food produced never reaches consumers’ plates, squandering valuable resources and exacerbating food insecurity. Food loss and waste occur at various stages of the food supply chain, from production and post-harvest handling to processing, distribution, and consumption. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), approximately one-third of all food produced for human consumption is lost or wasted globally, amounting to about 1.3 billion metric tons annually (Ishangulyyev et al., 2019). This loss and waste are particularly troubling, given that millions of people worldwide suffer from hunger and malnutrition. Several factors contribute to food loss and waste. In the production and post-harvest phases, factors such as inadequate infrastructure, pests, diseases, and poor handling practices lead to crop losses. During processing and distribution, issues like inefficient supply chains, overproduction, and quality standards that reject cosmetically imperfect produce contribute to waste. At the consumer level, buying more food than needed, improper storage, and discarding food that has reached its expiration date are common causes of food waste. Understanding these causes is essential to developing effective strategies for reduction (Nicastro and Carillo, 2021).

Technologies and initiatives aimed at reducing food waste

Addressing food loss and waste requires a multi-pronged approach, which includes technological innovations and initiatives designed to minimize waste and improve resource efficiency. Emerging technologies have the potential to reduce food loss and waste significantly. These include advanced packaging materials extending perishable products’ shelf life, cold chain logistics to maintain food quality during transportation, and sensor technologies to monitor food freshness. Additionally, artificial intelligence (AI) and data analytics can help optimize supply chains, predict demand, and prevent overproduction. Many countries and organizations have implemented initiatives and policies to combat food waste. These range from awareness campaigns encouraging consumers to reduce waste at home to regulations mandating supermarkets to donate surplus food to food banks. The adoption of standardized date labeling and the redirection of edible food from landfills to charitable organizations are also critical measures (Cane and Parra, 2020).

Models for efficient food distribution and surplus food redistribution

Efficient food distribution and surplus food redistribution models are pivotal in reducing food loss and waste while addressing food insecurity. Farm-to-table initiatives promote the direct sale of fresh produce from farmers to consumers or restaurants, bypassing traditional distribution channels. By shortening the supply chain, these models reduce opportunities for food loss and waste and provide consumers with fresher, locally sourced products. Food banks, food rescue organizations, and surplus food redistribution programs are essential in diverting surplus food from landfills to those in need. They collect and redistribute edible but unsellable food from retailers, restaurants, and farms to charities and community organizations (Lohnes, 2021). These models reduce waste and contribute to food security by ensuring that excess food reaches vulnerable populations.

Strengthening global supply chains

The COVID-19 pandemic laid bare the vulnerabilities of global food supply chains. However, it also prompted the development and implementing of strategies to enhance resilience. These strategies, such as localization, diversification, and technology adoption, are essential steps toward building more robust and adaptable food supply chains that can withstand future disruptions while ensuring food availability for global populations.

Vulnerabilities exposed by the COVID-19 pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic, which swept across the globe in 2020, highlighted the inherent vulnerabilities in global food supply chains (Kubatko et al., 2023). As the virus spread, lockdowns, travel restrictions, and quarantine measures disrupted human mobility and the flow of goods, including food. Several key vulnerabilities were exposed: Global food supply chains often involve multiple intermediaries, long-distance transportation, and complex logistics. The pandemic revealed that such intricate networks can be susceptible to delays and disruptions, especially when faced with an unprecedented global health crisis. Many supply chains, to minimize costs and maximize efficiency, had embraced just-in-time inventory systems. These systems rely on minimal stockpiling and depend on a steady and predictable flow of goods. The pandemic demonstrated that such systems lack the flexibility to respond to sudden surges in demand or supply chain disruptions. The pandemic led to labor shortages in various sectors, including agriculture and food processing, due to illness, quarantine, and travel restrictions. This highlighted the reliance on a mobile and often transient workforce, particularly in sectors with intensive manual labor requirements (Hobbs, 2020).

Strategies to enhance resilience in global food supply chains

In response to the vulnerabilities exposed by the pandemic, strategies to enhance the resilience of global food supply chains have been developed and implemented: One approach involves rethinking supply chain strategies to prioritize local and regional sourcing of food products. Shortening supply chains can reduce the risks associated with long-distance transportation disruptions and provide consumers with more transparent and resilient food systems. Diversifying sources of supply can reduce dependency on a single region or supplier (Kumar and Kumar, 2022). This strategy enables companies and governments to pivot to alternative sources when disruptions occur, ensuring a continuous flow of essential food products. Leveraging technology, data analytics, and artificial intelligence can improve supply chain visibility and forecasting (Dash et al., 2019). Advanced monitoring systems can provide real-time information on supply chain performance, enabling rapid response to disruptions. Investment in resilient infrastructure, such as cold storage facilities, transportation networks, and packaging, can help mitigate supply chain disruptions during emergencies.

