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. 2024 Dec 3;34(9):1789–1803. doi: 10.1007/s10068-024-01749-z

A review of mandacaru fruit phytochemicals, its pharmacotherapeutic benefits and uses in food technology

Everaldo dos Santos 1, Raquel Guttierres Gomes 2, Claudete Aparecida Mangolin 3, Maria de Fátima Pires da Silva Machado 3,✉
PMCID: PMC11972249  PMID: 40196331

Abstract

The Cereus genus includes medicinal plants native to the Neotropical region. Although their colorful fruits are consumed in arid and semi-arid areas, these are underused industrially due to limited knowledge. This review presents recent studies on the chemical, physicochemical, and bioactive aspects of Cereus fruits, along with pharmacotherapeutic benefits and potential applications of peel, pulp, and seed compounds. Cereus fruits exhibit high nutritional value and richness in bioactive compounds. Their peel has the highest antioxidant concentration, mainly phenolics, flavonoids, and carotenoids. Their pulp offers significant dietary fiber and energy. Seed flour and oil are rich in minerals (K, P and Mg), and also contain oleic, linoleic, and palmitic acids. Most studies focus on Cereus jamacaru, indicating the need to explore other Cereus species for their varied compositions, in addition to innovative physicochemical analyses to uncover relevant compounds.

Keywords: Genus Cereus, Medicinal fruits, Physicochemical composition, Antioxidants, Food technology

Introduction

Dietary intake of antioxidants plays a fundamental role in enhancing the endogenous antioxidant defense of the human body, preventing the development of chronic and degenerative diseases (Giampieri et al., 2014). Diets rich in fruits, as well as the use of fruit by-products as natural functional ingredients, are being encouraged and are a trend in the food industry. This trend has grown due to the benefits associated with the presence of antioxidants, bioactive compounds, and important nutrients such as fibers, vitamins, and minerals, promoting well-being and health for consumers (Kakkar et al., 2021; Rufino et al., 2010).

Phenolic compounds and other physicochemical compounds in the pulp, peel, and seeds of fruits have been linked to the reduction and/or prevention of the risk of diseases such as cancer, inflammation, cataracts, macular degeneration, and cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases (Moldovan et al., 2016; Silva et al., 2014). Phytotherapeutics have been explored in various applications, including their use as antioxidants, antimicrobials, antidiabetics, anticancer agents, and nutraceuticals (Joshi and Prabhakar, 2020).

Among wild fruits with potential for consumption but relatively unexplored is the fruit of the mandacaru cactus. Although all plants of the Cereus Mill. genus are popularly referred to as mandacaru, this designation correctly applies to the species Cereus jamacaru DC. Other representative species of the Cereus genus include Cereus hildmannianus (K.) Schum (synonym Cereus peruvianus (L.) Mill.), Cereus fernambuscensis Lem., and Cereus insularis Hemsl. (Bánki et al., 2023; Zappi and Taylor, 2020). Studies covering various species of the Cereus genus are mostly related to the genetic diversity and phylogenetic structure of the genus, occasionally mentioning physical aspects of the fruits (Amaral et al., 2021; Bevilaqua et al., 2015; Franco et al., 2017; Oliveira et al., 2013; Sala et al., 2011; Franco et al., 2017). Information regarding the characterization of phytoconstituents and the overall exploration of fruit diversity within the Cereus genus is dispersed in the literature, emphasizing the need for organization, as demonstrated by this review.

In general, fruit-bearing cacti have ovoid and succulent fruits with varying peel colors, featuring a fleshy, mucilaginous white pulp containing numerous small black seeds (Pedrosa et al., 2020). The coloration of the fruits is a significant characteristic in discriminating species within the Cereus genus. C. jamacaru, for instance, bears large fruits with a red skin color (Santos Neto et al., 2019). In C. fernambucensis, the fruit skin color is described as magenta (Zappi and Taylor, 2020). Meanwhile, in the species C. hildmannianus, mature fruits can exhibit variations ranging from dark red, orange, and pinkish yellow to yellow (Carneiro et al., 2016). In the Opuntia genus, the diverse fruit hues confer distinct physicochemical characteristics, bioactive compounds, and nutrients (Amaya-Cruz et al., 2019).

Although fruits from the genera Opuntia (Fernández-Luqueño et al., 2021) and Hylocereus (Attar et al., 2022) are more extensively studied in the global literature due to their added commercial value, the genus Cereus stands out as the most representative in the Brazilian semi-arid region, with 18 accepted species, of which 12 are endemic to Brazil (Alencar et al., 2012). Brazil is home to a remarkable biodiversity of native fruits, which are a source of compounds that offer numerous health benefits and can potentially be used in disease prevention and product formulation. However, many species remain underexplored by the scientific community (Farias et al., 2023).

Thus, the objectives of this review were to disseminate studies conducted in the last three decades that have assessed the chemical, physicochemical, bioactive, and technological characterization of the peel, pulp, and seeds of fruits from the Cereus genus. The review also aimed to discuss the findings regarding the potential of metabolites that could be of interest to the pharmaceutical and food industries, as well as elucidating prospects for future studies with these fruits.

Methods

This review was conducted using the resources available in Google Scholar, Scielo, Science Direct, and PubMed databases. The research for articles was carried out using an advanced search with the Boolean technique, using the “AND” operator to combine the terms “physicochemical composition”, “fruits” and “Cereus”, and “OR” to include the term “mandacaru”. Articles published between 1996 and 2024 were included in the search. After reviewing the abstracts, only those that characterized the physicochemical composition, antioxidant activity, phenolic compounds, and bioactive compounds in general of Cereus fruits were selected. In addition, the review focused on the applications or potential pharmacotherapeutic applications, as well as applications in the food industry of the peel and/or pulp and/or seeds of fruits from species of the Cereus genus.

After filtering the content, the articles were classified by the type of analysis applied, considering the parts of the fruit (pulp, peel, seed) or the whole fruit, and the different extract preparation methods: FW = fresh weight, RE = concentrated by rotary evaporator, SD = spray-dried with maltodextrin, HD = hot air-dried, PS = pasteurized, and FD = freeze-dried (Table 1). After selecting the articles that met the research methodology criteria, those that performed the physicochemical characterization of any part of Cereus fruits were listed (Table 1), and the analyzed characteristics were described (Table 2). The articles on antioxidant activity are listed in Table 3, and the remaining ones are discussed in the text, as they address pharmacotherapeutic and food applications involving Cereus fruits. In the text, the aim was to cite the authors with outlier values to provide a comprehensive understanding. However, the tables include all authors who analyzed a particular characteristic and present values within the specified range.

