Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Genitourinary Medicine logoLink to Genitourinary Medicine
. 1991 Jun;67(3):256–266. doi: 10.1136/sti.67.3.256

Laboratory techniques for the diagnosis of chlamydial infections.

D Taylor-Robinson 1, B J Thomas 1
PMCID: PMC1194684  PMID: 2071132

Abstract

Yolk-sac inoculation of embryonated eggs was superseded 25 years ago by the use of cell cultures (often McCoy) for the isolation of Chlamydia trachomatis. Centrifugation of specimens onto the cell monolayers was shown to increase sensitivity, but little of late has further improved sensitivity which is at least ten-fold greater than that of eggs. However, culture is slow and labour intensive so that non-cultural techniques without these drawbacks have come to dominate. Direct fluorescent antibody (DFA) tests are rapid and have sensitivities that range from 70% to 100% for men and 68% to 100% for women, and specificities that range from 87% to 99% for men and 82% to 100% for women; if the tests are read by competent observers the values are at the top end of the ranges. The detection rate may be enhanced even further by relatively low-speed centrifugation of specimens before staining. Skilled reading is not a feature of enzyme immunoassays (EIAs) which according to the literature have sensitivities that range from 62% to 97% for men and 64% to 100% for women, and specificities that range from 92% to 100% for men and 89% to 100% for women. However, comparison against poor reference tests is responsible for most of the higher values and the clinician should not be misled into believing that EIAs have excellent sensitivity; the lower values in the ranges are closer to reality. Furthermore, EIAs that are being designed for use by general practitioners should be regarded with the greatest caution since lack of sensitivity means that chlamydia-positive patients will go undetected. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is not bedevilled by insensitivity but it is no more sensitive than the most sensitive cell culture or DFA tests. PCR is unsuitable for routine diagnosis but has a place as a research tool. For men, examination of "first-catch" urine samples by the best of the non-cultural procedures provides an acceptable non-invasive approach to diagnosis; for women, the value of examining urine may be less, but needs to be thoroughly tested. However, there is little doubt that a Cytobrush used to obtain cervical specimens holds no practical advantage over a swab. Serological tests are reliant on the provision of paired sera for making a diagnosis; high antibody titres in single sera may be suggestive of an aetiological association in deep-seated chlamydial infections (epididymitis, arthritis, salpingitis, etc), but unequivocal interpretation is unusual, particularly in an individual case, since the distinction between a current and past infection is problematical.

Full text

PDF
256

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Alexander I., Paul I. D., Caul E. O. Evaluation of a genus reactive monoclonal antibody in rapid identification of Chlamydia trachomatis by direct immunofluorescence. Genitourin Med. 1985 Aug;61(4):252–254. doi: 10.1136/sti.61.4.252. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Arroyo G., Linnemann C., Wesseler T. Role of the Papanicolaou smear in diagnosis of chlamydial infections. Sex Transm Dis. 1989 Jan-Mar;16(1):11–14. doi: 10.1097/00007435-198901000-00003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Banks J. R., Vanden Driesen G., Stark E. Chlamydia trachomatis in smears from eyes, ears, and throats of children with chronic otitis media. Lancet. 1985 Aug 3;2(8449):278–278. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(85)90328-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Barnes R. C. Laboratory diagnosis of human chlamydial infections. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1989 Apr;2(2):119–136. doi: 10.1128/cmr.2.2.119. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Bruce A. W., Reid G. Prostatitis associated with Chlamydia trachomatis in 6 patients. J Urol. 1989 Oct;142(4):1006–1007. doi: 10.1016/s0022-5347(17)38970-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Bygdeman S. M., Lidbrink P., Nahkiaisoja M., Parkhede U. Comparison of Pharmacia Chlamydia EIA, IDEIA and cell culture in the detection of urogenital chlamydial infection. Int J STD AIDS. 1990 May;1(3):199–204. doi: 10.1177/095646249000100310. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Caul E. O., Paul I. D., Milne J. D., Crowley T. Non-invasive sampling method for detecting Chlamydia trachomatis. Lancet. 1988 Nov 26;2(8622):1246–1247. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(88)90831-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Caul E. O., Paul I. D. Monoclonal antibody based ELISA for detecting Chlamydia trachomatis. Lancet. 1985 Feb 2;1(8423):279–279. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(85)91056-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Cevenini R., Rumpianesi F., Donati M., Moroni A., Sambri V., La Placa M. Class specific immunoglobulin response to individual polypeptides of Chlamydia trachomatis, elementary bodies, and reticulate bodies in patients with chlamydial infection. J Clin Pathol. 1986 Dec;39(12):1313–1316. doi: 10.1136/jcp.39.12.1313. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Cevenini R., Rumpianesi F., Sambri V., La Placa M. Antigenic specificity of serological response in Chlamydia trachomatis urethritis detected by immunoblotting. J Clin Pathol. 