Case studies highlighting successful supply chain adaptations

Several case studies from around the world illustrate successful adaptations and innovations in response to the vulnerabilities exposed by the pandemic: During the pandemic, China’s e-commerce platforms for fresh produce experienced significant growth. These platforms connected farmers directly to consumers, bypassing traditional supply chains. This model reduced intermediary dependency and provided consumers access to fresh, locally sourced products. In India, digital technologies, such as mobile apps and online marketplaces, played a crucial role in connecting farmers to buyers and streamlining supply chains. These platforms facilitated the efficient movement of agricultural products, helping mitigate supply chain disruptions. Many US food retailers invested in technology to enhance their supply chain resilience. Walmart, for instance, implemented blockchain technology to improve traceability and transparency in its food supply chain. This innovation allowed for quicker identification and isolation of affected products during the pandemic. The case studies highlight various strategies and initiatives implemented in different countries and regions to strengthen their food supply chains and adapt to the challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic. Each approach offers unique insights into building resilience and ensuring food security in times of crisis (Table 2).

Table 2.

Case studies highlighting successful supply chain adaptations during the COVID-19 pandemic

Case study Country/region Adaptation strategy Outcome and impact Notes References
China’s Agricultural E-commerce Boom China Promotion of e-commerce platforms for fresh produce, connecting farmers directly to consumers Reduced dependency on intermediaries, increased access to locally sourced products Digital platforms played a pivotal role in mitigating supply chain disruptions during lockdowns (Guo et al., 2021)
Indian Agriculture’s Digital Transformation India Adoption of digital technologies, such as mobile apps and online marketplaces, for efficient supply chain management Improved connectivity between farmers and buyers, streamlined supply chains Digitalization empowered farmers with market access and reduced post-harvest losses (Ramdinthara and Bala, 2019)
US Food Retailers’ Resilience Initiatives United States Investment in blockchain technology to enhance traceability and transparency in the food supply chain Quicker identification and isolation of affected products, improved supply chain resilience Blockchain technology improved food safety and transparency, critical during the pandemic (Thilmany et al., 2021)
Canada’s Resilience through Local Sourcing Canada Promotion of local and regional sourcing, strengthening shorter supply chains Enhanced reliability, reduced disruption risk, and support for local farmers Local sourcing ensured food supply security and bolstered local economies (Vanhanen 2020)
Brazil’s Emphasis on Diversification Brazil Diversification of import sources and expansion of domestic production Reduced dependency on single suppliers and increased food security Brazil’s diversified approach mitigated potential global supply chain disruptions (Sanguinet et al., 2021)
Australia’s Investment in Cold Chain Australia Investment in cold storage and transportation infrastructure Enhanced preservation of perishable goods, reduced food wastage Cold chain infrastructure was critical for maintaining food quality and reducing losses (Sanad Alsbu et al., 2023)
Kenya’s Digital Market Platforms Kenya Adoption of digital market platforms for smallholder farmers Increased access to markets, reduced middlemen, and improved income for farmers Digital platforms improved smallholder farmers’ bargaining power and income (Maina et al., 2023)
EU’s Resilience through Stockpiling European Union Increased stockpiling of critical food items and strategic reserves Enhanced supply security and ensured availability of essential goods Stockpiling contributed to supply chain stability during periods of high demand (Vanhanen, 2020)
Japan’s Robotic and Automated Agriculture Japan Implementation of robotics and automation in agriculture Maintained food production levels despite labor shortages Automation ensured continued food production during pandemic labor disruptions (Tan, 2021)
South Africa’s Food Redistribution South Africa Expansion of food redistribution networks to support vulnerable populations Reduced food waste, provided for the needy, and enhanced social resilience Food redistribution networks played a crucial role in addressing food insecurity during lockdowns (Hart et al., 2022)
Open in a new tab

Digital technologies in agriculture

Digital technologies, including blockchain, AI, and IoT, reshape agriculture and food supply chains. They offer numerous benefits, such as efficiency, transparency, sustainability, and resilience, while also presenting challenges related to cost, data security, access, and integration. As the world faces growing food security challenges, adopting digital technologies remains pivotal in ensuring a sustainable and resilient food supply (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

Open in a new tab

Illustration of digital technologies for revolutionizing agriculture and food supply chains. Digital technologies, including blockchain, artificial intelligence (AI), and the Internet of Things (IoT), are playing a transformative role in revolutionizing agriculture and food supply chains. These technologies offer a wide array of benefits, such as enhanced efficiency, improved transparency, increased sustainability, and greater resilience in the face of challenges. However, their adoption also presents notable challenges, including costs of implementation, data security considerations, access to technology in underserved areas, and the integration of these technologies into existing systems. This figure illustrates the multifaceted impact of digital technologies on the agricultural and food supply sectors, highlighting both the opportunities and obstacles associated with their widespread implementation