Table 1.

Characterization of the pulp, peel, and seeds of the Cereus genus fruits and their respective species and localities

Reference Species Samples Locality
Mayworm et al. (1996) C. jamacaru Seed FWa Milagres, Bahia, Brazil
Ninio et al. (2003) C. peruvianus (syn. C. hildmannianus) Pulp FWa Beer-Sheva, Ramat Yishay, Israel
Torres et al. (2009) C. jamacaru Seeded pulp FWa Boa vista, Paraiba, Brazil
Silva and Alves (2009) C. jamacaru Pulp, peel FWa Pentecoste, Ceará, Brazil
Almeida et al. (2009) C. jamacaru Pulp FWa Queimadas, Paraíba, Brazil
Bahia et al. (2010) C. jamacaru Seeded pulp FWa Petrolina, Pernambuco, Brazil
Do Nascimento et al. (2011) C. jamacaru Seeded pulp FWa Altinho, Pernambuco, Brazil
Pereira et al. (2013) C. hildmannianus Pulp FWa Barra do Ribeiro, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
Nunes et al. (2023) C. jamacaru Pulp FW, REa Caicó and Acari, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil
Bevilaqua et al. (2015) Cereus sp. Seed FWa Maringá, Paraná, Brazil
Oliveira et al. (2015) C. jamacaru Pulp SDa Campina Grande, Paraíba, Brazil
Melo et al. (2017) C. jamacaru Pulp FWb Campina Grande and Barra de Santa Rosa, Paraíba, Brazil
Moreira et al. (2018) C. jamacaru Pulp FW, HDa Campina Grande, Paraíba, Brazil
Silva et al. (2019) C. jamacaru Seeded Pulp FWab Barro, Ceará, Brazil
Neto et al. (2019) C. jamacaru Pulp FWa Piranhas, Alagoas, Brazil
Dutra et al. (2019) C. jamacaru Pulp, peel, seed HDa Arapiroca, Alagoas, Brazil
Santos et al. (2020) C. jamacaru Pulp, peel FW, PSa Fagundes, Paraíba, Brazil
Dos Santos et al. (2021) C. jamacaru Pulp, peel FWa Aquidabã and Porto da Folha, Sergipe, Monte Alegre, Pará, Brazil
Soares et al. (2021) C. jamacaru Pulp, peel FW, FDa Esperança, Paraíba, Brazil
Vieira et al. (2022) C. jamacaru Pulp, peel FDa Picuí, Paraíba, Brazil
Almeida et al. (2022) C. jamacaru Pulp, peel FDac Brejão, Pernambuco, Brazil
De Souza Mataruco et al. (2023) C. jamacaru Seed HDa Maringá, Paraná, Brazil
Araújo et al. (2024) C. jamacaru Whole fruit FDa Solânea, Paraíba, Brazil
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FW fresh weight sample, RE concentrated sample in rotary evaporator, SD dehydrated sample in a spray dryer with maltodextrin, HD hot air-dried sample, PS pasteurized sample, FD freeze-dried sample

aExtracts by ripe fruit, bExtracts by unripe fruit, cExtracts by semi-ripe fruit

Table 2.

Physicochemical, nutritional, and caloric composition of the peel, pulp, and seeds of the genus Cereus fruits

Parameters Samples References
Pulp Peel Seed
pH 3.93–5.5 3.92–5.6 Almeida et al. (2022), Bahia et al. (2010), De Souza Mataruco et al. (2023), Do Nascimento et al. (2011), Dos Santos et al. (2021), Melo et al. (2017), Moreira et al. (2018), Ninio et al. (2003), Nunes et al. (2023), Silva and Alves (2009), Silva et al. (2012), Silva et al. (2019), Soares et al. (2021), and Torres et al. (2009)
Soluble solids FW (g/100 g) 4.0–16.63 Almeida et al. (2009), Almeida et al. (2022), Do Nascimento et al. (2011), Dos Santos et al. (2021), Melo et al. (2017), Pereira et al. (2013), Silva and Alves (2009), Silva et al. (2019), Soares et al. (2021), and Torres et al. (2009)
Total solids (g/100 g) 12.24–63.32 2.3–5.0 Ninio et al. (2003), Nunes et al. (2023), Soares et al. (2021)
Titratable acidity (% citric acid) 0.06–0.32 0.2–0.3 Do Nascimento et al. (2011), Dos Santos et al. (2021), Melo et al. (2017), Moreira et al. (2018), Pereira et al. (2013), Silva et al. (2019), Soares et al. (2021), and Torres et al. (2009)
SS/AT (X ± SD) 32.65–155.0 8.5–13.9 Dos Santos et al. (2021), Melo et al. (2017), Pereira et al. (2013), Silva et al. (2019), Do Nascimento et al. (2011), and Torres et al. (2009)
Water activity (aW) 0.849–0.990 0.996 Dos Santos et al. (2021), Moreira et al. (2018), Nunes et al. (2023), Silva et al. (2019), and Soares et al. (2021)
Moisture (g/100 g) 82.75–90.58 91.41–93.01 4.27 Almeida et al. (2009), Moreira et al. (2018), Soares et al. (2021), Dos Santos et al. (2021), Silva et al. (2019), Nunes et al. (2023), and De Souza Mataruco et al. (2023)
Protein—FW (g/100 g) 1.12–2.35 1.65–3.5 Do Nascimento et al. (2011), Dos Santos et al. (2021), Silva et al. (2019), and Soares et al. (2021)
Protein—DM (g/100 g) 4.05–6.42 19.16 22.33 De Souza Mataruco et al. (2023), Pereira et al. (2013), and Soares et al. (2021)
Total fat—FW (g/100 g) 0.2–2.37 0.0129–0.6 Do Nascimento et al. (2011), Dos Santos et al. (2021), Pereira et al. (2013), Silva et al. (2019), and Soares et al. (2021)
Total fat—DM (g/100 g) 4.34–13.60 0.150 20.71 De Souza Mataruco et al. (2023), Pereira et al. (2013), and Soares et al. (2021)
Total carbohydrates—FW (g/100 g) 9.76–13.43 2.88–6.42 Do Nascimento et al. (2019), Dos Santos et al. (2021), Pereira et al. (2013), Silva et al. (2019), and Soares et al. (2021)
Total carbohydrates—DM (g/100 g) 77.12 74.66 49.43 De Souza Mataruco et al. (2023), and Soares et al. (2021)
Available carbohydrates—FW (g/100 g) 2.79 Soares et al. (2021)
Available carbohydrates—DM (g/100 g) 16.04 Soares et al. (2021)
Ash—FW (g/100 g) 0.2–0.6 0.5–1.0 Almeida et al. (2009), Do Nascimento et al. (2011), Dos Santos et al. (2021), and Soares et al. (2021)
Ash—DM (g/100 g) 2.86 6.03 2.53 De Souza Mataruco et al. (2023), and Soares et al. (2021)
Total dietary fiber—FW (g/100 g) 8.7–10.63 Pereira et al. (2013) and Soares et al. (2021)
Total dietary fiber—DM (g/100 g) 61.07 Soares et al. (2021)
Insoluble dietary fiber—FW (g/100 g) 8.7–9.51 Pereira et al. (2013) and Soares et al. (2021)
Soluble dietary fiber—FW (g/100 g) 1.12 Soares et al. (2021)
Total energy value—FW (kcal/100 g) 59.42 Soares et al. (2021)
Total energy value—DM (kJ/100 g) 244.37 Soares et al. (2021)
Total calorie value—FW (cal/100 g) 55.5–62.2 27.3–31.1 Do Nascimento et al. (2011) and Dos Santos et al. (2021)
Total sugars (g/100 g) 2.06–5.76 1.53 Pereira et al. (2013) and Silva and Alves (2009)
Reducing sugars (g/100 g) 1.92 Pereira et al. (2013)
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FW = fresh weight sample, DM = dry matter basis

