A Serial Mediation Model of Perceived Social Class and Cyberbullying: The Role of Subjective Vitality in Friendship Relations and Psychological Distress

Abstract

Objective: The link between individuals' perceptions of social class (PSC) and various forms of bullying, including cyberbullying, has not been extensively studied. Additionally, the mechanisms through which PSC impact aggressive behaviors like cyberbullying remain unclear. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the influence of perceived social class on cyberbullying, considering subjective vitality and psychological distress as serial mediators.

Method : Utilizing a cross-sectional design, the research involved 584 Iranian students (Mage = 20.59, SD = 1.99) from several universities who completed questionnaires assessing Subjective Social Class (SSC), Subjective Vitality Scale (SVS), Psychological Distress Scale (K6), and Cyberbullying Involvement Scale (CIS). Hayes' PROCESS macro (Model 6) in SPSS was employed to analyze the chain mediation effects.

Results: The Results demonstrated that the direct impact of PSC on cyberbullying was significant (Effect = -0.229, 95% CI: -0.294 to -0.164). Subjective vitality and psychological distress serially mediated the link between PSC and cyberbullying (Effect = -0.022, 95% CI: -0.035 to -0.012). In addition, both subjective vitality (Effect = -0.046, 95% CI: -0.080 to -0.017), and psychological distress (Effect = -0.09, 95% CI: -0.123 to -0.059), independently mediated the association between PSC and cyberbullying.

Conclusion: This research not only broadens the theoretical understanding of how individuals' perceptions of their social rank influence cyberbullying behaviors, but also provides actionable strategies for officials and experts to deploy effective interventions in higher education to mitigate cyberbullying.

In recent years, a significant public health concern has been the rising prevalence of different types of violence, with bullying being particularly prominent worldwide. These acts of violence have had detrimental effects on various dimensions of individuals' lives (1). Bullying involves a consistent and intentional series of aggressive or harmful actions directed at individuals who are perceived to be less powerful (2). Since the Covid-19 pandemic, the widespread use of the Internet has probably resulted in a rise in different forms of bullying behaviors, such as cyberbullying (3). Cyberbullying refers to aggressive behaviors carried out via electronic means, repeatedly and over an extended period, toward a person who lacks easy means of self-defense (4). Ansary (5) reviewed several studies, revealing that the average annual rate of cybervictimization ranges from 14% to 21%. On a global scale, between 10% and 72% of youths have reported experiences of cyberbullying (6). New evidence indicates a rise in cyberbullying among both male and female adolescents and young adults. Additionally, elevated rates of suicidal ideation, particularly among females, alongside increased anxiety, guilt, and fear of attending college, have been identified as further consequences of cyberbullying (7-9).

Cyberbullying is a multifaceted and complex phenomenon shaped by a range of individual and social factors (10, 11). Social class is a significant social factor influencing bullying behavior. For example, Individuals from lower social classes, including those with lower parental education or low-income families, exhibit greater levels of both traditional bullying and cyberbullying than high-income and high-education groups (12, 13). Perceived social class is an individual's subjective assessment of their status relative to others, considering economic and social factors (14). One study found that individuals from low-income families experienced higher levels of bullying, including both cyberbullying and traditional perpetration, compared to their counterparts from moderate-income families (15). While current research sheds some light on this issue, more scientific inquiry is required to explore mechanisms linking social class and cyberbullying. Consequently, this study examined whether subjective vitality in friendship relations and psychological distress mediate this relationship.

Drawing from the cognitive-neoassociation model (CNA model), negative emotions triggered by unpleasant events can potentially lead to aggression (16). Those who hold a negative view of their or their family's societal position frequently face resource limitations. As a result, they are more susceptible to experience depression symptoms (17, 18), report suicidal ideation (19), exhibit lower trust in the society (20) and feel more socially isolated (21) than higher-class individuals. Consequently, individuals facing chronic exposure to aversive events are vulnerable to experiencing psychological distress, potentially heightening the risk of aggressive behaviors (e.g., cyberbullying).