The role of blockchain, AI, and IoT in sustainable agriculture and food supply chain management

Digital technologies have emerged as transformative tools in sustainable agriculture and food supply chain management. Blockchain, Artificial Intelligence (AI), and the Internet of Things (IoT) are playing pivotal roles in reshaping these sectors. Blockchain technology offers an immutable and transparent ledger that can trace the journey of food products from farm to table. It ensures the integrity of information about origin, processing, and distribution. This transparency enhances food safety, allows consumers to make informed choices, and minimizes the risk of fraud (Bondoc, 2007). Additionally, blockchain simplifies supply chain management by providing real-time data and reducing the need for intermediaries. AI optimizes inventory management, demand forecasting, and quality control in food supply chains, reducing waste and ensuring timely delivery (Subeesh and Mehta, 2021). However, the Internet of Things (IoT) connects physical objects and devices through the Internet, enabling real-time monitoring and control. IoT sensors collect data on soil moisture, temperature, and crop growth in agriculture, allowing for precision farming. In supply chains, IoT-enabled cold chain management ensures the quality and safety of perishable goods during transit.

Benefits and challenges associated with adopting digital technologies

Adopting digital technologies in agriculture and food supply chain management offers various benefits, yet it is not without challenges. Digital technologies optimize resource use, reduce waste, and increase productivity. Precision agriculture, for example, minimizes input use while maximizing crop yields. Blockchain ensures transparency and traceability, fostering trust among consumers and stakeholders. Implementing digital technologies can be expensive, particularly for small-scale farmers and businesses. The initial investment in infrastructure and training can be a barrier. Managing vast amounts of data raises concerns about privacy and cybersecurity. Safeguarding sensitive information is crucial, especially in supply chain systems. Access to digital technologies is not uniform worldwide. Bridging the digital divide and ensuring equitable access is a challenge. Integrating digital technologies into existing systems and practices can be complex and time-consuming. Compatibility issues may arise when merging new and legacy systems (Khanna et al., 2022).

Case studies showcasing innovative digital solutions in food systems

Several case studies illustrate the transformative impact of digital technologies in agriculture and food supply chains. IBM’s blockchain-based Food Trust platform provides end-to-end traceability for products like mangoes and seafood (Tiwari, 2020). It enhances transparency and food safety while reducing fraud (Bondoc. 2015a, 2015b). John Deere employs AI and IoT in precision agriculture. Its technology optimizes planting, fertilization, and harvesting, increasing yields and resource efficiency. Walmart uses blockchain to track the journey of leafy greens from farm to store (Mehrabi et al., 2022). This has reduced the time it takes to trace the source of contaminated products from days to seconds. Israel utilizes IoT in agriculture through advanced drip irrigation systems. Sensors monitor soil moisture and plant conditions, ensuring precise water delivery and conserving resources (Ramdinthara and Bala, 2019).

Food policy and governance

Food policy and governance are critical in addressing the complex challenges of food security and climate change. While progress has been made, there is room for improvement in policy effectiveness, integration, and implementation. By adopting integrated policies, investing in research, strengthening governance, promoting global cooperation, and engaging local communities, governments can take significant steps toward improving food security and sustainability in the face of a changing climate.

Overview of national and international policies addressing food security and climate change

Food security and climate change are intertwined global challenges that necessitate comprehensive policy responses at both national and international levels. Many countries have developed strategies and policies to address food security and climate change (Ammar et al., 2023). These often include initiatives to increase agricultural productivity, improve resilience to climate-related shocks, and promote sustainable farming practices. National governments may also implement social safety nets, such as food assistance programs, to ensure that vulnerable populations can access nutritious food. Policies promoting research and development in agriculture and environmental conservation are also integral to long-term food security. International organizations and agreements shape global food security and climate change policies. The United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly Goal 2 (Zero Hunger) and Goal 13 (Climate Action), emphasize the need for a coordinated global response (Leal Filho et al., 2023). Agreements like the Paris Agreement acknowledge the impact of agriculture on climate change and promote sustainable land use (Kissinger et al., 2019). International bodies such as the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) guide and support countries in addressing these challenges (Din et al., 2022).

Analysis of their effectiveness and gaps

While significant progress has been made in developing policies to address food security and climate change, their implementation has notable gaps and challenges. The effectiveness of these policies varies widely among countries. Successful policies often require strong governance, adequate funding, and community engagement. Some nations have made substantial strides in improving food security and implementing climate-resilient agricultural practices. However, progress remains slow in many regions due to inadequate resources, limited capacity, and political instability. One significant gap lies in integrating food security and climate change policies (Farooq et al., 2022). Often, these policies are developed separately, resulting in missed opportunities for synergy. Additionally, there is a gap between policy formulation and on-the-ground implementation. Moreover, there is a need for more comprehensive policies that address not only food production but also food distribution, access, and nutrition.