Table 3.

Antioxidant composition of the pulp and peel of Cereus genus fruits

Parameters Samples References
Pulp Peel
Vitamin C (g/100 g) 0.25–21.5 3.0–8.6 Dos Santos et al. (2021), Melo et al. (2017), Pereira et al. (2013), and Silva et al. (2019), Soares et al. (2021)
Total phenolic compounds (mgGAE/100 g) 28.35–1337.28 177.55–5236.50 Almeida et al. (2022), Dos Santos et al. (2021), Moreira et al. (2018), Pereira et al. (2013), Santos et al. (2020), Soares et al. (2021), Vieira et al. (2022), and Araújo et al. (2024)
DPPH radical scavenging (%) 65.23–66.36 41.87–95.49 Pereira et al. (2013) and Soares et al. (2021)
Total antioxidant activity (DPPH) (g sample/g DPPH) 15.29–3249.77 4.95–131.76 Dos Santos et al. (2021), Pereira et al. (2013), Santos et al. (2020), Soares et al. (2021), Vieira et al. (2022) and Araújo et al. (2024)
Total antioxidant activity (ABTS) (μmol Trolox/g) 0.52–22.4 1.34–11.62 Dos Santos et al. (2021), Melo et al. (2017), Pereira et al. (2013), and Santos et al. (2020)
Total antioxidant activity (FRAP) (μmol Fe (II)/g) 60.38–400.9 29.09 Dos Santos et al. (2021) and Vieira et al. (2022)
Carotenoids (mg/100 g) 0.089 1.93–9.58 Pereira et al. (2013) and Torres et al. (2009)
Flavonoids (mgEQ/100 g) ≈ 60–115 38.56–92.5 Almeida et al. (2022) and Araújo et al. (2024)
Total extractable polyphenols (mg/100 g) 23.85–85.55 103.26–227.13 Melo et al. (2017)
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mgGAE miligrams galic acid equivalent, Fe(II) reduced form of the ferrous ion, Trolox 6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchroman-2-carboxylic acid, DPPH 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl; di(phenyl)-(2,4,6-trinitrophenyl)iminoazanium, ABTS 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonate), FRAP ferric reducing antioxidant power

Physical characterization, yield percentage of Cereus fruits fractions, and colorimetry

The fruits of the genus Cereus are described as ovoid, dehiscent by longitudinal fissures, with deciduous or persistent floral remnants, and a pericarp that is generally smooth, ranging in color from yellow, orange, and red to magenta. They have a white funicular pulp, 2–3 mm black seeds, and a smooth to ruminate testa (Zappi and Taylor, 2020). Melo et al. (2017) evaluated the ripeness and quality of C. jamacaru fruit and demonstrated that the fruits are large, with a mucilaginous white pulp containing small black seeds and a peel that ranges from green when unripe to completely red when ripe (Fig. 1). The white night flowers, orange-colored fruits, and small black seeds of C. hildmannianus are shown in Fig. 2A–C. Mizrahi (2014) also recorded the white flower of C. peruvianus (Fig. 2D), its dark red fruits, and white pulp with small black seeds (Fig. 2E). Carneiro et al. (2016) reported that in addition to dark red and orange, C. hildmannianus also has fruits with variations from pinkish yellow to yellow. However, until this review, no visual records were found in the scientific literature, nor visual records of other species of the Cereus genus.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

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Evolution of the ripening of C. jamacaru fruits (Melo et al., 2017)

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

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Flower (2:00 a.m.) (A); Fruit, cross-section (B) and seeds (C) of C. hildmannianus. fb floral button; s stamen; fr floral receptacle; pl petal; sl sepal; p perianth; fp floral peduncle; vfp vestigial floral perianth; pc pericarp; ec epicarp; mc mesocarp; ecp endocarp. Cladode of C. peruvianus with floral buds, fully bloomed flowers, and closed old flowers, along with developing fruits (D); mature dark red fruit of C. peruvianus showing its pulp with seeds and the peel (E) (Da Silva Santos et al., 2021; Mizrahi, 2014)

In a pioneering study conducted by Torres et al. (2009), the average length of the Cereus jamacaru fruit was 99.56 mm, with an average diameter of 72.87 mm and an average weight of approximately 263.69 g. These values are slightly larger than those reported later by Bahia et al. (2010) and Moreira et al. (2018). Bahia et al. (2010) also reported a density of 0.93 g/mL and a volume of 94.7 mL, values lower than those recently found by Santos Neto et al. (2019), who observed an average mass of 108.12 g.