Psychological distress is typically determined by depression (e.g., unhappiness, hopelessness, helplessness, and apathy) and anxiety symptomatology (agitation, irritability, and feeling tense) (22). A study revealed that 38.1% of Iranian students experienced mild to severe anxiety, while 27.6% suffered from depression (23). Previous studies have highlighted the impact of loneliness (24), maladaptive coping (25), social isolation (26), emotional schemas (27), and trait self-control (28) on the development of psychological distress among diverse populations. Furthermore, several studies have demonstrated that low social class is linked to an increased risk of psychological distress (29-31). Likewise, distress is linked to mental health outcomes, including suicidal thoughts (28), well-being (32), burnout (33), and bullying experiences (34). Consequently, research has focused on exploring how to reduce psychological distress. For example, Individuals in socially disadvantaged statuses (such as lower socioeconomic status) are more likely to experience stressors related to financial strain, discrimination, and limited access to resources (35). Chronic exposure to stressors can contribute to psychological distress, including anxiety, depression, and other mental health issues. In contrast, bullying has been positively associated with psychological distress. Simply stated, those with higher levels of stress and anxiety are at a greater risk of engaging in bullying behaviors (34). However, although the associations between social class and psychological distress, and between psychological distress and bullying, have been well documented, only recently attention has shifted to the indirect effects of psychological distress as a potential mediator. That is, although existing evidence confirms that psychological distress mediates the relationship between certain variables, there remains limited investigation into the distinct impact of perceived social class (a separate construct from objective social status) and the emerging phenomenon of cyberbullying among university students. Furthermore, prior research suggests that the impact of social class on distress may not be direct (36). Therefore, another question that remains is how perceived social class influences psychological distress. In this examination, the possible role of subjective vitality in friendship relations is explored.

Subjective vitality is the personal feeling of being energetic and lively. Individuals who score high in subjective vitality often describe themselves as vigilant, eager, and spirited (37). In the context of Diener's framework, subjective vitality represents the cognitive aspect of mental well-being (38). This sense of vitality which is thought to alleviate the impact of difficult life situations on emotional wellness (37), may be influenced by social class. Some studies have indicated that people with low objective and subjective social class report decreased subjective well-being in different age groups (39). One significant contributor to subjective vitality is the presence of friends. A robust social support network, particularly involving friends, enhances a sense of vitality and provides an intrinsic experience of life's meaning. Numerous studies have consistently demonstrated that the vitality derived from friendships serves as a potent protective factor against psychological issues (40).

Previous research indicates that variations in aggressive behaviors, such as cyber aggression, are influenced by experiences of negative emotions, including psychological distress (34). According to the CNA model, negative affect (e.g., psychological distress) is a direct predictor of aggressive behaviors (e.g., cyberbullying) (16). Consequently, we hypothesize that a lower perception of social class (PSC) likely diminishes subjective vitality in social interactions with friends, thereby increasing psychological distress. This heightened distress may subsequently result in various forms of aggression, including cyberbullying. Building on the CNA model and prior findings, this study aimed to clarify the mechanisms linking PSC and cyberbullying by presenting a chain mediation model (see Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Hypothesized Serial Mediation Model Linking Perceived Social Class to Cyberbullying Through Subjective Vitality and Psychological Distress

Most studies on bullying have predominantly focused on traditional forms, particularly within adolescent school settings. However, there is a significant gap in research addressing cyberbullying and its underlying mechanisms, especially among Iranian university students. Given the rise in cyberspace usage among students and the corresponding increase in cyberbullying incidents, it is crucial to examine the predictive factors of this phenomenon (7). This study is imperative as it expands upon previous research by incorporating both individual and social factors in predicting cyberbullying. In addition, the use of the cognitive neoassociation model provides a robust theoretical framework, offering new insights into how perceived social class, subjective vitality within friendship relations, and psychological distress interact to influence cyberbullying behaviors. This novel approach not only fills existing research gaps but also informs targeted interventions to combat cyberbullying effectively.

We extend previous research by thoroughly examining the serial process through which PSC impacts cyberbullying via subjective vitality and psychological distress. Additionally, we aimed to identify multiple practical strategies that could mitigate cyberbullying and promote social equity. Based on the theories and findings previously discussed, the following hypotheses are proposed:

H1 PSC significantly affects cyberbullying.

H2 Subjective vitality mediates the relationship between PSC and cyberbullying.

H3 Psychological distress mediates the relationship between PSC and cyberbullying.