Policy recommendations for improving food security and sustainability

Several policy recommendations can be considered to address the complexities and challenges of food security and climate change. Governments should adopt integrated policies that simultaneously address food security and climate change. This approach can promote sustainable agriculture, improve resilience to climate-related risks, and ensure that food systems are equitable and nutrition-sensitive. Continued investment in research and development is crucial. Research can yield innovative solutions for climate-resilient crops, sustainable land management, and efficient food distribution systems. While policies should engage local communities and incorporate their knowledge and needs into the decision-making processes. Empowering communities to adapt to climate change and participate in sustainable food production is essential (Islam and Kieu, 2020).

Addressing food security and conflict

The relationship between food security, conflict, and political instability is intricate and multifaceted. Case studies from various regions highlight the need for proactive strategies to prevent conflicts driven by resource scarcity and food insecurity. These strategies encompass conflict prevention, resource management, humanitarian assistance, development programs, and conflict-sensitive approaches to food aid. Addressing food security within the context of conflict is essential for promoting peace, stability, and resilience in vulnerable regions.

The complex relationship between food security, conflict, and political instability

Food security, conflict, and political instability are interconnected factors that amplify one another in a vicious cycle (Martin-Shields and Stojetz, 2019). This complex relationship arises from various dynamics. Competition for limited resources, including arable land and water, can lead to tensions and conflicts, especially in regions with high population densities. Scarcity of essential resources can trigger disputes between communities, ethnic groups, or nations. Food insecurity can lead to economic vulnerability, with individuals and communities struggling to meet their basic needs. This economic stress can increase the risk of political instability, protests, and even violent uprisings. Food insecurity and conflicts often result in large-scale internal and external migrations. The movement of displaced populations can strain resources in host communities, potentially sparking conflicts over resources, jobs, and services. Political leaders sometimes exploit food insecurity to maintain power or manipulate public sentiment. They may use food distribution as a political tool, exacerbating existing tensions (Mehrabi et al., 2022).

Case studies from regions where food security is intertwined with conflict

Numerous regions worldwide provide case studies of the intricate connection between food security and conflict. The Horn of Africa, including countries like Somalia, South Sudan, and Ethiopia, has experienced recurrent conflicts, droughts, and food crises (Awange, 2022). Political instability, armed conflicts, and resource scarcity have combined to create protracted food insecurity and displacement. The Syrian conflict began in 2011 and has had profound implications for food security (Campmany Jiménez et al., 2022). The conflict disrupted agricultural production, displaced millions, and caused widespread food shortages. Food has been used as a weapon, with access to food often controlled by various armed groups. Yemen is another country where conflict has led to severe food insecurity (Sihaloho et al., 2022). The ongoing conflict has disrupted supply chains, caused food prices to soar, and left millions of Yemenis at risk of famine. The Central African Republic has faced a complex and protracted conflict that has disrupted food production and distribution. Displaced populations and insecurity have exacerbated food insecurity.

Strategies for conflict prevention through food security initiatives

Addressing the interplay between food security and conflict requires multifaceted strategies. Early warning systems can identify regions at risk of food-related conflicts. Interventions such as diplomacy, conflict resolution, and peacebuilding efforts can be deployed to prevent escalation. Sustainable resource management practices, including equitable access to land and water, can reduce resource-driven conflicts. These efforts often require cooperation among different stakeholders. Providing humanitarian aid, including food assistance, to conflict-affected regions can help alleviate immediate suffering and reduce the likelihood of conflicts driven by desperation (Sihaloho et al., 2022). Long-term development programs that improve agricultural productivity, livelihoods, and economic opportunities can contribute to food security and stability. Investments in education and employment can also mitigate the risk of conflicts. Organizations should consider the potential impacts on local dynamics when delivering food aid in conflict zones. Conflict-sensitive approaches ensure that aid does not inadvertently exacerbate tensions or contribute to the conflict (Schütt et al., 2019).

Food systems transformation and nutrition

The transformation of food systems toward sustainability is intricately linked to improved nutrition and health outcomes. Sustainable systems prioritize nutrient-rich, diverse diets, essential for addressing malnutrition, reducing the risk of obesity and diet-related diseases, and promoting overall health and well-being. Recognizing the profound impact of food systems on nutrition underscores the urgency of adopting sustainable practices to ensure a healthier and more resilient future for individuals and the planet (Roberts and Mattoo, 2018).