The yield of cactus fruits can be considered high from an industrial perspective, considering their physical characteristics. Almeida et al. (2009), comparing different parts of the fruit, obtained a yield of 55.65% for the peel, 35.27% for the pulp, and 8.96% for the seeds. Torres et al. (2009) obtained an average yield of C. jamacaru pulp of 61.52%. Moreira et al. (2018) obtained an average of 29.52% for pulp with seeds and 60.47% for the peel. This demonstrates a high potential for the commercialization of the fruit in its natural state and industrial exploration. This is because the quality of the fruits is attributed to physical characteristics that account for external appearance, including size, fruit shape, and peel color (Bahia et al., 2010), which are still underexplored for the genus. The sensory characterization of the fruits, as well as the physical characterization of other Cereus species, is still limited with regard to the publication of scientific articles, highlighting the need for a greater number of studies and research involving the post-harvest of Cereus fruits.

Melo et al. (2017) reported the variation in characteristics resulting from the ripening of C. jamacaru (Fig. 1). The researchers conducted colorimetric analysis of the peel and pulp of C. jamacaru fruits using CIELAB as a reference, which collects luminosity (L 100 = white; L 0 = black) and the variation from red to green in the a* coordinate (more negative values of a* = greener and more positive values of a* = redder). The b* coordinate represents the variation between blue and yellow (more negative values of b* = bluer; more positive values of b* = yellower) (Melo et al., 2017). While the color of the peel of the green fruit showed a predominance of green (more negative a*), the color of the peel of the ripe fruit exhibited a predominance of red (more positive a*) over yellow (more positive b*) and light luminosity, indicating the loss of green coloration and the development of red coloration with the advancement of ripening (Dos Santos et al., 2021; Melo et al., 2017). On the other hand, in the pulp, the intensity of yellow (b*) prevailed over red (a*) (Moreira et al., 2018; Nunes et al., 2023; Silva et al., 2019). Ninio et al. (2003) correlated the a* value with the overall taste of C. peruvianus fruit, where a higher a* value of the peel indicates better fruit quality and commercial potential.

Considering the physical characteristics, Cereus fruits have a satisfactory yield of pulp, which is the portion most exploited in food. Due to the exploitation of the pulp of Cereus fruits by communities located in arid regions such as Northeastern Brazil to produce jams, jellies and ice creams, the potential of the fruit in the food industry is evident. However, most of the fruit is peel (55–60% of the fruit), which is still an untapped residue in the food industry, but it has potential and should be exploited. As reported for similar fruits such as prickly pear (Opuntia sp.), the peel can be dehydrated and transformed into flour, rich in fibers, to be used in the fortification of bread, cakes, and other baked goods, adding both nutritional and functional value (El-Beltagi et al., 2023). Furthermore, the peels can be used to enhance the flavor, color, and texture of healthy yogurt drinks, in addition to improving antioxidant properties and microbial activity (Hernández-Carranza et al., 2019; El-Hassan et al., 2022).

Physicochemical, nutritional and caloric composition of Cereus fruits

In terms of characterization, the centesimal composition expresses the nutritional value and caloric content of each food through analyses such as pH, soluble solids, acidity, lipids, protein, ash, fiber, moisture, and carbohydrates (AOAC, 2023; Instituto Adolfo Luz, 2008). The centesimal composition stands out as the most explored aspect in the scientific research conducted with the fruits of the Cereus genus. Through the compilation of this review, a noticeable trend emerges, where researchers primarily focus on studying the pulp of the fruits, followed by attention to the peel. Typically, studies encompass both peel and pulp in the same work, with comparative data. Lastly, there is a lower quantity of studies conducted on the seeds, often examined in isolation. The peel and pulp fractions are covered in one section, while the seed is discussed separately in another.

Peel and pulp of Cereus fruits

In Cereus fruits, the reported pH variation ranges from 3.93 to 5.3 for the pulp and from 3.92 to 5.6 for the peel (Almeida et al., 2022; Dos Santos et al., 2021; Ninio et al., 2003; Soares et al., 2021) (Table 2). In fruits, pH is measured fresh, and the observed fluctuation may be related to different plant development regions and maturation points, as reported by Melo et al. (2017) (Fig. 1). However, it is evident that both pulp and peel pH values fall within the acidic range, indicating a refreshing fruit pattern. Furthermore, pH analysis in fruits is relevant for elucidating optimal post-harvest conservation conditions for industrial processing and controlling microorganism proliferation, with desirable values being < 4.5 (Otero et al., 2020; Rodrigues et al., 2019).

The soluble solids content (SS) in the fruit of C. jamacaru varies from 4.0 to 16.63 ºBrix for the pulp and from 2.3 to 5.0 ºBrix for the peel, while the pulp of C. hildmannianus presents 8.13 ºBrix (Almeida et al., 2022; Dos Santos et al., 2021; Melo et al., 2017; Pereira et al., 2013; Silva et al., 2019) (Table 3). The SS content of the fruit increases with ripening (Melo et al., 2017; Silva et al., 2019), so the higher the degree of ripening, the greater the amount of SS, and the lower the acidity content of the fruit. Cereus fruits ripened off the plant also demonstrated an increase in pH, as shown by Ninio et al. (2003). Fruits of C. peruvianus that had ripened on the plant and ripened after storage (18 days at 20 ºC) showed pH values of 4.9 and 5.2, respectively.

The titratable acidity or % citric acid content (AT) of fruits varies according to the ripening stage (Chitarra and Chitarra, 2005). In the pulp of mature C. jamacaru fruits, the amount of organic acids is lower (0.06%) compared to the pulp of unripe fruits (0.45%), and for mature peel, titratable acidity ranges from 0.2 to 0.3% (Table 2) (Melo et al., 2017; Silva et al., 2019; Dos Santos et al., 2021). Ninio et al. (2003), comparing mature fruits of C. peruvianus before and after storage, observed the same pattern, i.e., after 18 days at 20 ºC, titratable acidity decreased from 45 to 25 μeq H/g. During fruit ripening, citric and malic acids play important roles in sugar conversion (Damodaran et al., 2010). A relationship is observed between lower acid content and higher sugar content, represented by total soluble solids (Silva et al., 2019).

The ratio between soluble solids and titratable acidity (SS/AT) is employed as a criterion for flavor evaluation. As ripening progresses, SS increases and AT decreases, resulting in an elevation of the SS/AT ratio. This ratio is associated with fruit acceptance by consumers and is highly influenced by the genotype (Chitarra and Chitarra, 2005). In C. jamacaru fruits, values were reported ranging from 32.65 to 155.0 for the pulp and 8.7–13.9 for the peel (Table 3).