1986 Mar;39(3):325–327. doi: 10.1136/jcp.39.3.325. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Chernesky M. A., Mahony J. B., Castriciano S., Mores M., Stewart I. O., Landis S. J., Seidelman W., Sargeant E. J., Leman C. Detection of Chlamydia trachomatis antigens by enzyme immunoassay and immunofluorescence in genital specimens from symptomatic and asymptomatic men and women. J Infect Dis. 1986 Jul;154(1):141–148. doi: 10.1093/infdis/154.1.141. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Chernesky M., Castriciano S., Sellors J., Stewart I., Cunningham I., Landis S., Seidelman W., Grant L., Devlin C., Mahony J. Detection of Chlamydia trachomatis antigens in urine as an alternative to swabs and cultures. J Infect Dis. 1990 Jan;161(1):124–126. doi: 10.1093/infdis/161.1.124. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Chisholm S. M., Matheson B. A., Do Ho-Yen Limitations of Chlamydiazyme in general hospital laboratories. J Clin Pathol. 1988 Mar;41(3):357–358. doi: 10.1136/jcp.41.3.357-a. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Ciotti R. A., Sondheimer S. J., Nachamkin I. Detecting Chlamydia trachomatis by direct immunofluorescence using a Cytobrush sampling technique. Genitourin Med. 1988 Aug;64(4):245–246. doi: 10.1136/sti.64.4.245. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Cles L. D., Bruch K., Stamm W. E. Staining characteristics of six commercially available monoclonal immunofluorescence reagents for direct diagnosis of Chlamydia trachomatis infections. J Clin Microbiol. 1988 Sep;26(9):1735–1737. doi: 10.1128/jcm.26.9.1735-1737.1988. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Cohen I., Tenenbaum E., Fejgin M., Altaras M., Ben-Aderet N., Sarov I. Serum-specific antibodies for Chlamydia trachomatis in premature contractions. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1988 Mar;158(3 Pt 1):579–582. doi: 10.1016/0002-9378(88)90031-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Csángó P. A., Sarov B., Schiøtz H., Sarov I. Comparison between cell culture and serology for detecting Chlamydia trachomatis in women seeking abortion. J Clin Pathol. 1988 Jan;41(1):89–92. doi: 10.1136/jcp.41.1.89. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Dean D., Palmer L., Pant C. R., Courtright P., Falkow S., O'Hanley P. Use of a Chlamydia trachomatis DNA probe for detection of ocular chlamydiae. J Clin Microbiol. 1989 May;27(5):1062–1067. doi: 10.1128/jcm.27.5.1062-1067.1989. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Doble A., Thomas B. J., Walker M. M., Harris J. R., Witherow R. O., Taylor-Robinson D. The role of Chlamydia trachomatis in chronic abacterial prostatitis: a study using ultrasound guided biopsy. J Urol. 1989 Feb;141(2):332–333. doi: 10.1016/s0022-5347(17)40758-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Dunlop E. M., Goh B. T., Darougar S., Woodland R. Triple-culture tests for diagnosis of chlamydial infection of the female genital tract. Sex Transm Dis. 1985 Apr-Jun;12(2):68–71. doi: 10.1097/00007435-198504000-00003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Dutilh B., Bébéar C., Rodriguez P., Vekris A., Bonnet J., Garret M. Specific amplification of a DNA sequence common to all Chlamydia trachomatis serovars using the polymerase chain reaction. Res Microbiol. 1989 Jan;140(1):7–16. doi: 10.1016/0923-2508(89)90053-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Dutilh B., Bébéar C., Taylor-Robinson D., Grimont P. A. Detection of Chlamydia trachomatis by in situ hybridization with sulphonated total DNA. Ann Inst Pasteur Microbiol. 1988 Jan-Feb;139(1):115–127. doi: 10.1016/0769-2609(88)90099-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Ehret J. M., Judson F. N. Genital Chlamydia infections. Clin Lab Med. 1989 Sep;9(3):481–500. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Forster G. E., Cookey I., Munday P. E., Richman P. I., Jha R., Coleman D., Thomas B. J., Hawkins D. A., Evans R. T., Taylor-Robinson D. Investigation into the value of Papanicolaou stained cervical smears for the diagnosis of chlamydial cervical infection. J Clin Pathol. 1985 Apr;38(4):399–402. doi: 10.1136/jcp.38.4.399. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Foulkes S. J., Deighton R., Feeney A. R., Mohanty K. C., Freeman C. W. Comparison of direct immunofluorescence and cell culture for detecting Chlamydia trachomatis. Genitourin Med. 1985 Aug;61(4):255–257. doi: 10.1136/sti.61.4.255. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Fox A. S., Saxon E. M., Doveikis S., Beem M. O. Chlamydia trachomatis and parainfluenza 2 virus: a shared antigenic determinant? J Clin Microbiol. 1989 Jun;27(6):1407–1408. doi: 10.1128/jcm.27.6.1407-1408.1989. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Frost E., Collet M., Reniers J., Leclerc A., Ivanoff B., Meheus A. Importance of chlamydial antibodies in acute salpingitis in central Africa. Genitourin Med. 1987 Jun;63(3):176–178. doi: 10.1136/sti.63.3.176. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Gann P. H., Herrmann J. E., Candib L., Hudson R. W. Accuracy of Chlamydia trachomatis antigen detection methods in a low-prevalence population in a primary care setting. J Clin Microbiol. 1990 Jul;28(7):1580–1585. doi: 10.1128/jcm.28.7.1580-1585.1990. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Gaydos C. A., Reichart C. A., Long J. M., Welsh L. E., Neumann T. M., Hook E. W., 3rd, Quinn T. C. Evaluation of Syva enzyme immunoassay for detection of Chlamydia trachomatis in genital specimens. J Clin Microbiol. 