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. 2025 Feb 19;11(4):e42795. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2025.e42795

Damage assessment of the Asian corn borer, Ostrinia furnacalis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), in corn production centers in Indonesia

Y Andi Trisyono a,⁎, Valentina EF Aryuwandari a, Nike GH Sinulingga b, Ignatius Putra Andika c
PMCID: PMC11904569  PMID: 40084005

Abstract

Ostrinia furnacalis (Guenée) is known as an insect pest in Indonesian corn production. This study aimed to determine the existing and potential damage due to this insect in four major corn production provinces: East and Central Java, Lampung, and North Sumatra. Twenty sites per province were selected and these sites were distributed in three districts in each province. Observations were done during the vegetative and reproductive stages. The potential damage was assessed by observing four heavily infested sites selected in Central Java and Lampung. The proportion of plants infested varied from 50 to 53 % and 35–64 % during the vegetative and reproductive stages, respectively. Average number of holes per stalk was 2.36 holes/stalk in Central Java followed by 1.40 holes/stalk in Lampung, 1.21 holes/stalk in North Sumatra, and 0.60 holes/stalk in East Java. Most holes were found on nodes above the ear (91.6 %) while most galleries had lengths ranging from 4 to 6 cm. In heavily infested fields, infested stalks reached 95 % with an average of 3 holes/stalk. Due to the potential damage that this pest may cause, effective and preventive management strategies should be planned and implemented to reduce the damage and prevent this insect from reaching its potential yield loss.

Keywords: Ostrinia furnacalis, Stalk damage, Yield loss, Management, Indonesia

Graphical abstract

Image 1

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Highlights

  • •

    Ostrinia furnacalis caused considerable yield losses in corn production of Indonesian farmers.

  • •

    The highest Ostrinia furnacalis damage was 2-fold higher than the average damage level across the country.

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    Prominent damage due to Ostrinia furnacalis was mostly observed during the reproductive stage.

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    Hole damage on corn stalks due to Ostrinia furnacalis were mostly found above ear nodes.

1. Introduction

Corn is the second most important food crop after rice in Indonesia and has been a target of Indonesia's self-sufficiency policies. National corn production has continued to increase during the last several years as a result of increased productivity and total harvested area. In 2014, the harvested area reached 3.84 million ha with productivity of 4.95 tons/ha, and these harvested area have increased to 5.73 million ha with productivity of 5.24 tons/ha in 2018 [1]. Major corn production provinces in Indonesia include North Sumatra with the planting area of 350,000 ha, Lampung with planting area of 474,900 ha, Central Java with planting area 614,300 ha, and East Java with planting area of 1,190,000 ha in 2020 [2]. This increase planting area might eventually result in higher economic benefits for farmers. The demand for corn has increased since its wide range of use for food and feed in Indonesia and biofuel globally [3]. These changes have attracted higher interest in the corn industry in Indonesia and may also affect farmers' corn production practices, particularly in the aspect of crop protection.

Ostrinia furnacalis (Guenée) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), the Asian corn borer, is known as a major insect pest on corn in Indonesia [4], and also other countries in Asia and Australia [5]. Previous researchers have reported and provided evidence on the economic importance of this insect in small-scale cases. Abdullah & Rauf [6] reported that stalk damage reached as high as 98 % in an observation site in the District of Bogor, West Java. Artificial infestation of O. furnacalis on corn during V10 resulted in grain yield reduction of 4.94 % per larva compared to that of untreated plants, while infestation during R1 (plants were silking) and R2 (blistering), yield loss were 4.56 and 3.76 % per larva, respectively [7,8]. Furthermore, early studies have reported high egg masses populations under field conditions, e.g. 1402 egg masses collected from 2117 corn plants aged 11–45 days after emergence [9] and 632 egg masses collected from 210 corn plants aged 52–58 days after emergence [10]. These previous findings imply potential high larval infestation. Subiadi et al. [7] estimated the economic injury level (EIL) of this insect ranged from 0.31 to 1.24 larvae per plant and depended on plant developmental stage, cost and effectiveness of insecticide application, corn yield and corn price. In the Philippines, the economic threshold (ET) was defined as one larva per plant [11]. Ostrinia furnacalis causes comparable yield losses to the European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), due to the similar extent of damage they inflict [6,7,12,13].

Management of O. furnacalis has previously not received appropriate attention from most stakeholders. This lack of concerns may be due to several reasons, such as 1) the unrealized yield loss due to this insect; 2) corn was not considered a major food crop in Indonesia; therefore, investment in crop management was not a priority; or 3) the high O. furnacalis infestation was localized in nonmajor corn-producing areas. These presumptions may no longer apply since corn's economic importance has risen which may lead to changes in agronomic and crop protection practices. Our field observations indicated that farmers started to use insecticides for controlling this pest during the last several years.