Linking sustainable food systems to improved nutrition and health outcomes

Sustainable food systems are pivotal to improving nutrition and enhancing overall health outcomes. The connection between these two domains is profound and multifaceted. Sustainable food systems prioritize producing nutrient-rich foods like fruits, vegetables, legumes, and whole grains. These foods are essential sources of vitamins, minerals, fiber, and phytonutrients that promote health and reduce the risk of chronic diseases. Sustainable agriculture encourages biodiversity, which can translate into a more diverse and nutritious diet. Diverse diets provide a broader spectrum of nutrients, supporting overall health and reducing the risk of deficiencies. Sustainable food systems often have a lower environmental footprint, producing cleaner air, water, and soil. This environmental stewardship contributes to healthier ecosystems and, consequently, the health of individuals who depend on these ecosystems for their food (Smyth, 2022).

The importance of diverse and nutritious diets

Diverse and nutritious diets are essential for maintaining health and well-being. Consuming a wide range of foods ensures that individuals receive an array of essential nutrients. A diverse diet helps prevent micronutrient deficiencies and supports overall growth, development, and immune function(Gombart et al., 2020). Nutrient-dense foods, such as fruits, vegetables, lean proteins, and whole grains, provide a high concentration of essential nutrients per calorie. Prioritizing these foods is crucial for obtaining the necessary vitamins, minerals, and phytonutrients for optimal health. Sustainable food systems promote dietary patterns that align with long-term health and well-being. By emphasizing whole foods and minimizing the consumption of processed and ultra-processed products, these systems contribute to the prevention of chronic diseases and support healthy aging (Godswill et al., 2020).

Conclusions and future directions

In a world confronted by the dual challenges of climate change and a growing global population, the pursuit of food security has never been more pressing. This review has traversed a landscape riddled with complexities and illuminated the potential for transformative change in our food systems. Rising temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and an increasing frequency of extreme weather events are exacting a heavy toll on crop yields and food production. However, the comprehensive examination of sustainable agriculture strategies has demonstrated that we possess the knowledge and tools to mitigate these impacts. Addressing the issue of food loss and waste, as discussed in the third section, reveals a startling paradox: even as millions go hungry, a significant portion of the world’s food goes to waste. However, innovative technologies and initiatives are emerging to tackle this issue, from smart packaging solutions to novel approaches in surplus food distribution. Implementing these strategies at scale could substantially improve food availability and reduce pressure on production systems. The COVID-19 pandemic served as a stark reminder of the vulnerabilities within the global food supply chains. Section four examined the need for greater supply chain resilience, offering a blueprint for enhancing the robustness of these systems. As global actors work toward more adaptive and decentralized supply chains, the ability to respond to future shocks and crises will be greatly improved. However, careful consideration of data privacy, accessibility, and equity is paramount as we navigate this digital frontier. In the realm of food policy and governance, section six underscored both the importance and the complexity of the regulatory environment shaping our food systems. Policymakers must strive for comprehensive, forward-looking frameworks prioritizing sustainability, equity, and resilience. The call for international cooperation and the alignment of policies across borders has never been more urgent. Section seven delved into the intricate relationship between food security and conflict, highlighting the often-overlooked role of food in political stability. Finally, drawing upon the lessons learned from the COVID-19 pandemic in section nine, we find hope and resilience in human adaptability. The crisis has exposed the fragilities within our food systems but has also provided opportunities for innovation, collaboration, and renewal. We must seize these opportunities as we build a post-pandemic world. In conclusion, the challenges we face in ensuring food security amidst climate change are substantial, but the solutions are within reach. By embracing sustainable agriculture practices, reducing food loss and waste, fortifying global supply chains, harnessing digital technologies, enacting forward-thinking policies, and fostering cooperation on a global scale, we can transform our food systems into resilient, equitable, and sustainable engines of nourishment.

Acknowledgements

The research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (32350410400).

Author contributions

Babar Iqbal: Investigation; methodology, writing - original draft, review & editing, project administration; Khulood Fahad Alabbosh: review & editing; Abdul Jalal: Investigation; Conceptualization; writing - original draft; Sultan Suboktagin: Methodology, writing - original draft, review & editing; Noureddine Elboughdiri: review & editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Data availability

No data were used for the research described in the article.

Declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing interests.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Footnotes

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Contributor Information

Babar Iqbal, Email: babar@ujs.edu.cn.

Abdul Jalal, Email: agriculturist.201@gmail.com.