1990 Jul;28(7):1541–1544. doi: 10.1128/jcm.28.7.1541-1544.1990. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Goudswaard F., Sabbe L., van Belzen C. Interference by gram-negative bacteria in the enzyme immunoassay for detecting Chlamydia trachomatis. J Infect. 1989 Jan;18(1):94–96. doi: 10.1016/s0163-4453(89)93867-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Grillner L., Beckman S., Hammar H. Comparison of two enzyme immunoassays and an immunofluorescence test for detection of Chlamydia trachomatis. Eur J Clin Microbiol. 1986 Oct;5(5):559–562. doi: 10.1007/BF02017705. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Gump D. W., Gibson M. Antibodies to Chlamydia trachomatis in cervical secretions and serum: effect of blood in such secretions. Fertil Steril. 1985 May;43(5):814–815. doi: 10.1016/s0015-0282(16)48573-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Hagay Z. J., Sarov B., Sachs J., Shaked O., Sarov I. Detecting Chlamydia trachomatis in men with urethritis: serology v isolation in cell culture. Genitourin Med. 1989 Jun;65(3):166–170. doi: 10.1136/sti.65.3.166. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Hall C. J., Nelder C. Comparison of three non-culture techniques for detection of Chlamydia trachomatis in genital tract specimens. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1989 Oct;8(10):866–870. doi: 10.1007/BF01963772. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Hammerschlag M. R., Gelling M., Roblin P. M., Worku M. Comparison of Kodak Surecell Chlamydia Test Kit with culture for the diagnosis of chlamydial conjunctivitis in infants. J Clin Microbiol. 1990 Jun;28(6):1441–1442. doi: 10.1128/jcm.28.6.1441-1442.1990. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Hammerschlag M. R., Roblin P. M., Cummings C., Williams T. H., Worku M., Howard L. V. Comparison of enzyme immunoassay and culture for diagnosis of chlamydial conjunctivitis and respiratory infections in infants. J Clin Microbiol. 1987 Dec;25(12):2306–2308. doi: 10.1128/jcm.25.12.2306-2308.1987. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Hanuka N., Glasner M., Sarov I. Detection of IgG and IgA antibodies to Chlamydia trachomatis in sera of patients with chlamydial infections: use of immunoblotting and immunoperoxidase assays. Sex Transm Dis. 1988 Apr-Jun;15(2):93–99. doi: 10.1097/00007435-198804000-00005. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Harper I., Shearman M., Dalgety F., Cole D. Fluorescein-conjugated monoclonal antibodies to detect Chlamydia trachomatis in smears. Lancet. 1985 Aug 31;2(8453):509–509. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(85)90450-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Hawkins D. A., Wilson R. S., Thomas B. J., Evans R. T. Rapid, reliable diagnosis of chlamydial ophthalmia by means of monoclonal antibodies. Br J Ophthalmol. 1985 Sep;69(9):640–644. doi: 10.1136/bjo.69.9.640. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Hay P. E., Thomas B. J., Gilchrist C., Palmer H. M., Gilroy C. B., Taylor-Robinson D. The value of urine samples from men with non-gonococcal urethritis for the detection of Chlamydia trachomatis. Genitourin Med. 1991 Apr;67(2):124–128. doi: 10.1136/sti.67.2.124. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Hipp S. S., Han Y., Murphy D. Assessment of enzyme immunoassay and immunofluorescence tests for detection of Chlamydia trachomatis. J Clin Microbiol. 1987 Oct;25(10):1938–1943. doi: 10.1128/jcm.25.10.1938-1943.1987. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Horn J. E., Hammer M. L., Falkow S., Quinn T. C. Detection of Chlamydia trachomatis in tissue culture and cervical scrapings by in situ DNA hybridization. J Infect Dis. 1986 Jun;153(6):1155–1159. doi: 10.1093/infdis/153.6.1155. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Horn J. E., Kappus E. W., Falkow S., Quinn T. C. Diagnosis of Chlamydia trachomatis in biopsied tissue specimens by using in situ DNA hybridization. J Infect Dis. 1988 Jun;157(6):1249–1253. doi: 10.1093/infdis/157.6.1249. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Howard L. V., Coleman P. F., England B. J., Herrmann J. E. Evaluation of chlamydiazyme for the detection of genital infections caused by Chlamydia trachomatis. J Clin Microbiol. 1986 Feb;23(2):329–332. doi: 10.1128/jcm.23.2.329-332.1986. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Hyypiä T., Jalava A., Larsen S. H., Terho P., Hukkanen V. Detection of Chlamydia trachomatis in clinical specimens by nucleic acid spot hybridization. J Gen Microbiol. 1985 Apr;131(4):975–978. doi: 10.1099/00221287-131-4-975. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Jawad A. J., Manuel G., Matthews R., Wise R., Clay J. C. Evaluation of a genus-specific monoclonal antibody in an amplified enzyme-linked immunoassay in the detection of Chlamydia in urine samples from men. Sex Transm Dis. 1990 Apr-Jun;17(2):87–89. doi: 10.1097/00007435-199004000-00008. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Jensen B. L., Hoff G., Weismann K. A comparison of an enzyme immunoassay and cell culture for detection of Chlamydia trachomatis in genito-urinary specimens. Sex Transm Dis. 1988 Apr-Jun;15(2):123–126. doi: 10.1097/00007435-198804000-00013. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Jones R. B., Katz B. P., van der Pol B., Caine V. A., Batteiger B. E., Newhall W. J. Effect of blind passage and multiple sampling on recovery of Chlamydia trachomatis from urogenital specimens. J Clin Microbiol. 1986 Dec;24(6):1029–1033. doi: 10.1128/jcm.24.6.1029-1033.1986. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Jones R. B., Van Der Pol B., Katz B. P. Effect of differences in specimen processing and passage technique on recovery of Chlamydia trachomatis. J Clin Microbiol. 1989 May;27(5):894–898. doi: 10.1128/jcm.27.5.894-898.1989. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Judson B. A., Lambert P. P. Improved Syva MicroTrak Chlamydia trachomatis direct test method. J Clin Microbiol. 1988 Dec;26(12):2657–2658. doi: 10.1128/jcm.26.12.2657-2658.1988. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Kaneti J., Sarov B., Sarov I. IgG and IgA antibodies specific for Chlamydia trachomatis in acute epididymitis. Eur Urol. 1988;14(4):323–327. doi: 10.1159/000472970. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Keat A., Thomas B. J., Taylor-Robinson D. Chlamydial infection in the aetiology of arthritis. Br Med Bull. 1983 Apr;39(2):168–174. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.bmb.a071811. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Keat A., Thomas B., Dixey J., Osborn M., Sonnex C., Taylor-Robinson D. Chlamydia trachomatis and reactive arthritis: the missing link. Lancet. 1987 Jan 10;1(8524):72–74. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(87)91910-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Kellogg J. A. Clinical and laboratory considerations of culture vs antigen assays for detection of Chlamydia trachomatis from genital specimens. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1989 May;113(5):453–460. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Kellogg J. A., Seiple J. W., Levisky J. S. Efficacy of duplicate genital specimens and repeated testing for confirming positive results for chlamydiazyme detection of Chlamydia trachomatis antigen. J Clin Microbiol. 1989 Jun;27(6):1218–1221. doi: 10.1128/jcm.27.6.1218-1221.1989. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Kent G. P., Harrison H. R., Berman S. M., Keenlyside R. A. Screening for Chlamydia trachomatis infection in a sexually transmitted disease clinic: comparison of diagnostic tests with clinical and historical risk factors. Sex Transm Dis. 1988 Jan-Mar;15(1):51–57. doi: 10.1097/00007435-198801000-00012. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Kiviat N. B., Paavonen J. A., Brockway J., Critchlow C. W., Brunham R. C., Stevens C. E., Stamm W. E., Kuo C. C., DeRouen T., Holmes K. K. Cytologic manifestations of cervical and vaginal infections. I. Epithelial and inflammatory cellular changes. JAMA. 1985 Feb 15;253(7):989–996. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Kiviat N. B., Wølner-Hanssen P., Peterson M., Wasserheit J., Stamm W. E., Eschenbach D. A., Paavonen J., Lingenfelter J., Bell T., Zabriskie V. Localization of Chlamydia trachomatis infection by direct immunofluorescence and culture in pelvic inflammatory disease. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1986 Apr;154(4):865–873. doi: 10.1016/0002-9378(86)90473-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. Kojima H., Wang S. P., Kuo C. C., Grayston J. T. Local antibody in semen for rapid diagnosis of Chlamydia trachomatis epididymitis. J Urol. 1988 Sep;140(3):528–531. doi: 10.1016/s0022-5347(17)41710-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Krech T., Gerhard-Fsadni D., Hofmann N., Miller S. M. Interference of Staphylococcus aureus in the detection of Chlamydia trachomatis by monoclonal antibodies. Lancet. 1985 May 18;1(8438):1161–1162. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(85)92467-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Kristensen G. B., Bollerup A. C., Lind K., Mårdh P. A., Ladehoff P., Larsen S., Marushak A., Rasmussen P., Rolschau J., Skoven I. Infections with Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlamydia trachomatis in women with acute salpingitis. Genitourin Med. 1985 Jun;61(3):179–184. doi: 10.1136/sti.61.3.179. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Larsen J. H., Wulf H. C., Friis-Møller A. Comparison of a fluorescent monoclonal antibody assay and a tissue culture assay for routine detection of infections caused by Chlamydia trachomatis. Eur J Clin Microbiol. 1986 Oct;5(5):554–558. doi: 10.1007/BF02017704. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. LeBar W., Herschman B., Jemal C., Pierzchala J. Comparison of DNA probe, monoclonal antibody enzyme immunoassay, and cell culture for the detection of Chlamydia trachomatis. J Clin Microbiol. 1989 May;27(5):826–828. doi: 10.1128/jcm.27.5.826-828.1989. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Leclerc A., Frost E., Collet M., Goeman J., Bedjabaga L. Urogenital Chlamydia trachomatis in Gabon: an unrecognised epidemic. Genitourin Med. 1988 Oct;64(5):308–311. doi: 10.1136/sti.64.5.308. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Lees M. I., Newnan D. M., Plackett M., Traynor P. W., Forsyth J. R., Garland S. M. A comparison of cytobrush and cotton swab sampling for the detection of Chlamydia trachomatis by cell culture. Genitourin Med. 1990 Aug;66(4):267–269. doi: 10.1136/sti.66.4.267. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. Lefebvre J., Laperrière H., Rousseau H., Massé R. Comparison of three techniques for detection of Chlamydia trachomatis in endocervical specimens from asymptomatic women. J Clin Microbiol. 1988 Apr;26(4):726–731. doi: 10.1128/jcm.26.4.726-731.1988. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. Levy R. A., Warford A. L. Evaluation of the modified Chlamydiazyme immunoassay for the detection of chlamydial antigen. Am J Clin Pathol. 