A comprehensive analysis of the energy-nutrient composition of the mandacaru fruit conducted by Soares et al. (2021) revealed high carbohydrate content and low lipid content in both the peel and pulp in their natural state (Table 2). On the other hand, a significant increase in these components was observed in the analysis of the freeze-dried extract compared to the fresh extract. The lyophilization process for fruits leads to a greater preservation of physicochemical, bioactive, and antioxidant components, and even the aroma of the fruits (Forero et al., 2016).

The protein concentration in the fresh fruit pulp and peel varied from 1.12 to 1.65 g/100 g, respectively. Meanwhile, in the freeze-dried extract, the results were 6.42 g/100 g for pulp and 19.16 g/100 g for peel (Soares et al., 2021) (Table 3). It is evident that the peel exhibits a higher protein concentration than the pulp, indicating significant potential for exploitation in industry, biotechnology, and commerce. This is remarkable because it represents a discarded by-product rich in valuable compounds.

Contrary evidence was observed in the analysis of lipids and carbohydrates in the fruits, where the pulp exhibited a higher concentration compared to the peel, indicating significant energy potential yet unexplored (Soares et al., 2021). The fresh pulp and peel showed 0.2–2.37 and 0.0129–0.6 g/100 g of total fat and 9.76–13.43 and 2.88–6.42 g/100 g of carbohydrates, respectively. When the extract was freeze-dried, the lipid concentration was 4.34–13.60 and 0.150 g/100 g, and the carbohydrate concentration ranged from 77.12 to 74.66 g/100 g in the pulp and peel, respectively (Soares et al., 2021), highlighting the benefit of freeze-dried extract in characterizing fruit components (Table 2).

Ash analysis from fresh C. jamacaru fruit ranged from 0.2 to 0.6 g/100 g in the pulp and from 0.5 to 1.0 g/100 g in the peel (Almeida et al., 2009; Do Nascimento et al., 2011; Dos Santos et al., 2021; Soares et al., 2021). Soares et al. (2021), in studying the freeze-dried extract of C. jamacaru, obtained an ash content of 2.86–6.03 g/100 g for the pulp and peel, respectively. The ash analysis is based on the destruction of organic matter without decomposing mineral residues or loss through volatilization (Nunes et al., 2023). Thus, it can be stated that the peel contains a higher amount of minerals than the pulp of C. jamacaru fruits.

Total dietary fibers were higher in the dry pulp extract (61.07 g/100 g) compared to fresh pulp (8.7–10.63 g/100 g), and insoluble dietary fibers (9.51 g/100 g) were greater than soluble fibers (1.12 g/100 g) in fresh pulp. Regarding the caloric value, it was higher in the pulp (58.56–62.2 kcal/100 g) than in the peel (27.3–31.1 kcal/100 g) (Do Nascimento et al., 2011; Dos Santos et al., 2021; Soares et al., 2021) (Table 2).

The moisture content of the fruit ranges from 82.75 to 90.58% in the pulp and from 91.41 to 93.01% in the peel, with a water activity of 0.9 aW for both (Almeida et al., 2009; Dos Santos et al., 2021; Moreira et al., 2018; Nunes et al., 2023; Silva et al., 2019; Soares et al., 2021) (Table 2). Water content is a factor related to fruit quality and deterioration; thus, fresh Cereus fruits indicate high perishability due to their high succulence (Cardoso et al., 2023). Studies involving the formulation of hydroalcoholic extracts and oven dehydration have been conducted to minimize the loss of antioxidant and bioactive qualities (Almeida et al., 2022; Dutra et al., 2019; Moreira et al., 2018; Nunes et al., 2023; Oliveira et al., 2015; Soares et al., 2021; Vieira et al., 2022).

The pulp of Cereus fruits, especially in the form of dry extract, is rich in total carbohydrates (77.12 g/100 g), dietary fiber (61.07 g/100 g), and has a high energy value of 244.37 kJ/100 g (Table 2). The recommended intake of dietary fiber is between 25 and 29 g, and a higher intake of dietary fiber may be beneficial in protecting against cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes, and colorectal and breast cancer (Reynolds et al., 2019). This suggests that pulp extract is a concentrated source of fiber, as less than 50 g would provide the recommended daily intake. Along with its other benefits, the pulp extract is suitable for consumption in diets aimed at increasing fiber intake, promoting satiety, and providing energy, making it a nutritious option for athletes and individuals seeking natural sources of carbohydrates and fiber (Silva and Alves, 2009). Additionally, its properties can be utilized in the formulation of functional foods and beverages that promote health (Pereira et al., 2013; Silva et al., 2019; Soares et al., 2021).

The peel of Cereus fruits, especially when dried, is also rich in carbohydrates (74.66 g/100 g) and particularly high in protein (19.16 g/100 g) (Table 2). It can be used in food products to enrich protein content, such as protein bars and nutritional supplements (Soares et al., 2021). Additionally, it is a good option for diets aimed at increasing protein intake, especially for individuals seeking additional plant-based protein sources (Langyan et al., 2022). Mucilage extracted from C. hildmannianus fruits has been shown to offer excellent functional properties such as water retention, emulsifying capabilities, and the ability to form edible films, making it ideal for food applications like coatings and emulsifiers (Damas et al., 2017). The results show the relevance of applications using the fruits of C. jamacaru and C. hildmannianus species. However, there is a clear need for studies on the phytochemical composition and applications with other species of the genus Cereus.

Cereus fruit seeds

The composition of the reproductive structure of Cereus fruits was the first to be investigated. In a pioneering study specifically conducted on Cereus jamacaru seeds, Mayworm and Salatino (1996) identified a high oil content with a composition rich in fatty acids, notably linoleic acid (43.4%) and oleic acid (30.2%), with a total oil yield of 25.4%. The oil extraction was performed using the Soxhlet method and n-hexane extraction (Mayworm and Salatino, 1996). Bevilaqua et al. (2015) corroborated the prevalence of oleic acid in Cereus sp. seeds (41–45.5%) and detected a significant percentage of palmitic acid (23.6–38.8%). In a recent study by De Souza Mataruco et al. (2023), the authors confirmed the oil yield from C. jamacaru seeds using the Soxhlet method and also tested pressurized extraction with n-propane, a non-toxic solvent. The oil yield remained high (20.25%), with notable concentrations of linoleic acid (50.84 g/100 g) and oleic acid (24.12 g/100 g). These values are relatively higher than those reported by Liu et al. (2022) for pitaya seeds (Hylocereus sp.). For pitaya, the authors observed 42.78% linoleic acid and 27.29% oleic acid.