H4 Subjective vitality and psychological distress play a serial mediating role in the relationship between PSC and cyberbullying.

Materials and Methods

A descriptive-correlational design was employed to explore the associations among PSC, subjective vitality, psychological distress, and cyberbullying. Following specific guidelines (41), a sample size of 200 participants is considered the minimum requirement for mediation analysis with a statistical power of 0.80 and a medium effect size of 0.30. This research had a total of 602 participants completing the instruments, surpassing the minimum requirement. The data from 18 participants were incomplete and, for different reasons, unsuitable for analysis, so they were excluded from the final analysis process. Lastly, 584 university students (372 females and 248 males) from the universities of Birjand, Tabriz, Sistan & Baluchestan, Tehran, Shahid Beheshti, and Gilan were selected through convenience sampling.

The age of participants spanned from 17 to 26 years, with a mean age of 20.59 years (SD = 1.99). For inclusion in this study, participants needed to meet the following criteria: They had to be currently enrolled as students at one of the six aforementioned universities and could be from multiple academic levels. Only Iranian students were considered to ensure a homogeneous study population in terms of cultural and social backgrounds. Participants were excluded if they were non-Iranian students, had applied to drop out or withdraw from their academic programs, or expressed a lack of interest in participating in the research. The Research Ethics Committee of the University of Birjand provided ethical approval for this study (Approval No.IR.BIRJAND.REC.1402.017).

First, the questionnaires were developed on the porsline website. The survey link was publicly accessible and promoted via social media. Then, it was disseminated to professors and student group administrators on the social networks. Participants were informed about the study's aims and procedures, as well as their rights, and provided their informed consent before participation. The sum score method was used for all the scales, with items remaining in a fixed order without randomization or alternation. Data collection was conducted simultaneously across all universities during the 2023-2024 academic year. Participation was voluntary, and students did not receive any incentives or penalties based on their participation. Several potential sources of bias were identified and addressed in this study. Participants were drawn from a diverse population of Iranian students across different academic levels and universities to ensure a representative sample. To counteract response bias, especially social desirability bias, participants were given assurances of both anonymity and confidentiality, which encouraged honest and accurate reporting of their experiences and perceptions. Measurement Bias was controlled by using validated and reliable instruments to ensure the accuracy and consistency of the data collected.

Subjective Social Class (SSC): The MacArthur Scale of subjective socioeconomic status (42) was employed to assess SSC. This scale features a visual representation of a ladder with 10 rungs, each symbolizing varying degrees of financial, educational, and career status. Each rung is numbered from 1 to 10. Participants were instructed: The top rung of the ladder are those who are most well-off, having the highest incomes, the best academic level, and most respected employment. The lowest position on the ladder is occupied by those who are the worst off, with the least financial resources, lowest educational attainment, and least respected or no jobs. Participants were then asked to choose a number that they felt best represented their family's position on this 10-point measure. Higher perceived social class is denoted by higher numbers. This measure is widely used and has demonstrated adequate test-retest reliability (43). Given that university students remain financially dependent on their families, they were instructed to reflect on their family's overall situation when answering this question and determining their social status (44). In the current study, the test-retest reliability for subjective social class was 0.73.

Subjective Vitality: The Persian version of the Subjective Vitality Scale (45) was used to evaluate subjective vitality. It consists of 7 items, rated on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = not at all true, 7 = very true). Item two is reverse-scored, with higher scores indicating greater subjective vitality and lower scores indicating the opposite. The reliability and validity of this instrument have been established both in the primary study (37) and in a subsequent validation conducted in Iran (45). In the current study, the Cronbach's alpha for subjective vitality was notably high at 0.90.

Psychological Distress Scale (K6): The Persian version of the Psychological Distress Scale (K6) was used to measure students' psychological distress. This scale comprises six items, each rated on a five-point scale ranging from never (0) to always (4). The total score is calculated by summing the individual item scores, with possible scores ranging from 0 to 24. Higher total scores indicate greater psychological distress. The reliability and validity of this scale have been established both in the primary study (46) and in studies in Iran (47). In the current study, the Cronbach's alpha for subjective vitality was notably high at 0.89.