Updated information regarding the economic status of O. furnacalis is essential for the corn production system to develop effective management strategies and sustain high productivity. The early information in Indonesia [6,7,14] on the damage cause by this pest in reducing yield is somewhat scattered and on a limited scale. Therefore, the first objective of this study was to quantify existing damage due to O. furnacalis at the vegetative and reproductive stages in the top four major corn-producing provinces: East and Central Java, Lampung, and North Sumatera. Based on our field experiences and publications from other countries [[15], [16], [17]], this insect has two generations per each corn growing season with the first generation present during the vegetative stage and the second during the reproductive stage. These results will provide a comprehensive and detailed estimate of the corn damage severity by O. furnacalis and serve as a baseline to compare insect pressure in the various production centers across the country. The second objective was to determine the actual damage in the most heavily infested fields (potential damage). Data collected from the first and second objectives will determine whether this insect could cause greater damage than currently observed across the country. The results showed that the potential damage in the most heavily infested field was nearly twice as high as the existing damage across the country under natural condition, suggesting that O. furnacalis could cause more damage in the future if effective management strategies are not implemented.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Current damage severity across the country

The survey was carried out in four major corn production provinces in Indonesia: East and Central Java, Lampung, and North Sumatra. Field data collection was conducted from April 2018 to February 2019, following the main corn growing season in each province. Two to three corn growing seasons per year exist within each province with planting dates varying even in the same province. Therefore, in many cases corn is always present in the field for the whole year. Differences in the time of field observation was done at the peak corn growing season in each province. Vegetative stage observations were conducted in North Sumatra and Lampung in May 2018, East Java in September 2018, and Central Java in November 2018 and January 2019. The observations of reproductive stages in North Sumatra and Lampung were conducted in July 2018, East Java in November 2018, and Central Java in January and February 2019.

For each province, 20 observations sites were randomly selected from three districts. Sites were selected to represent the surrounding areas, and each observation site represented one village. Therefore, there were 6–7 sites (villages) for each district distributed in several sub-districts (Fig. 1). Field observations were conducted twice at the same sites to adjust with the number of generations of O. furnacalis in corn. The first observation was conducted on plants aged 30–45 days after planting to determine O. furnacalis damages on leaves, whorls, and stalks. The second observation focused on stalk damage by observing plants aged at least 65 days old. At each site, four sampling units were chosen, and each unit consisted of 10 plants in one row. The four units were determined by following a zigzag pattern. The total number of plants observed per site were 40, totaling in 800 plant samples per province. Therefore, a total of 3200 plants were observed during the vegetative or reproductive stages.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

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Survey location for assessing the damage due to Ostrinia furnacalis in four major corn production provinces in Indonesia (East and Central Java, Lampung, and North Sumatra).

Data collected during the vegetative stage were foliar damage using a scoring system based on the number of leaves showing typical regular pattern of holes by O. furnacalis which differentiates from foliar damage due to other insects. This classification (Table 1) was developed based on Guthrie et al. [18] for O. nubilalis and Prasanna et al. [19] for fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) followed by validation in field tests. The whorls were observed, and presence or absence of the damage was recorded. When present, the number of holes on each damaged stalk was counted. For the reproductive stage, the presence of frass in corn stalks was used as an indicator of infestation (Fig. 2A). Data collection focused on stalks by counting and differentiating holes (Fig. 2B) based on their positions from the ear (nodes below or above the ear). The damaged stalks were cut and opened to measure the length of each gallery (Fig. 2C).

Table 1.

Corn leaves damage assessment due to Ostrinia furnacalis.

Scale Description
0 No visible leaf damage
1 Regular pattern of holes on 1–2 leaves
2 Regular pattern of holes on 3–4 leaves
3 Regular pattern of holes on >5 leaves
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Source: Modified from Guthrie et al. [18] and Prasanna et al. [19].

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

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Symptom of Ostrinia furnacalis damage on the stalk showing fresh frass (A), hole (B), and gallery with a larva (C).

2.2. Damage assessment in heavily infested fields

Four districts (Klaten and Purworejo in the Province of Central Java, and South Lampung and East Lampung in Lampung) were selected purposively based on previous infestation observations, interviews with local farmers, and field confirmations. In each district, one site was observed (Fig. 1) and these four sites were different from those used for the first study. Observations were carried out on cornfields aged at least 65 days. Similar to the first study, four sampling unit observations were chosen, and each unit consisted of 10 plants in one row. The four units were chosen by following a zigzag pattern. A total of 40 plants were observed per site, resulting in 160 samples across the two provinces. The parameters observed were similar to those in the first study: the number of holes on each damaged stalk, node position of the holes, and length of each gallery.