1986 Sep;86(3):330–335. doi: 10.1093/ajcp/86.3.330. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Lipkin E. S., Moncada J. V., Shafer M. A., Wilson T. E., Schachter J. Comparison of monoclonal antibody staining and culture in diagnosing cervical chlamydial infection. J Clin Microbiol. 1986 Jan;23(1):114–117. doi: 10.1128/jcm.23.1.114-117.1986. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Livengood C. H., 3rd, Schmitt J. W., Addison W. A., Wrenn J. W., Magruder-Habib K. Direct fluorescent antibody testing for endocervical Chlamydia trachomatis: factors affecting accuracy. Obstet Gynecol. 1988 Nov;72(5):803–809. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Mabey D. C., Booth-Mason S. The detection of Chlamydia trachomatis by direct immunofluorescence in conjunctival smears from patients with trachoma and patients with ophthalmia neonatorum using a conjugated monoclonal antibody. J Hyg (Lond) 1986 Feb;96(1):83–87. doi: 10.1017/s0022172400062562. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  71. Magder L. S., Klontz K. C., Bush L. H., Barnes R. C. Effect of patient characteristics on performance of an enzyme immunoassay for detecting cervical Chlamydia trachomatis infection. J Clin Microbiol. 1990 Apr;28(4):781–784. doi: 10.1128/jcm.28.4.781-784.1990. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  72. Mahony J. B., Chernesky M. A., Bromberg K., Schachter J. Accuracy of immunoglobulin M immunoassay for diagnosis of chlamydial infections in infants and adults. J Clin Microbiol. 1986 Nov;24(5):731–735. doi: 10.1128/jcm.24.5.731-735.1986. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  73. Mahony J. B., Chernesky M. A. Effect of swab type and storage temperature on the isolation of Chlamydia trachomatis from clinical specimens. J Clin Microbiol. 1985 Nov;22(5):865–867. doi: 10.1128/jcm.22.5.865-867.1985. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. Mandal D., Ray T. K., Richmond S. J., Goorney B. P., Haye K. R. Comparison of cotton wool swab and cytobrush for detection of chlamydial infection in women attending a genitourinary medicine clinic. Int J STD AIDS. 1991 Jan-Feb;2(1):49–51. doi: 10.1177/095646249100200110. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  75. Manuel A. R., Veeravahu M., Matthews R. S., Clay J. C. Pooled specimens for Chlamydia trachomatis: new approach to increase yield and cost efficiency. Genitourin Med. 1987 Jun;63(3):172–175. doi: 10.1136/sti.63.3.172. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  76. Mearns G., Richmond S. J., Storey C. C. Sensitive immune dot blot test for diagnosis of Chlamydia trachomatis infection. J Clin Microbiol. 1988 Sep;26(9):1810–1813. doi: 10.1128/jcm.26.9.1810-1813.1988. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  77. Meddens M. J., Quint W. G., van der Willigen H., Wagenvoort J. T., v Dijk W. C., Lindeman J., Herbrink P. Detection of Chlamydia trachomatis in culture and urogenital smears by in situ DNA hybridization using a biotinylated DNA probe. Mol Cell Probes. 1988 Dec;2(4):261–269. doi: 10.1016/0890-8508(88)90010-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  78. Meyer M. P., Amortegui A. J. Evaluation of single whole inclusion serum test for IgG antibody to Chlamydia trachomatis in asymptomatic women. Genitourin Med. 1987 Feb;63(1):22–25. doi: 10.1136/sti.63.1.22. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  79. Miettinen A., Heinonen P. K., Teisala K., Hakkarainen K., Punnonen R. Serologic evidence for the role of Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and Mycoplasma hominis in the etiology of tubal factor infertility and ectopic pregnancy. Sex Transm Dis. 1990 Jan-Mar;17(1):10–14. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  80. Miettinen A., Saikku P., Jansson E., Paavonen J. Epidemiologic and clinical characteristics of pelvic inflammatory disease associated with Mycoplasma hominis, Chlamydia trachomatis, and Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Sex Transm Dis. 1986 Jan-Mar;13(1):24–28. doi: 10.1097/00007435-198601000-00006. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  81. Mohammed N. R., Hillary I. B. Improved method for isolation and growth of Chlamydia trachomatis in McCoy cells treated with cycloheximide using polyethylene glycol. J Clin Pathol. 1985 Sep;38(9):1052–1054. doi: 10.1136/jcp.38.9.1052. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  82. Mohanty K. C., O'Neill J. J., Hambling M. H. Comparison of enzyme immunoassays and cell culture for detecting Chlamydia trachomatis. Genitourin Med. 1986 Jun;62(3):175–176. doi: 10.1136/sti.62.3.175. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  83. Moi H., Danielsson D. Diagnosis of genital Chlamydia trachomatis infection in males by cell culture and antigen detection test. Eur J Clin Microbiol. 1986 Oct;5(5):563–568. doi: 10.1007/BF02017706. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  84. Moncada J., Schachter J., Shipp M., Bolan G., Wilber J. Cytobrush in collection of cervical specimens for detection of Chlamydia trachomatis. J Clin Microbiol. 1989 Aug;27(8):1863–1866. doi: 10.1128/jcm.27.8.1863-1866.1989. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  85. Morgan-Capner P., Hudson P., Cansfield J. A., Saeed A. Detection of Chlamydia trachomatis by enzyme immunoassay, immunofluorescence, and cell culture. J Clin Pathol. 1986 Feb;39(2):232–232. doi: 10.1136/jcp.39.2.232-a. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  86. Moss T. R., Hawkswell J. Clinical and microbiological investigation of women with acute salpingitis and their consorts. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1987 Feb;94(2):187–188. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-0528.1987.tb02349.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  87. Mumtaz G., Mellars B. J., Ridgway G. L., Oriel J. D. Enzyme immunoassay for the detection of Chlamydia trachomatis antigen in urethral and endocervical swabs. J Clin Pathol. 1985 Jul;38(7):740–742. doi: 10.1136/jcp.38.7.740. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  88. Mumtaz G., Ridgway G. L., Nayagam A. T., Robinson A. J. Comparison of an enzyme immunoassay (Ortho) with cell culture and immunofluorescence for the detection of genital chlamydial infection. Int J STD AIDS. 1990 May;1(3):187–190. doi: 10.1177/095646249000100307. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  89. Mumtaz G., Ridgway G. L., Nayagam A., Oriel J. D. Enzyme immunoassay compared with cell culture and immunofluorescence for detecting genital chlamydia. J Clin Pathol. 1989 Jun;42(6):658–660. doi: 10.1136/jcp.42.6.658. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  90. Nachamkin I., Sawyer K., Skalina D., Crooks G. W., Ciotti R., Sondheimer S. J. Test-of-cure analysis by direct immunofluorescence for Chlamydia trachomatis after antimicrobial therapy. J Clin Microbiol. 1987 Sep;25(9):1774–1775. doi: 10.1128/jcm.25.9.1774-1775.1987. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  91. Nettleman M. D., Jones R. B. Cost-effectiveness of screening women at moderate risk for genital infections caused by Chlamydia trachomatis. JAMA. 1988 Jul 8;260(2):207–213. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  92. Numazaki K., Chiba S., Moroboshi T., Kudoh T., Yamanaka T., Nakao T. Comparison of enzyme linked immunosorbent assay and enzyme linked fluorescence immunoassay for detection of antibodies against Chlamydia trachomatis. J Clin Pathol. 1985 Mar;38(3):345–350. doi: 10.1136/jcp.38.3.345. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  93. Näher H., Petzoldt D., Sethi K. K. Evaluation of non-radioactive in situ hybridisation method to detect Chlamydia trachomatis in cell culture. Genitourin Med. 1988 Jun;64(3):162–164. doi: 10.1136/sti.64.3.162. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  95. Pao C. C., Lin S. S., Yang T. E., Soong Y. K., Lee P. S., Lin J. Y. Deoxyribonucleic acid hybridization analysis for the detection of urogenital Chlamydia trachomatis infections in women. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1987 Jan;156(1):195–199. doi: 10.1016/0002-9378(87)90237-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  96. Pastorek J. G., 2nd, Mroczkowski T. F., Martin D. H. Fine-tuning the fluorescent antibody test for chlamydial infections in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 1988 Dec;72(6):957–960. doi: 10.1097/00006250-198812000-00033. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  97. Pfaller M. A., Bale M. J., Schulte K. R., Koontz F. P. Comparison of the Quantum II Bacterial Identification System and the AutoMicrobic System for the identification of gram-negative bacilli. J Clin Microbiol. 1986 Jan;23(1):1–5. doi: 10.1128/jcm.23.1.1-5.1986. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  98. Phillips L. E., Faro S., Smith P. B., Martens M. G., Riddle G. D., Goodrich K. H. Premarket evaluation of Monofluor reagent for detecting Chlamydia trachomatis in adolescent outpatients. Genitourin Med. 1988 Jun;64(3):165–168. doi: 10.1136/sti.64.3.165. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  99. Phillips R. S., Hanff P. A., Kauffman R. S., Aronson M. D. Use of a direct fluorescent antibody test for detecting Chlamydia trachomatis cervical infection in women seeking routine gynecologic care. J Infect Dis. 1987 Oct;156(4):575–581. doi: 10.1093/infdis/156.4.575. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  100. Pothier P., Kazmierczak A. Comparison of cell culture with two direct Chlamydia tests using immunofluorescence or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Eur J Clin Microbiol. 1986 Oct;5(5):569–572. doi: 10.1007/BF02017707. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  101. Pouletty P., Martin J., Catalan F., Garcia-Gonzalez M., Morellet I., Bettinger S., Kadouche J. Optimization of a rapid test by using fluorescein-conjugated monoclonal antibodies for detection of Chlamydia trachomatis in clinical specimens. J Clin Microbiol. 1988 Feb;26(2):267–270. doi: 10.1128/jcm.26.2.267-270.1988. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  102. Pugh S. F., Slack R. C., Caul E. O., Paul I. D., Appleton P. N., Gatley S. Enzyme amplified immunoassay: a novel technique applied to direct detection of Chlamydia trachomatis in clinical specimens. J Clin Pathol. 1985 Oct;38(10):1139–1141. doi: 10.1136/jcp.38.10.1139. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  103. Puolakkainen M., Kousa M., Saikku P. Clinical conditions associated with positive complement fixation serology for Chlamydiae. Epidemiol Infect. 1987 Feb;98(1):101–108. doi: 10.1017/s0950268800061768. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  104. Puolakkainen M., Saikku P., Leinonen M., Nurminen M., Vänänen P., Mäkelä P. H. Comparative sensitivity of different serological tests for detecting chlamydial antibodies in perihepatitis. J Clin Pathol. 1985 Aug;38(8):929–932. doi: 10.1136/jcp.38.8.929. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  105. Puolakkainen M., Vesterinen E., Purola E., Saikku P., Paavonen J. Persistence of chlamydial antibodies after pelvic inflammatory disease. J Clin Microbiol. 