Cyberbullying Involvement : The single-item cyberbullying scale was used to measure the prevalence of cyberbullying among individuals. A widely cited definition (48) was first presented to the respondents, followed by examples of cyberbullying. Next, to determine cyberbullying perpetration, participants were asked to report how often they had engaged in bullying someone online or via mobile phone over a period of 6 months. Responses included "never," "once in the past 6 months," "a few times in the past 6 months," "once a month," and "a few times a month." The reliability and validity of single-item cyberbullying scales have been confirmed in several studies (49, 50). The answer options ranged from 1 (never) to 6 (weekly). In the current study, the test-retest reliability for cyberbullying perpetration was 0.68.

Using SPSS version 26.0, the data were analyzed. Descriptive statistics were utilized to present the sociodemographic information. Pearson correlation coefficients were employed to examine the relationships between variables. The serial mediation effect was tested using the PROCESS macro for SPSS (Model 6). A bootstrap test with 5,000 resamples was performed to assess statistical robustness, with a 95% confidence interval (CI).

Results

The sample consisted of 584 university students (356 females and 228 males) aged 18-45 (M = 21.93, SD = 3.52) from six universities in Iran. Of these participants, 534 (91.4%) were single and 50 (8.6%) were married. In terms of employment, 179 students (30.7%) were employed, and 405 (69.3%) were not. Academically, 474 (81.2%) were undergraduate students, and 110 (18.8%) were pursuing graduate studies (master's and doctoral degrees). In conducting statistical analysis, several assumptions were tested. To confirm the normality of the data distribution, we first conducted the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. The results indicated that the data distribution met the normality assumption (P > 0.05). Secondly, we examined the data for the presence of outliers and found none, ensuring that the results were not unduly influenced by extreme values. Thirdly, to assess for common method bias, we employed the Harman single-factor test, which showed that the first factor explained less than 50% (31.05) of the total variance, remaining within the acceptable threshold. Additionally, we used the variance inflation factor (VIF) to evaluate multicollinearity among the study variables, with all variables displaying VIF values below 5, indicating minimal multicollinearity issues (51). Table 1 outlines descriptive statistics, and correlation coefficients among the study variables.

Table 1.

Mean and Standard Deviation and Correlation between Perceived Social Class, Subjective Vitality, Psychological Distress, and Cyberbullying

Variable	1	2	3	4
1. Perceived Social Class	1
2. Subjective Vitality	0.374**	1
3. Psychological Distress	-0.424**	-0.356**	1
4. Cyberbullying	-0.44**	-0.325**	0.43**	1
M	4.28	34.78	12.38	1.98
SD	1.558	8.583	5.187	1.274

Note; M = mean; SD = standard deviation.

^**P < 0.01

The findings demonstrated a significant correlation between all variables. Perceived social class had a significant positive correlation with subjective vitality (r = 0.374, P < 0.01), and a significant negative correlation with psychological distress (r = -0.424, P < 0.01). There was also a significant negative correlation between social class and cyberbullying (r = -0.44, P < 0.01). Subjective vitality demonstrated a significant negative correlation with both psychological distress (r = -0.356, P < 0.01) and cyberbullying (r = -0.325, P < 0.01). Additionally, Psychological distress showed a significant positive correlation with cyberbullying perpetration (r = 0.43, P < 0.01).

Analyzing the Chain Mediation Model

Testing the serial mediation effect was conducted using Model 6 of the SPSS PROCESS macro. Regression analysis results (Table 2) indicated that perceived social class had a significant positive association with subjective vitality (β = 0.373, P < 0.001), which was significantly negatively associated with cyberbullying (β = -0.125, P < 0.001). In other words, people with a more positive perception of their social status experience more vitality, which is associated with less cyberbullying. The direct effect of perceived social class on cyberbullying was also significant (β = -0.280, P < 0.001). Furthermore, perceived social class had a significant negative association with psychological distress (β = -0.338, P < 0.001), which was positively associated with cyberbullying (β = 0.266, P < 0.001). Lastly, subjective vitality had a significant negative association with psychological distress (β = -0.229, P < 0.001). Figure 2 provides the detailed path model.

Table 2.