References 

  1. Abbass K, Qasim MZ, Song H, Murshed M, Mahmood H, Younis I. A review of the global climate change impacts, adaptation, and sustainable mitigation measures. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 29: 42539-42559 (2022) [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Adesete AA, Olanubi OE, Dauda RO. Climate change and food security in selected Sub-Saharan African Countries. Environment Development & Sustainability. 25: 14623–14641 (2023) [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
  3. Adenle AA, Wedig K and Azadi H. Sustainable agriculture and food security in Africa: the role of innovative technologies and international organizations. Technology in Society. 58: 101143 (2019) [Google Scholar]
  4. Adnan N, Nordin SM, Bahruddin MA, Tareq AH. A state-of-the-art review on facilitating sustainable agriculture through green fertilizer technology adoption: assessing farmers behavior. Trends in Food Science & Technology. 86: 439-452 (2019) [Google Scholar]
  5. Allam, Z., Bibri, S. E., Sharpe, S. A. The rising impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic and the Russia–Ukraine war: energy transition, climate justice, global inequality, and supply chain disruption. Resources. 11(11):99 (2022) [Google Scholar]
  6. Altieri MA, Nicholls CI. The adaptation and mitigation potential of traditional agriculture in a changing climate. Climatic Change. 140: 33-45 (2017) [Google Scholar]
  7. Ammar KA., Kheir AMS, Ali BM, Sundarakani B, Manikas I. Developing an analytical framework for estimating food security indicators in the United Arab Emirates: a review. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 1-20 (2023) [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
  8. Aragón FM, Oteiza F, Rud JP. Climate change and agriculture: subsistence farmers’ response to extreme heat. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy. 13(1): 1–35 (2021) [Google Scholar]
  9. Arora NK. Impact of climate change on agriculture production and its sustainable solutions. Environmental Sustainability. 2: 95-96 (2019) [Google Scholar]
  10. Awange J. Food insecurity: causes and eradication. In Food insecurity & hydroclimate in greater horn of Africa: potential for agriculture amidst extremes (pp. 3–27). Springer (2022)
  11. Bibi F, Rahman A. An overview of climate change impacts on agriculture and their mitigation strategies. Agriculture, 13(8): 1508 (2023) [Google Scholar]
  12. Bondoc I. European Regulation in the Veterinary Sanitary and Food Safety Area, a component of the European policies on the safety of food products and the protection of consumer interests: a 2007 Retrospective. Part two: regulations. Universul Juridic, Supliment, pp. 16–19 (2016)
  13. Bondoc I. Foundations of veterinary sanitary and food safety legislation. Treatise, Vol. 1, First Edition. “Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Publishing House, ISBN: 978-973-147-162-4 (2015a)
  14. Bondoc I. Foundations of veterinary sanitary and food safety legislation. Treatise, Vol. 2, First Edition. “Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Publishing House, ISBN: 978-973-147-174-7 (2015b)
  15. Campmany Jiménez J, Romanowska I, Raja R, Seland EH. Food security in Roman Palmyra (Syria) in light of paleoclimatological evidence and its historical implications. Plos One. 17(9): e0273241 (2022) [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Cane M, Parra C. Digital platforms: mapping the territory of new technologies to fight food waste. British Food Journal, 122(5): 1647-1669 (2020) [Google Scholar]
  17. Dash R, McMurtrey M, Rebman C, Kar UK. Application of artificial intelligence in automation of supply chain management. Journal of Strategic Innovation and Sustainability, 14(3): 43-53 (2019) [Google Scholar]
  18. Din MSU, Mubeen M, Hussain S, Ahmad A, Hussain N, Ali MA, Sabagh AEl, Elsabagh M, Shah GM, Qaisrani SA. World nations priorities on climate change and food security. In Building climate resilience in agriculture (pp. 365-384). Springer (2022) [Google Scholar]
  19. Elahi E, Khalid Z, Tauni MZ, Zhang H, Lirong X.. Extreme weather events risk to crop-production and the adaptation of innovative management strategies to mitigate the risk: a retrospective survey of rural Punjab, Pakistan. Technovation, 117: 102255 (2022) [Google Scholar]
  20. Farooq MS, Uzair M, Raza A, Habib M, Xu Y, Yousuf M, Yang SH, Ramzan KM. Uncovering the research gaps to alleviate the negative impacts of climate change on food security: a review. Frontiers in Plant Science. 13: 927535 (2022) [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Godswill AG, Somtochukwu IV, Ikechukwu AO, Kate EC. Health benefits of micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) and their associated deficiency diseases: a systematic review. International Journal of Food Sciences. 3(1): 1-32 (2020) [Google Scholar]