2.3. Data analysis

Data were analyzed to compare the proportion of corn plants attacked by O. furnacalis and its severity during the vegetative and reproductive stages in all provinces. Data on the number of infested plants in a designated site was used as a replicate (20 replicates per province). Proportion of infested plants at the vegetative and reproductive stages were compared between provinces using a one-way ANOVA. Normality and homoscedasticity were tested using Shapiro-Wilk and Levene's tests respectively. Data were transformed to meet assumptions. However, data that were not able to meet these assumptions were then analyzed using a Kruskal-Wallis test. Due to the possibility of fields not being independent between the vegetative or reproductive stage, a Wilcoxon signed-rank test was employed to determine differences between vegetative and reproductive at each province. The differences in the number of holes per stalk among the four provinces were analyzed using a general linear model with the GLM function and Poisson distribution. Data analysis was performed using R [20], with a Tukey HSD post hoc test conducted via the ‘emmeans’ function. This function was used for pairwise comparisons if significant differences were observed. The relationship between the position and distribution of holes in stalks with their length of the gallery was mapped. Furthermore, data from all four provinces during the reproductive stage were pooled together to represent data across the country on the proportion of plants attacked, the number of holes per stalk, the proportion of holes below and above the ear, and gallery length. These parameters were then compared descriptively to those collected from the heavily infested fields to see the differences between the existing national condition and the potential damage that O. furnacalis could cause. All statistical tests were performed at α = 0.05 and using R.4.1.1 [20].

3. Results

3.1. Current damage severity across the country

3.1.1. Infested samples

The proportions of plants with leaf damage due to O. furnacalis during the vegetative stage were significantly higher (50–53 %) in the three provinces (Central Java, East Java, and Lampung) compared to North Sumatra (31 %) (F = 14.39; df treatment = 3; df residual = 77; P-value = < 0.0001) (Fig. 3). There were also significant differences in the number of plants infested during the reproductive stage with Central Java (64 %) being the highest followed by East Java (46 %) and Lampung (45 %); while the infestation in North Sumatra was the lowest (35 %) (H = 15.941; df treatment = 3; P- value = 0.0011) (Fig. 3). The infestation rate during the vegetative stage in East Java was significantly higher than in the reproductive stage (Z = −2.69, P-value = 0.007), and there was no difference in the other three provinces.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

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Proportion of corn samples infested by Ostrinia furnacalis during the vegetative stages (30–45 days after planting) and reproductive stages (at least 65 days old) in four major corn production provinces in Indonesia. Asterisk (∗) above bars indicate significant differences between the proportion of infested plants in the vegetative and reproductive stage based on Wilcoxon signed-rank. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences between the vegetative stages among provinces, while different uppercase letters indicate differences between the reproductive stages based on a Kruskal-Wallis test. All tests were performed at α = 0.05.

3.1.2. Defoliation, whorl damage, and number of holes

Average leaf damage scores in all four provinces were <1.0, implying that plant samples had either no damage or only 1–2 leaves with a regular holes pattern. North Sumatra had the least damage among all provinces. No damage on the whorls and the stalks were observed during the vegetative observation. These findings show that corn damages during the vegetative stage were light in all provinces, and North Sumatra showed the least damage.

At the reproductive stage, the number of holes per stalk averaged 2.35 in Central Java and it was significantly higher than that in East Java (0.60 holes/stalk), Lampung (1.40 holes/stalk), and North Sumatra (1.21 holes/stalk) (Fig. 4). The stalk damage in East Java was the lowest and significantly lower than Lampung and North Sumatra (χ2 = 444.42; df treatment = 3; P < 0.001) (Fig. 4). Based on the proportion of infested plants and the number of holes per stalk, Central Java had a higher infestation level of O. furnacalis than the other three provinces.

Fig. 4.

Fig. 4

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Number of holes per stalk due to Ostrinia furnacalis damage observed at the reproductive stage (at least 65 days old) in four major corn production provinces in Indonesia. Different uppercase letters indicate significant differences between provinces based on a general linear model using Poisson distribution. All tests were performed at α = 0.05.