Standardized Regression Weights for Predicting Cyberbullying Based on Perceived Social Class, Subjective Vitality and Psychological Distress

Regression Equation (N = 584)		Fit Indicator			Coefficient and Significance
Outcome Variable	Predictor Variables	R	R 2	F	β	t
Subjective vitality	Social class	0.373	0.139	94.425	0.373***	9.717
Psychological distress	Social class	0.474	0.225	84.541	-0.338***	-8.599
	Subjective vitality				-0.229***	-5.833
Cyberbullying	Social class	0.44	0.193	139.908	-0.44***	-11.828
Cyberbullying	Social class	0.527	0.278	74.675	-0.280***	-6.947
	Subjective vitality				-0.125***	-3.202
	Distress				0.266***	6.645

Note: The model utilized standardized study variables.

^*** p < 0.001

Figure 2.

Model Predicting Cyberbullying Based on Perceived Social Class with Serial Mediation of Subjective Vitality and Psychological Distress

The findings from the bootstrap test (Table 3) reveal that subjective vitality and psychological distress served as partial mediators in the relationship between perceived social class and cyberbullying, with a total indirect effect of -0.159, constituting 44.16% of the overall effect. The mediating effect was specifically composed of indirect effects created through three pathways: (1) perceived social class → subjective vitality → cyberbullying (effect = -0.046, 95% CI: -0.080 to -0.017), accounting for 12.77% of the total effect; (2) perceived social class → psychological distress → cyberbullying (effect = -0.09, 95% CI: -0.123 to -0.059), accounting for 25% of the total effect; (3) perceived social class → subjective vitality → psychological distress → cyberbullying (effect = -0.022, 95% CI: -0.035 to -0.012), accounting for 6.11% of the total effect.

Table 3.

The Total, Direct, and Indirect Effects of Perceived Social Class on Cyberbullying, Including Mediation Effects of Subjective Vitality and Psychological Distress

	Effects	Boot SE	Boot LLCI	Boot ULCI
Total effect	-0.36	0.030	-0.42	-0.30
Direct effect	-0.229	0.033	-0.294	-0.164
Total indirect effect	-0.159	0.019	-0.199	-0.122
Indirect effect 1	-0.046	0.016	-0.080	-0.017
Indirect effect 2	-0.09	0.016	-0.123	-0.059
Indirect effect 3	-0.022	0.005	-0.035	-0.012

Note: Boot SE indicates the standard error, and Boot LLCI and Boot ULCI denote the lower and upper bounds, respectively, of the 95% confidence intervals for the indirect effects as estimated by the bootstrap method. Indirect effect 1: perceived social class → subjective vitality → cyberbullying; indirect effect 2: perceived social class → psychological distress → cyberbullying; indirect effect 3: perceived social class → subjective vitality → psychological distress → cyberbullying

Discussion

The central focus of this study was to analyze the possible mediatory effects of subjective vitality and psychological distress on the association between PSC and cyberbullying. The results underscore the intricate interplay between perceived social class, subjective vitality in friendship relations, psychological distress, and cyberbullying. Specifically, our findings revealed that a decreased perception of social status substantially diminishes individuals' subjective vitality within their friendships. This reduction in vitality, characterized by decreased energy and enthusiasm in social interactions, subsequently exacerbates psychological distress. High levels of psychological distress, in turn, can lead to an increased chance of cyberbullying behaviors. This suggests that the link between PSC and cyberbullying is partly and sequentially mediated by subjective vitality and psychological distress.

Some empirical evidence suggests a negative correlation between perceived social class and cyberbullying (12, 13). Those who perceive themselves as being in lower socio-economic situations are more likely to be engaged in cyberbullying roles. The CNA model posits that these individuals, when faced with stressful and bothersome events, experience heightened negative emotions (16), which may result in aggressive behaviors (21), particularly cyberbullying. Furthermore, aversive events can negatively impact individuals' perceptions of their social status, creating a vicious cycle. While some evidence has highlighted the negative correlation between socioeconomic status and bullying experiences, the specifics of this relationship vary based on the type of bullying (traditional vs. cyber), the roles in bullying (bully vs. victim), age, and cultural context. This relationship is complex and multifaceted. For instance, an examination of how gender, race, and social ranking affect bullying in public and private schools in Brazil found that students with superior socioeconomic backgrounds are more likely to engage in bullying, whereas those from lower socioeconomic classes are more prone to be victimized (52). These findings, along with those of the current research, emphasize the importance of incorporating cultural factors and the multifaceted nature of bullying into future research.