The biochemical characterization of C. jamacaru seed flour revealed a high concentration of carbohydrates (49.43 g/100 g), followed by proteins (22.23 g/100 g) and lipids (20.71 g/100 g) (Table 2). Additionally, there was a notable concentration of minerals, particularly phosphorus (5171.5 mg/kg), potassium (4845.0 mg/kg), and magnesium (1431.8 mg/kg) (De Souza Mataruco et al., 2023). These values exceed those found in the seed flour of Opuntia ficus-indica (1627.5 mg/kg phosphorus; 532.7 mg/kg potassium; 117.3 mg/kg magnesium) (Özcan et al., 2011). The seed flour from C. jamacaru fruit can be considered a good non-conventional source of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and minerals, especially P, K, and Mg, and can be used to enrich breads and cakes, as proposed for Opuntia seeds (Chahdoura et al., 2018; Ali et al., 2020). With high levels of unsaturated fatty acids and a high content of linoleic acid, cactus seed oil has potential as an edible and cosmetic oil and can be used in margarines (Wit et al., 2018; Chafai et al., 2023), as well as in moisturizing creams and lotions (Ciriminna et al., 2017).

Antioxidant activity, pharmacological properties and therapeutic applications of Cereus fruits

Vitamin C is one of the most important water-soluble vitamins for human health and is known for its antioxidant activity is involved in many biochemical functions and is often used as an additive by the food industry to prevent oxidation of food products (Padayatty et al., 2003). According to Silva et al. (2019), the vitamin C content in Cereus fruits increases as ripening progresses. The pulp of unripe fruit shows low concentrations of vitamin C (0.9 g/100 g), while the pulp and peel of ripe C. jamacaru fruit show higher amounts (21.5 g/100 g in the pulp and 8.6 g/100 g in the peel) (Dos Santos et al., 2021; Melo et al., 2017; Pereira et al., 2013; Silva et al., 2019; Soares et al., 2021), values higher than those obtained by Pereira et al. (2013) with C. hildmannianus fruit. All variations obtained between unripe and ripe fruit are shown in Table 3.

Antioxidant activity plays a crucial role in reducing oxidation caused by free radicals, which can be harmful to organisms (Cardoso et al., 2023). Studies on C. jamacaru and C. hildmannianus fruits have been conducted using three different methods to assess antioxidant activity: DPPH, ABTS + and FRAP (Dos Santos et al., 2021; Melo et al., 2017; Pereira et al., 2013; Santos et al., 2020; Soares et al., 2021; Vieira et al., 2022) (Table 3). Soares et al. (2021) showed that while the fresh pulp and peel of C. jamacaru required 88.32 and 131.76 g of sample, respectively, to sequester 1 g of DPPH, the freeze-dried extract of the pulp and peel required only 15.29 and 4.95 g of sample, respectively, to sequester 1 g of DPPH, demonstrating a potential to eliminate DPPH radicals of 65.23% in the pulp and 95.49% in the peel. Pereira et al. (2013) reported a relatively higher value when evaluating the fresh pulp of C. hildmannianus (3249.77 g of sample to sequester 1 g of DPPH) (Table 3).

In the method employing the ABTS + radical, the antioxidant activity ranged from 4.93 to 9.71 µmol Trolox/g in fresh pulp, 0.52 µmol Trolox/g in pasteurized pulp, and 10.2–22.4 μmol Trolox/g in lyophilized pulp. For the fresh peel, the antioxidant activity varied from 6.88 to 11.62 µmol Trolox/g, while in pasteurized peel, it was 1.34 µmol Trolox/g (Dos Santos et al., 2021; Melo et al., 2017; Pereira et al., 2013; Santos et al., 2020). The variation found between all the extract forms is shown in Table 3.

The FRAP test is based on the ability of substances to neutralize free radicals by donating hydrogen atoms. In this assay, the ferric-tripyridyltriazine yellow complex (Fe (III)-TPTZ) is reduced by phenolic compounds to a blue ferrous complex (Fe (II)-TPTZ) (Zeghad et al., 2019). The FRAP assay was conducted on the pulp, dried peel, and lyophilized pulp of C. jamacaru. The lyophilized pulp demonstrated significant antioxidant efficacy, with values ranging between 374.6 and 400.9 μmol Fe (II)/g (Dos Santos et al., 2021) and 60.38 μmol TE/g (Vieira et al., 2022). The peel, using this method, exhibited a relatively lower antioxidant capacity, with a value of 29.09 µmol TE/g (Vieira et al., 2022) (Table 3).

An assay for the antioxidant activity of C. jamacaru, specifically analyzing the presence of β-carotene-linoleic acid, was conducted by Vieira et al. (2022). These authors reported an antioxidant activity of 46.05% for the pulp and 48.99% for the peel, results consistent with the activity observed through the DPPH method. This highlights the importance of studying various distinct mechanisms in elucidating the antioxidant activity of plants. Due to the diversity of bioactive substances, it is believed that they may act synergistically, contributing to the overall antioxidant activity (Vieira et al., 2022).

Phenolic compounds in the samples are categorized into three groups based on their concentration: low (100 mg GAE/100 g), medium (100–500 mg GAE/100 g), and high (> 500 mg GAE/100 g) (Vasco et al., 2008). The fruit pulp of Cereus (C. jamacaru and C. hildmannianus) exhibits a range of 28.35–1337.28 mg GAE/100 g, while in the peel, it varies from 177.55 to 5236.50 mg GAE/100 g (Table 3). When comparing the analyses of the pulp and peel of the fruit, in natura, pasteurized and after the preparation of a freeze-dried extract, the latter showed the highest concentrations of phenolic compounds and total antioxidants and is therefore the method most recommended for enriching food formulations, showing that the freeze-drying process has the greatest capacity for preserving compounds.