3.1.3. Distribution of borer holes and length of galleries

Only a small percentage of holes (0.4 %) were found on nodes where ears appeared. Most holes were found on nodes above the ear (91.6 %), and 8.0 % of holes were on nodes below the ear (Fig. 5). The number of holes found on nodes 1 to 4 above the ear tended to increase from 282 to 548 and then decreased as nodes were further from the ear. Node 4 above the ear had the highest damage. A similar trend was observed in the distribution of holes below the ear. The second node below the ear had the most holes and the number decreased the further the nodes were from the ear, suggesting that node 2 below the ear had the most damage.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 5

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The position of holes, their distribution, and the length of galleries made by Ostrinia furnacalis larvae in four major corn production provinces in Indonesia (East and Central Java, Lampung, and North Sumatra). Data is shown using combination of kernel density and boxplot to demonstrate distribution of gallery length. Red triangles (Image 1) indicate average gallery length at each node. Corn node “0” means the node where the ear was present. Number 1 to 8 indicates the position of the hole on the node above the ear, and −1 to −4 means the holes were found on nodes below the ear. The number of plant samples having a hole on a specific node was shown on the x-axis (n).

The mean and median gallery lengths were similar, suggesting a symmetric distribution. This indicates that both short or long galleries could be found at each node. Most galleries ranged from 4 to 6 cm in length, with a few exceeding 15 cm (Fig. 5). There was no clear trend if the length of the galleries was affected by the position of holes. This may suggest that the larvae of O. furnacalis would bore a similar length galleries regardless of the node position, although the 4th node above the ear showed more occasion of being damaged by O. furnacalis.

3.2. Damage assessment in heavily infested fields

The proportion of infested stalks in the heavily infested fields was 95 % (Fig. 6A) with an average of 3 holes per stalk (Fig. 6B). These numbers were approximately twice as high as the proportion of infested stalks and the number of holes per stalk across the country. However, the high infestation level of O. furnacalis did not correlate with the distribution of holes and length of the galleries (Fig. 6C and D). Most larvae consistently preferred boring the nodes above the ear (ca 90 %), and galleries averaging 5 cm. The holes below the ear were often found in the stalks with high infestation. These findings indicate that current corn damage due to O. furnacalis is less severe than the potential damage this insect can cause.

Fig. 6.

Fig. 6

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Descriptive comparison between the existing damage due to Ostrinia furnacalis based on the observation across the country using stratified random sampling in four major corn productions in Indonesia (East and Central Java, Lampung, and North Sumatra) and the potential damage observed purposively in the heavily infested fields in the Province of Lampung and Central Java.

4. Discussion

Results from these studies demonstrated that the damage severity of corn plants by O. furnacalis during vegetative and reproductive stages varied across four major corn-producing provinces (East and Central Java, Lampung, and North Sumatra) (Fig. 3). The proportion of the plants attacked during the vegetative stage was similar to the reproductive stage. However, the damage severity at the vegetative stage was light as indicated by 1–2 leaves with regular leaf hole patterns, no damage on the whorl, and no holes found in the stalks. On the other hand, damage at the reproductive stage was more severe indicated by the number of holes per plant and gallery lengths (Fig. 4, Fig. 5). These differences might be due to corn plants’ ability during their vegetative stage to defend against O. furnacalis feeding by using defense-related mechanisms that reduce insects fitness [[21], [22], [23]]. The defense compounds, such as DIMBOA (2,4-dihydroxy-7-methoxy-1,4-benzoxazin-3-one), acts as a growth inhibitor to O. nubilalis and antifeedant to O. nubilalis and O. furnacalis [[22], [23], [24]] but decrease as plants age [25] which could contribute to the higher damage in older plants by O. furnacalis shown in this study.

Corn in many parts of the country is available during the whole year although there are particular months that are the peak corn growing season, and this may differ amongst the provinces. Unfortunately, data on the population dynamics of this insect in each major corn producing region of Indonesia is unavailable, limiting the ability to establish correlations between damage reported in this study and the pest's population dynamics (eggs, larvae, pupae, adult flight periods).

The compilation of holes on the corn plant's upper structures (above ears) (Fig. 5) provides valuable information that is consistent with the findings from Subiadi et al. [9]. Female O. furnacalis oviposited mostly on leaves close to nodes where the ear developed and on leaves above ears during the 2nd peak of oviposition period. This behavior may be caused by microclimates [26]. Furthermore, egg masses were frequently found on plants in the middle of the field [10], and similar oviposition behavior was shown by O. nubilalis [27,28]. Knowing the oviposition sites and damage patterns of O. furnacalis allows farmers and pest surveyors to focus monitoring efforts, determine peak oviposition periods, and implement timely control measures targeting oviposition or early larval stages.