Importantly, our results highlight the significance of subjective vitality as a potential mediator in the association between PSC and cyberbullying. This finding may be explained within the framework of Self-Determination Theory (SDT). SDT posits that subjective vitality, which refers to a sense of aliveness and energy, is a crucial indicator of well-being and is significantly affected by the fulfillment of fundamental psychological needs (53). Individuals with a high perception of social class often have better access to resources and opportunities that fulfill these psychological needs. For instance, they might feel more autonomous and competent within their social interactions, thereby boosting subjective vitality. This enhanced vitality fosters positive interpersonal relationships and effective communication with friends, functioning as a deterrent to cyberbullying (54). Additionally, according to Social Capital Theory, those who perceive themselves as belonging to a higher social status often have richer social networks and stronger social support systems. These networks provide emotional and psychological resources that enhance subjective vitality and reduce the likelihood of negative behaviors like cyberbullying (55).

These findings further develop the CNA model and Social Information Processing (SIP) model, by illustrating the impact of PSC on cyberbullying via psychological distress. In other words, students with reduced PSC may experience decreased vitality and greater distress. Individuals with lower perceived social status may suffer from elevated levels of psychological distress and unpleasant feelings, including frustration and anger. These emotions can impair their ability to process social information accurately, leading to maladaptive behaviors like cyberbullying as a way to cope with or express their distress (56). Additionally, university students with weaker PSC probably experience strain or stress due to their perceived disadvantage. This strain can lead to negative emotions, which in turn may result in deviant behaviors, including cyberbullying, as a form of retaliation or a way to restore control and authority (57).

Of note, the negative association between subjective vitality and psychological distress is consistent with previous studies (58, 59). According to SDT, subjective vitality is a reflection of one's psychological well-being and is closely linked to the fulfillment of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Higher subjective vitality is experienced when these needs are adequately satisfied, which in turn reduces psychological distress. Conversely, when these needs are thwarted, psychological distress increases (60).

Limitation

There are a few limitations in the current study that need to be acknowledged. Firstly, the cross-sectional nature of the study precludes drawing causal conclusions, given that the data reflect a snapshot in time. Secondly, the use of self-report instruments could lead to bias due to the potential influence of participants' current mood or a desire to present themselves favorably. Another limitation of the study is the reliance on single-item scales to measure cyberbullying and perceived social class. While single-item scales offer simplicity and ease of administration, they might not entirely reflect the intricate and diverse dimensions of these constructs. Lastly, the available sampling constrains the extent to which the findings can be generalized. However, the extensive sample size in this research, along with the selection of students from different universities, may mitigate these potential biases. These limitations underscore the necessity for long-term research, multi-item scales, and alternative data collection methods to bolster the robustness of future research in this domain.

Conclusion

This study clarifies how subjective vitality and psychological distress sequentially mediate the link between PSC and cyberbullying. Grounded in the CNA model, our findings provide valuable insights into the mechanisms underlying these relationships. Our results indicate that perceived social class significantly influences experiences of cyberbullying, with lower perceived social class associated with higher instances of cyberbullying. This relationship is mediated by subjective vitality and psychological distress. The CNA model helps explain these findings by suggesting that negative emotions and stressors, such as those associated with lower social class, can activate aggressive thoughts and behaviors, including cyberbullying. Future research should explore different aspects of cyberbullying, including various forms of victimization experiences. Furthermore, delving into other mechanisms, including social support, sense of control, social media self-disclosure could help achieve a more nuanced comprehension of the elements affecting cyberbullying among university students. Investigating these dynamics in other groups, like teenagers, would enhance our overall understanding of the issue. Moreover, longitudinal studies could offer deeper insights into the causal relationships. Such studies would help in developing targeted interventions to reduce cyberbullying and support individuals from lower social classes. Based on our results, institutions should consider implementing programs that enhance students' perceptions of their social class. This could involve initiatives that foster a sense of belonging, provide support for underprivileged students, and promote inclusive practices. In summary, this research highlights the crucial need to address social inequalities and promote psychological well-being to mitigate the adverse effects of cyberbullying. By fostering environments that support students with lower perceived social class, we can enhance subjective vitality and reduce psychological distress, ultimately contributing to a safer and more inclusive digital world.

Conflict of Interest

None.