1986 May;23(5):924–928. doi: 10.1128/jcm.23.5.924-928.1986. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  106. Quinn T. C., Warfield P., Kappus E., Barbacci M., Spence M. Screening for Chlamydia trachomatis infection in an inner-city population: a comparison of diagnostic methods. J Infect Dis. 1985 Aug;152(2):419–423. doi: 10.1093/infdis/152.2.419. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  107. Radcliffe K. W., Rowen D., Mercey D. E., Mumtaz G., Ridgway G. L., Robinson A. J., Bingham J. S. Is a test of cure necessary following treatment for cervical infection with Chlamydia trachomatis? Genitourin Med. 1990 Dec;66(6):444–446. doi: 10.1136/sti.66.6.444. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  108. Rapoza P. A., Quinn T. C., Kiessling L. A., Green W. R., Taylor H. R. Assessment of neonatal conjunctivitis with a direct immunofluorescent monoclonal antibody stain for Chlamydia. JAMA. 1986 Jun 27;255(24):3369–3373. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  109. Rettig P. J. Chlamydia and otitis media. Lancet. 1985 Sep 7;2(8454):558–558. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(85)90501-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  110. Riordan T., Ellis D. A., Matthews P. I., Ratcliffe S. F. False positive results with an ELISA for detection of chlamydia antigen. J Clin Pathol. 1986 Nov;39(11):1276–1277. doi: 10.1136/jcp.39.11.1276-c. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  111. Rompalo A. M., Suchland R. J., Price C. B., Stamm W. E. Rapid diagnosis of Chlamydia trachomatis rectal infection by direct immunofluorescence staining. J Infect Dis. 1987 May;155(5):1075–1076. doi: 10.1093/infdis/155.5.1075. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  112. Rothburn M. M., Mallinson H., Mutton K. J. False-positive ELISA for Chlamydia trachomatis recognised by atypical morphology on fluorescent staining. Lancet. 1986 Oct 25;2(8513):982–983. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(86)90637-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  113. Saikku P., Puolakkainen M., Leinonen M., Nurminen M., Nissinen A. Cross-reactivity between Chlamydiazyme and Acinetobacter strains. N Engl J Med. 1986 Apr 3;314(14):922–923. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198604033141413. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  114. Schachter J., Martin D. H. Failure of multiple passages to increase chlamydial recovery. J Clin Microbiol. 1987 Oct;25(10):1851–1853. doi: 10.1128/jcm.25.10.1851-1853.1987. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  115. Schiøtz H. A., Schøyen R. Performance of Chlamydiazyme enzyme immunoassay for detecting Chlamydia trachomatis in cervical specimens. Int J STD AIDS. 1990 Sep;1(5):357–359. doi: 10.1177/095646249000100511. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  116. Sekhri A., Le Faou A. E., Tardieu J. C., Antz M., Fabre M. What can be expected from the cytologic examination of cervicovaginal smears for the diagnosis of Chlamydia trachomatis infections? Acta Cytol. 1988 Nov-Dec;32(6):805–810. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  117. Sellors J., Mahony J., Jang D., Pickard L., Castriciano S., Landis S., Stewart I., Seidelman W., Cunningham I., Chernesky M. Rapid, on-site diagnosis of chlamydial urethritis in men by detection of antigens in urethral swabs and urine. J Clin Microbiol. 1991 Feb;29(2):407–409. doi: 10.1128/jcm.29.2.407-409.1991. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  118. Shafer M. A., Chew K. L., Kromhout L. K., Beck A., Sweet R. L., Schachter J., King E. B. Chlamydial endocervical infections and cytologic findings in sexually active female adolescents. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1985 Mar 15;151(6):765–771. doi: 10.1016/0002-9378(85)90516-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  119. Sherman J. K., Jordan G. W. Cryosurvival of Chlamydia trachomatis during cryopreservation of human spermatozoa. Fertil Steril. 1985 Apr;43(4):664–666. doi: 10.1016/s0015-0282(16)48516-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  120. Singal S. S., Reichman R. C., Graman P. S., Greisberger C., Trupei M. A., Menegus M. A. Isolation of Chlamydia trachomatis from men with urethritis: relative value of one vs. two swabs and influence of concomitant gonococcal infection. Sex Transm Dis. 1986 Jan-Mar;13(1):50–52. doi: 10.1097/00007435-198601000-00011. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  121. Smith J. W., Rogers R. E., Katz B. P., Brickler J. F., Lineback P. L., Van der Pol B., Jones R. B. Diagnosis of chlamydial infection in women attending antenatal and gynecologic clinics. J Clin Microbiol. 1987 May;25(5):868–872. doi: 10.1128/jcm.25.5.868-872.1987. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  122. Smith T. F., Weed L. A. Comparison of urethral swabs, urine, and urinary sediment for the isolation of Chlamydia. J Clin Microbiol. 1976 Aug;2(2):134–135. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  123. Stacey C., Munday P., Thomas B., Gilchrist C., Taylor-Robinson D., Beard R. Chlamydia trachomatis in the fallopian tubes of women without laparoscopic evidence of salpingitis. Lancet. 1990 Oct 20;336(8721):960–963. doi: 10.1016/0140-6736(90)92418-h. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  124. Stamm W. E. Diagnosis of Chlamydia trachomatis genitourinary infections. Ann Intern Med. 1988 May;108(5):710–717. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-108-5-710. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  125. Stary A., Kopp W., Gebhart W., Söltz-Szöts J. Culture versus direct specimen test: comparative study of infections with Chlamydia trachomatis in Viennese prostitutes. Genitourin Med. 1985 Aug;61(4):258–260. doi: 10.1136/sti.61.4.258. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  126. Storey C. C., Mearns G., Richmond S. J. Immune dot blot technique for diagnosing infection with Chlamydia trachomatis. Genitourin Med. 1987 Dec;63(6):375–379. doi: 10.1136/sti.63.6.375. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  127. Sulaiman M. Z., Foster J., Pugh S. F. Prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis infection in homosexual men. Genitourin Med. 1987 Jun;63(3):179–181. doi: 10.1136/sti.63.3.179. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  128. Tait I. A., Rees E., Hobson D., Byng R. E., Tweedie M. C. Chlamydial infection of the cervix in contacts of men with nongonococcal urethritis. Br J Vener Dis. 1980 Feb;56(1):37–45. doi: 10.1136/sti.56.1.37. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  129. Taylor-Robinson D. Detecting Chlamydia trachomatis by direct immunofluorescence using a Cytobrush sampling technique. Genitourin Med. 1989 Apr;65(2):130–130. doi: 10.1136/sti.65.2.130. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  130. Taylor-Robinson D., Thomas B. J., Osborn M. F. Evaluation of enzyme immunoassay (Chlamydiazyme) for detecting Chlamydia trachomatis in genital tract specimens. J Clin Pathol. 1987 Feb;40(2):194–199. doi: 10.1136/jcp.40.2.194. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  131. Taylor-Robinson D., Tuffrey M. Comparison of detection procedures for Chlamydia trachomatis, including enzyme immunoassays, in a mouse model of genital infection. J Med Microbiol. 1987 Sep;24(2):169–173. doi: 10.1099/00222615-24-2-169. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  132. Thomas B. J., Evans R. T., Hawkins D. A., Taylor-Robinson D. Sensitivity of detecting Chlamydia trachomatis elementary bodies in smears by use of a fluorescein labelled monoclonal antibody: comparison with conventional chlamydial isolation. J Clin Pathol. 1984 Jul;37(7):812–816. doi: 10.1136/jcp.37.7.812. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  133. Thomas B. J., Osborn M. F., Gilchrist C., Taylor-Robinson D. Improved sensitivity of an enzyme immunoassay IDEIA for detecting Chlamydia trachomatis. J Clin Pathol. 1989 Jul;42(7):759–762. doi: 10.1136/jcp.42.7.759. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  134. Thomas B. J., Osborn M. F., Munday P. E., Evans R. T., Taylor-Robinson D. A 2-year quantitative assessment of Chlamydia trachomatis in a sexually transmitted diseases clinic population by the MicroTrak direct smear immunofluorescence test. Int J STD AIDS. 1990 Jul;1(4):264–267. doi: 10.1177/095646249000100407. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  135. Tilton R. C., Judson F. N., Barnes R. C., Gruninger R. P., Ryan R. W., Steingrimsson O. Multicenter comparative evaluation of two rapid microscopic methods and culture for detection of Chlamydia trachomatis in patient specimens. J Clin Microbiol. 1988 Feb;26(2):167–170. doi: 10.1128/jcm.26.2.167-170.1988. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  136. Tjiam K. H., van Heijst B. Y., van Zuuren A., Wagenvoort J. H., van Joost T., Stolz E., Michel M. F. Evaluation of an enzyme immunoassay for the diagnosis of chlamydial infections in urogenital specimens. J Clin Microbiol. 1986 Apr;23(4):752–754. doi: 10.1128/jcm.23.4.752-754.1986. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  137. Uyeda C. T., Welborn P., Ellison-Birang N., Shunk K., Tsaouse B. Rapid diagnosis of chlamydial infections with the MicroTrak direct test. J Clin Microbiol. 1984 Nov;20(5):948–950. doi: 10.1128/jcm.20.5.948-950.1984. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  138. Weiland T. L., Noller K. L., Smith T. F., Ory S. J. Comparison of Dacron-tipped applicator and cytobrush for detection of chlamydial infections. J Clin Microbiol. 1988 Nov;26(11):2437–2438. doi: 10.1128/jcm.26.11.2437-2438.1988. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  139. Weismeier E., Bruckner D. A., Malotte C. K., Manduke L. Enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assays in the detection of Chlamydia trachomatis: how valid are they? Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 1988 Apr;9(4):219–223. doi: 10.1016/0732-8893(88)90112-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  140. Williams T., Maniar A. C., Brunham R. C., Hammond G. W. Identification of Chlamydia trachomatis by direct immunofluorescence applied in specimens originating in remote areas. J Clin Microbiol. 1985 Dec;22(6):1053–1054. doi: 10.1128/jcm.22.6.1053-1054.1985. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  141. Woodland R. M., Kirton R. P., Darougar S. Sensitivity of mitomycin-C treated McCoy cells for isolation of Chlamydia trachomatis from genital specimens. Eur J Clin Microbiol. 1987 Dec;6(6):653–656. doi: 10.1007/BF02013062. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  142. Wreghitt T. G., Robinson V. J., Caul E. O., Paul I. D., Gatley S. The development and evaluation of a mu-capture ELISA detecting Chlamydia-specific IgM. Epidemiol Infect. 1988 Oct;101(2):387–395. doi: 10.1017/s0950268800054339. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Genitourinary Medicine are provided here courtesy of BMJ Publishing Group

RESOURCES