The length of galleries varied mostly from 4 to 6 cm and they were not consistently related to the position of holes (Fig. 5). This may suggest that the selected nodes provide sufficient resources for the larvae to complete their life cycle once the larvae started to feed on the stalk. The impacts of the holes’ position in respect to the ear and the length of galleries on yield loss (kg/ha) could not be estimated from the present study. Assessment of the yield loss still needs to be evaluated.

The present study suggests that O. furnacalis has not reached its potential to cause damage (Fig. 6). The damage incidence across the four major production centers were less than the damage caused by O. furnacalis as observed in the heavily infested areas. The average number of infested plants in the reproductive stage in the area with high infestation could be 2-fold higher or almost all plants were infested by this insect (Fig. 6A). Moreover, the number of holes per plant in high-infestation area was nearly twice that observed across the country (Fig. 6B). This study also demonstrated that the larval attack behavior based on the location of borer holes was not affected by the infestation level as shown by Fig. 6C and D. These findings show that the damage caused by this insect may still potentially become worse.

Adopting the yield loss model developed by Subiadi et al. [7] where each larva caused a yield loss of 4.56 % compared to the grain yield produced by uninfested plants when the infestation occurred at R1 and assuming one larva per hole, it is estimated that the current yield loss caused by O. furnacalis is about 4.6 % and it can increase to a potential of 17.4 % in the worst case conditions. Moreover, the current stalk damage exceeds its ET for the Philippines [11] or even EIL for Indonesia [7], assuming one larva causes one hole [29,30]. Under high infestation, stalk lodging is possible which may lead to even higher yield loss. Despite regional differences in severity levels, this insect poses a threat to national corn production. The ability of these moths to undertake both short- and long-distance migration, lay eggs on alternate hosts, and complete their life cycle [[31], [32], [33]] increases the concerns about their economic impact.

The role of natural enemies, in particular egg parasitoids, in regulating the population of O. furnacalis have been noticed and considered an essential component in maintaining the existing field damage below its potential. The parasitism rate could be as high as 72 % in Malaysia [34], 71 % in Myanmar [35] and 100 % in Indonesia [[36], [37], [38]]. The species of egg parasitoids may differ in their effectiveness, and Trichogramma ostriniae was reported to be a more promising parasitoid than T. dendrolini in China [39,40]. Suppression of these natural enemies by improper use of insecticides could increase the damage due to O. furnacalis. Considering the potential damage due to this insect, a proper management strategy should be developed and implemented to prevent the damage severity from getting worse in the future.

Corn is becoming increasingly important due to its expanding range of uses. This study provides an overview of the economic importance of O. furnacalis across major corn production regions of Indonesia. The current stalk damage has passed the EIL meaning that the economic loss has occurred even though it may have not been noticed. The damage across the country was still less than in areas with high infestation implying that more severe damage could possibly occur in the future. The existing and potential losses highlight the need for monitoring and effective management practices to reduce loss and sustain high productivity. Disseminating effective pest management strategies for this insect are challenging considering the socio-economic background of the corn growers, the continuous availability of corn in the fields with different planting dates, and the diversity of the agricultural landscape. Further studies on population dynamics and the key factors influencing damage severity observed across Indonesia, particularly in heavily infested areas, may provide insights into preventing further damage by O. furnacalis.

5. Conclusions

The proportion of plants infested by O. furnacalis ranged from 50 % to 53 % during the vegetative stage and from 35 % to 64 % during the reproductive stage, where damage was more severe. The number of holes per stalk averaged 0.60–2.36, and they were mostly found on nodes above the ear (91.6 %). The existing damage has already resulted in economic loss but remains lower than the potential damage this insect could cause. Therefore, effective management strategy should be implemented to limit this insect's impact and mitigate existing damage.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Y. Andi Trisyono: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Supervision, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Valentina E.F. Aryuwandari: Investigation, Project administration, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Nike G.H. Sinulingga: Investigation, Methodology. Ignatius Putra Andika: Data curation, Formal analysis, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.

Data availability statement

Data will be made available on request. For requesting data, please write to the corresponding author.

Ethics approval

Review and/or approval by an ethics committee was not needed for this study because there was no human and animal participation involved.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:Y. Andi Trisyono reports financial support was provided by CropLife Indonesia (Grant Number: UEN/Registration No. S97SS0018F). If there are other authors, they declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgement

We would like to thank all field assistants and farmers for assisting data collection during the study. We also appreciate the reviewers' constructive feedback on the content and editorial aspects including language editing, and CropLife Indonesia for providing funding to carry this research.

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