  22. Gombart AF, Pierre A, Maggini S. A review of micronutrients and the immune system–working in harmony to reduce the risk of infection. Nutrients. 12(1): 236 (2020) [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Guo H, Liu Y, Shi X, Chen KZ. The role of e-commerce in the urban food system under COVID-19: lessons from China. China Agricultural Economic Review. 13(2): 436-455 (2021) [Google Scholar]
  24. Hart TGB, Davids YD, Rule S, Tirivanhu P, Mtyingizane S. The COVID-19 pandemic reveals an unprecedented rise in hunger: The South African Government was ill-prepared to meet the challenge. Scientific African, 16: e01169 (2022) [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Hobbs JE. Food supply chains during the COVID‐19 pandemic. Canadian Journal of Agricultural Economics/Revue Canadienne d’agroeconomie. 68(2): 171-176 (2020) [Google Scholar]
  26. Hochman Z, Gobbett DL, Horan H. (2017). Climate trends account for stalled wheat yields in Australia since 1990. Global Change Biology, 23(5): 2071-2081 (2017) [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Ishangulyyev R, Kim S, Lee SH. Understanding food loss and waste—why are we losing and wasting food? In foods (Vol. 8, Issue 8) (2019) [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
  28. Islam MS, Kieu E. Tackling regional climate change impacts and food security issues: a critical analysis across ASEAN, PIF, and SAARC. Sustainability. 12(3): 883 (2020) [Google Scholar]
  29. Jiang Z, Lian Y, Qin X. Rocky desertification in Southwest China: impacts, causes, and restoration. Earth-Science Reviews. 132: 1-12 (2014) [Google Scholar]
  30. Khanna M, Atallah SS, Kar S, Sharma B, Wu L, Yu C, Chowdhary G, Soman C, Guan K. Digital transformation for a sustainable agriculture in the United States: opportunities and challenges. Agricultural Economics, 53(6): 924-937 (2022) [Google Scholar]
  31. Khanzada A, Feng K, Wang X, Cai J, Malko MM, Samo A, Hossain MN, Jiang D. Comprehensive evaluation of high‐temperature tolerance induced by heat priming at early growth stages in winter wheat. Physiologia Plantarum. 174: e13759 (2022) [Google Scholar]
  32. Khanzada A, Wang X, Malko MM, Wu Y, Samo A, Dong J. Response of the persistence of heat stress tolerance in winter wheat seedling to heat priming at early growth stages. Plant Stress. 11: 100323 (2024) [Google Scholar]
  33. Kissinger G, Gupta A, Mulder I, Unterstell N. Climate financing needs in the land sector under the Paris agreement: an assessment of developing country perspectives. Land Use Policy. 83: 256-269 (2019) [Google Scholar]
  34. Kubatko O, Merritt R, Duane S, Piven V. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on global food system resilience. Mechanism of an Economic Regulation, 1 (99): 144-148 (2023) [Google Scholar]
  35. Kumar P, Kumar SR. Strategic framework for developing resilience in agri-food supply chains during COVID 19 pandemic. International Journal of Logistics Research and Applications, 25(11), 1401-1424 (2022) [Google Scholar]
  36. Leal Filho W, Trevisan LV, Rampasso IS, Anholon R, Dinis MAP, Brandli LL, Sierra J, Salvia AL, Pretorius R, Nicolau M. When the alarm bells ring: why the UN sustainable development goals may not be achieved by 2030. Journal of Cleaner Production. 407: 137108 (2023) [Google Scholar]
  37. Lesk C, Rowhani P, Ramankutty N. Influence of extreme weather disasters on global crop production. Nature. 529(7584): 84-87 (2016) [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Lohnes JD. Regulating surplus: charity and the legal geographies of food waste enclosure. Agriculture and Human Values. 38(2): 351-363 (2021) [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Maina F, Mburu J, Nyang’anga H. Access to and utilization of local digital marketing platforms in potato marketing in Kenya. Heliyon. 9(8) (2023) [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Malko MM, Khanzada A, Wang X, Samo A, Li Q, Jiang D, Cai J. Chemical treatment refines drought tolerance in wheat and its implications in changing climate: a review. Plant Stress. 6: 100118 (2022) [Google Scholar]
  41. Manda J, Alene AD, Gardebroek C, Kassie M, Tembo G. Adoption and impacts of sustainable agricultural practices on maize yields and incomes: evidence from Rural Zambia. Journal of Agricultural Economics. 67: 130-153 (2016) [Google Scholar]
  42. Martin-Shields CP, Stojetz W. Food security and conflict: empirical challenges and future opportunities for research and policy making on food security and conflict. World Development. 119: 150-164 (2019) [Google Scholar]
  43. Mehrabi Z, Delzeit R, Ignaciuk A, Levers C, Braich G, Bajaj K, Amo-Aidoo A, Anderson W, Balgah RA, Benton TG. Research priorities for global food security under extreme events. One Earth. 5(7): 756-766 (2022) [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Mukhopadhyay R, Sarkar B, Jat HS, Sharma PC, Bolan NS. Soil salinity under climate change: challenges for sustainable agriculture and food security. Journal of Environmental Management. 280: 111736 (2021) [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Nicastro R, Carillo P. Food loss and waste prevention strategies from farm to fork. In Sustainability. 13 (10) (2021) [Google Scholar]