The total carotenoid content in the peel of C. jamacaru, as determined by Torres et al. (2009), was 9.58 mg/100 g when the fruits were green, and this decreased to 1.93 mg/100 g at the end of maturation. Pereira et al. (2013), analyzing the species C. hildmannianus, obtained a concentration of 0.89 µg/g (or 0.089 mg/100 g) for the pulp of mature fruit. There is a noticeable decrease in the total carotenoid content in the peel of Cereus fruits during the maturation process, which is likely attributed to the development of flavonoids and other reddish pigments, such as betalains, known to be present in fruits of the Cactaceae family (Stintzing et al., 2001). A high content of flavonoids was observed by Almeida et al. (2022), with approximately 60–115 mg EQ/100 g in the pulp and 38.56–92.5 mg EQ/100 g in the peel.

During the storage of maturing C. peruvianus fruits, Ninio et al. (2003) observed a drastic increase in the content of linalool and its derivatives, significantly higher than what was observed in freshly collected ripe fruits. The acyclic monoterpene alcohol linalool reached a concentration of 25 μg/g fw, accounting for approximately 72% of the total volatiles extracted from the fruit. Interestingly, the accumulation of volatiles in stored red fruits was 23 times higher than in red fruits ripened on the plant. In peaches, the synthesis of linalool has been linked to genes whose expression is associated with DNA methylation during fruit ripening (Wei et al., 2022). Araújo et al. (2024) proved that the mandacaru fruit contains several volatile compounds, including 2-Hexanal, Nonanal, Linalool oxide, Methyl formate, Decanal, and Linalool, with Linalool being the most abundant. Linalool imparts floral scents to a variety of plants and is commonly used as a fragrance and flavoring agent in perfumes and cosmetics (Hoshino et al. 2020). This highlights the potential of Cereus fruit for obtaining linalool, one of the compounds in secondary metabolism that is of great interest to the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. Linalool has demonstrated various biological activities, such as anti-inflammatory effects when inhaled (Kim et al., 2019), antimicrobial properties in essential oils (Herman et al., 2016), and inhibition of proliferation in prostate cancer cells (22Rv1) with induction of apoptosis (Zhao et al., 2020), highlighting the importance of Cereus fruit as a potential pharmaceutical source.

De Souza Mataruco et al. (2023) extracted and analyzed the oil from C. jamacaru seeds, revealing significant bioactive compounds such as γ-Tocopherol (109.26 mg/100 g), α-Tocopherol (22.02 mg/100 g), Campesterol (77.55 mg/100 g), Stigmasterol (32.14 mg/100 g), β-Sitosterol (313.69 mg/100 g), and γ-Sitosterol (38.86 mg/100 g). γ-Tocopherol and α-Tocopherol (vitamin E) are known for their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties (Ekanayake-Mudiyanselage et al., 2005; Jiang, 2014), making Cereus oil suitable for use in anti-aging formulations and skin care products, as well as useful in treating inflammation-related diseases. Campesterol, Stigmasterol, β-Sitosterol, and γ-Sitosterol are plant sterols with important roles in the pharmaceutical industry, as they help reduce LDL cholesterol levels in the blood (Weststrate and Meijer, 1998). In addition, these compounds act as antioxidants in the human body, reducing the risk of developing diseases such as pancreatitis (Khan et al., 2022), and esophageal cancer (Ramprasath and Awad, 2015; Shahzad et al., 2017), highlighting its potential use as a nutraceutical in phytosterol-enriched supplements for pharmaceutical applications, such as cardiovascular health and cancer prevention.

In a study conducted by Dutra et al. (2019), it was reported that fruiting enhances the total flavonoid content of C. jamacaru cladodes and exhibits antiproliferative effects on sarcoma 180 cells. Comparing the peel, pulp, and seeds of C. jamacaru, the authors observed that seed extracts had a higher flavonoid content (15.09 µg/mL), followed by the peel (9.54 µg/mL) and lastly the pulp (4.69 µg/mL). Consequently, the antioxidant activity and antiproliferative effect on cancer cells followed the same order. De Souza Mataruco et al. (2023) extracted oil from C. jamacaru seeds and demonstrated its anti-diabetic activity by increasing the inhibition of α-amylase and α-glucosidase enzymes. α-amylase hydrolyzes α-glycosidic bonds in oligosaccharides, starch, and glycogen, while α-glucosidase breaks down disaccharides and simple sugars, releasing glucose. Inhibiting these enzymes can reduce the carbohydrate digestion rate (Tan et al., 2019).

Studies conducted on pitaya have demonstrated various health benefits in conditions such as diabetes, dyslipidemia, metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer due to the presence of bioactive compounds, including vitamins, potassium, betacyanin, p-coumaric acid, vanillic acid, and gallic acid (Nishikito et al., 2023). The potentialities found in pitaya and the data presented for C. jamacaru indicate a promising use of their fruits as natural antioxidants and potent anticancer agents. This potential can also be explored and studied for fruits of other species within the genus (Dutra et al., 2019). In Brazil, a medication derived from the fruit of C. peruvianus is commercially available, rich in tyramine, betalain, indicaxanthin, omega-6 and 9, and vitamin C. This medication has been proven to act as a natural appetite moderator, aiding in the weight loss process, and exhibiting lipolytic, hypocholesterolemic, and diuretic effects (Sousa et al., 2019).

There is limited literature on the specific identification of phenolic compounds in Cereus fruits. Araújo et al. (2024), in a pioneering study, identified the phenolic compounds p-coumaric acid, Quercitrin, Rutin and the highest concentration of Quinic acid in the C. jamacaru fruit. Quinic acid is a cyclohexanecarboxylic acid found in the extracts of several medicinal plants. Currently, in vitro and in vivo pharmacological studies showed that quinic acid exhibits various biological activities, such as antioxidant, antidiabetic, anticancer activity, antimicrobial, antiviral, aging, protective, anti-nociceptive and analgesic effects (Benali et al., 2022). Due to the bioactive properties of quinic acid, the extract from the fruit of C. jamacaru can be used in the formulation of medications for the prevention of diabetes, incorporated into products for antibacterial effects, and even investigated for its potential in cancer treatment.

Potentialities of Cereus fruit in food technology and future prospects

According to Mizrahi (2014), several species of columnar cacti from the genera Stenocereus and Pachycereus were introduced into different regions of semi-arid ecosystems in Israel. Most of these efforts yielded disappointing results, with the sole exception being Cereus peruvianus. This species led to the establishment of an orchard, producing fruits of excellent taste and prompting large-scale production (Fig. 3A, B). The initial success of this species led to the initiation of an intensive study, and currently, there is production of C. peruvianus fruit, marketed in Israel under the name "Koubo" (Mizrahi, 2014). Additionally, in Israel and Southern California (USA), C. peruvianus fruits are produced and exported on a large scale to Europe, as they are considered exotic and of high value (Mizrahi, 2014; Stintzing and Carle, 2006) (Fig. 3C).