  46. Oya C, Schaefer F, Skalidou D. The effectiveness of agricultural certification in developing countries: a systematic review. World Development. 112: 282-312 (2018) [Google Scholar]
  47. Rabbi MF, Ben Hassen T, El Bilali H, Raheem D, Raposo A. Food security challenges in Europe in the context of the prolonged Russian–Ukrainian conflict. Sustainability. 15(6): 4745 (2023) [Google Scholar]
  48. Ramdinthara IZ, Bala PS. A comparative study of IoT technology in precision agriculture. 2019 IEEE international conference on system, computation, automation and networking (ICSCAN). 1–5 (2019)
  49. Rao CS, Gopinath KA, Prasad J, Singh AK. Climate resilient villages for sustainable food security in tropical India: concept, process, technologies, institutions, and impacts. Advances in Agronomy. 140: 101-214 (2016) [Google Scholar]
  50. Roberts DP, Mattoo AK. Sustainable agriculture-enhancing environmental benefits, food nutritional quality and building crop resilience to abiotic and biotic stresses. Agriculture. 8(1): 8 (2018) [Google Scholar]
  51. Saira B, Noureen S, Ahmad MA, Naseer I, Khalid MM. Climate change vulnerabilities in South Asia: prospects of water, agriculture and food security. Russian Law Journal. 11: 935-944 (2023) [Google Scholar]
  52. Saira B, Noureen S, Ahmad MA, Naseer I, Khalid MM. Climate change vulnerabilities in south asia: prospects of water, agriculture and food security. Russian Law Journal. 11(5) (2023) [Google Scholar]
  53. Sanad Alsbu RA, Yarlagadda P, Karim A. Investigation of the factors that contribute to fresh fruit and vegetable losses in the Australian fresh food supply chain. Processes. 11(4): 1154 (2023) [Google Scholar]
  54. Sanguinet ER, Alvim AM, Atienza M, Fochezatto A. The subnational supply chain and the COVID‐19 pandemic: short‐term impacts on the Brazilian regional economy. Regional Science Policy & Practice. 13: 158-186 (2021) [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Schreefel L, Schulte RPO, de Boer IJM, Schrijver AP, van Zanten HHE. Regenerative agriculture—the soil is the base. Global Food Security. 26: 100404 (2020) [Google Scholar]
  56. Schütt J, Löhr K, Bonatti M, Sieber S. Conflict causes and prevention strategies at the society-science nexus in transdisciplinary collaborative research settings: a case study of a food security project in Tanzania. Sustainability. 11(22): 6239 (2019) [Google Scholar]
  57. Sihaloho RAH, Prabowo TB, Kusuma RP. Food crisis in Yemen: the roles of food and agriculture Organization (FAO) from 2015 to 2020. Nation State: Journal of International Studies. 5(1): 59-74 (2022) [Google Scholar]
  58. Smyth SJ. Contributions of genome editing technologies towards improved nutrition, environmental sustainability and poverty reduction. Frontiers in Genome Editing. 4: 863193 (2022) [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. Sorg A, Mosello B, Shalpykova G, Allan A, Clarvis MH, Stoffel M. Coping with changing water resources: the case of the Syr Darya river basin in Central Asia. Environmental Science & Policy. 43: 68-77 (2014) [Google Scholar]
  60. Subeesh A, Mehta CR. Automation and digitization of agriculture using artificial intelligence and internet of things. Artificial Intelligence in Agriculture. 5: 278-291 (2021) [Google Scholar]
  61. Tan SK. Global Pandemic, Technology booms and new business trends: the case of Japan. WILAYAH: The International Journal of East Asian Studies. 10(1): 120-140 (2021) [Google Scholar]
  62. Thilmany D, Canales E, Low SA, Boys K. Local food supply chain dynamics and resilience during COVID‐19. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy. 43(1): 86-104 (2021) [Google Scholar]
  63. Tiwari U. Application of blockchain in agri-food supply chain. Britain International of Exact Sciences (BIoEx) Journal. 2(2): 574-589 (2020) [Google Scholar]
  64. Tofu DA, Wolka K. Climate change induced a progressive shift of livelihood from cereal towards Khat (Chata edulis) production in eastern Ethiopia. Heliyon. 9(1) (2023) [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Vanhanen H. COVID-19 and European security of supply: growing in importance. European View. 19(2): 146-153 (2020) [Google Scholar]
  66. Wang Y, Yuan Z, Tang Y. Enhancing food security and environmental sustainability: a critical review of food loss and waste management. Resources, Environment and Sustainability. 4: 100023 (2021) [Google Scholar]
  67. Yang M, Wang G. Heat stress to jeopardize crop production in the US corn belt based on downscaled CMIP5 projections. Agricultural Systems. 211: 103746 (2023) [Google Scholar]
  68. Zeweld W, Van Huylenbroeck G, Tesfay G, Speelman S. Smallholder farmers’ behavioural intentions towards sustainable agricultural practices. Journal of environmental management. 187: 71-81 (2017) [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

Data Availability Statement

No data were used for the research described in the article.

Articles from Food Science and Biotechnology are provided here courtesy of Springer

RESOURCES