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

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Productive orchard of Cereus peruvianus in Ein-Yahav (Northern Arava Valley, Israel) (A and B); and ripe fruits of C. peruvianus in a box intended for export to European markets (C) (Mizrahi, 2014)

Nutritionally, Cereus fruits stand out for their low levels of sodium and calories, as well as their high antioxidant potential (Santos et al., 2021). Additionally, Soares et al. (2021) conducted a pioneering study applying Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) analysis to C. jamacaru fruits, revealing the presence of organic compounds such as hydroxyls, aliphatic groups, and amino acids. They also identified phenolic compounds, including flavonoids and tannins, in the mandacaru peel. Elements like oxygen, carbon, potassium, and nitrogen were identified in the samples, indicating potential for future applications in the food and dietary supplements industry.

The pulp of the mandacaru fruit has been utilized in the production of ice cream and yogurt, displaying high levels of soluble solids compared to prickly pear. Yogurt's titratable acidity (Ø 0.62) also fell within the standards established by Brasil (2000) (Fidelis et al., 2015). Martins et al. (2020) prepared jelly from mandacaru fruits (C. jamacaru) and yellow passion fruit (Passiflora edulis Sims) using a simple and low-cost preparation method, ensuring good microbiological quality for safe consumption. Nóbrega et al. (2020) and Ramos et al. (2020) incorporated a similar formulation, using mandacaru and passion fruit pulp in the production of prebiotic goat yogurt, which exhibited suitable physicochemical and sensory characteristics, with an acceptability index exceeding 80%.

According to Medeiros et al. (2024), the whole fruit of mandacaru can be a source for isolating lactic acid bacteria (Pediococcus pentosaceus) with probiotic and technological potential in the food industry. It also demonstrated cryoprotective effects in the freeze-drying process and refrigerated storage of P. pentosaceus. Additionally, supplementation with mandacaru pulp increased the antioxidant activity of wort and beer during production, in addition to improving the profile of volatile and phenolic compounds and enhancing aroma formation (Da Silva et al., 2023), demonstrating its versatility as a natural additive in food processing. This suggests that mandacaru pulp can enhance the physical and sensory attributes of food and beverage such as beer. The mandacaru fruit can also serve as a support for isolating probiotic strains with potential applications in functional foods, nutraceuticals, or dietary supplements.

While efforts to explore the valorization of fruits from the Cereus genus (C. jamacaru) have been initiated, the number of studies addressing commercial potential remains minimal. When analyzing food applications carried out with related species such as pitaya (Hylocereus undatus), high acceptability rates and purchase intentions are observed, making it a promising food ingredient in the industry (Garcia et al., 2020).

In a study conducted by Lima et al. (2020), the authors characterized the metabolic profile using UPLC-ESI-QTOF-MSE of microfiltered red–purple pitaya dye, proving its utility and demonstrating enhanced quality when used as a natural food ingredient. Jiang et al. (2023) developed an active and smart film based on pectin and betacyanins from the peel. The addition of freeze-dried pitaya pulp extract increased the nutritional value of meat products, leading to higher concentrations of essential minerals important for the proper functioning of the human body, including calcium, magnesium, potassium, and iron (Kęska et al., 2023). Extracts from pitaya pulp and seed oil demonstrated antioxidant, cytotoxic, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, anti-Alzheimer, and potential anti-proliferative properties against cancer cell lines (Al-Radadi, 2022), among other applications.

Given the unique characteristics of the fruit, there is a vast unexplored territory in food technology with various Cereus species and their fruits, including a wide range of colors, as documented by Carneiro et al. (2016) and Zappi and Taylor (2020). Except for Pereira et al. (2013), who focused on the physicochemical composition of Cereus hildmannianus, and Ninio et al. (2003), who conducted a post-harvest physicochemical characterization of Cereus peruvianus fruit, the database on Cereus fruit is predominantly composed of analyses of the species Cereus jamacaru.

Climate change has caused a series of negative impacts due to rapid changes in temperature, irregular rainfall, floods, droughts and an increase in pests and diseases (Munaweera et al., 2022). This scenario has generated global concerns about food security as well as economic, social, and environmental challenges, driving the search for new food sources (Gregory et al., 2005). In this context, the use of traditionally undervalued plant species has proven to be a viable strategy to tackle these challenges (Araújo et al., 2021).

Thus, not only for C. jamacaru but above all for the other species of the genus, which have fruits with different shades of peel, we suggest further studies using new and modern techniques, such as high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), to identify and characterize bioactive compounds and organic acids. Dynamic light scattering (DLS), to measure the size of the particles in suspension is important for characterizing emulsions and the dispersion of the bioactive compounds present. Zeta potential is used to identify the surface electrical charge of suspended particles and helps to understand the stability of emulsions. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), for functional group characterization, energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) to characterize the inorganic chemical composition and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) indicates the surface chemical composition and the characterization of oxidation states in the outer layer, which is important for understanding the chemical interactions and surface reactivity of the analyzed sample. Rheological analysis to obtain the viscosity, elasticity, and behavior under different deformation or flow conditions for both the mucilage and the fruit pulp. Finally, cytotoxicity is essential to verify the safety and toxic potential of the compounds present in the parts that make up the mandacaru fruit, ensuring that its use, whether in food, cosmetics, or pharmacology, is safe and effective.

These analyses together provide a comprehensive view of the fruit, from its chemical composition to its functional and bioactive properties, allowing for the development of new products, a better understanding of its nutritional and therapeutic properties, how and in what types of products they can be applied, as well as ensuring safety for consumption or industrial use. Beyond the potential as a substrate for obtaining active molecules useful in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and food industries, the valorization of Cereus fruit enables the utilization of waste, reducing losses, promoting sustainability, and providing socio-economic benefits for local communities.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES; AUXPE-PROEX-1799/2015-CAPES and Finance Code 001).

Funding

Funding was provided by Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES; AUXPE-PROEX-1799/2015-CAPES and Finance Code 001).

Declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors report no competing interests to declare.

Footnotes

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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