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. 2025 Apr 14;27(2):e70112. doi: 10.1111/nhs.70112

The Effect of Newborn Massage Training on Maternal Attachment and Postpartum Depression: Randomized Controlled Trial

Betül Uncu 1,2,✉, Hicret Gök 2
PMCID: PMC11996623  PMID: 40229170

ABSTRACT

This study aimed to assess the effectiveness of newborn massage training for primiparous pregnant women. To investigate the effects of newborn massage training on maternal attachment and the prevention of postpartum depression. The trial was conducted at a hospital in eastern Türkiye with 54 pregnant women, assigned to either the massage or control group (n = 27 each). Data were collected using the “Personal Information Form,” “Prenatal Attachment Inventory (PAI),” and “Beck Depression Inventory (BDI)” at baseline. The massage group received two 45‐min online sessions at 34 and 38 weeks, plus three 15‐min postpartum reminders. Data were collected at weeks 6 and 10 postpartum using the “Maternal Attachment Inventory (MAI)” and “Edinburgh Postpartum Depression (EPDS).” No differences were found between the groups at baseline (p > 0.05). However, significant differences at weeks 6 and 10 in MAI and EPDS scores favored the massage group (p < 0.001 for MAI at week 6; p = 0.001 for MAI at week 10; p < 0.001 for EPDS at both weeks). Newborn massage enhances maternal attachment and helps prevent postpartum depression.

Keywords: antenatal care, attachment, newborn massage, postpartum depression

Summary.

  • Newborn massage enhances maternal attachment: The study demonstrated that newborn massage training improved maternal attachment, particularly in the postpartum period, by strengthening the emotional attachment between mother and newborn.

  • Prevention of postpartum depression: The results indicated that newborn massage training can help prevent postpartum depression, as evidenced by significant differences in depression scores (EPDS) between the massage and control groups at weeks 6 and 10 postpartum.

  • Recommendation for clinical practice: Newborn massage should be incorporated into antenatal care routines and promoted as a non‐pharmacological approach to improve maternal mental health and foster the mother‐newborn relationship, with midwives playing a key role in delivering this intervention.

1. Introduction

Meeting her newborn is a unique experience for a first‐time mother. However, the establishment of a strong mother‐newborn attachment may be delayed when it is experienced for the first time (Bingöl and Bal 2021). This delay in attachment formation can impact the child's emotional and mental development in the years that follow. It is believed that the formation and maintenance of mother‐newborn attachment profoundly affect the child's development, highlighting the importance of early attachment. According to the American psychoanalyst John Bowlby, attachment begins immediately at birth, as the newborn forms an emotional attachment with the mother (Bowlby 1979). The support of the healthcare team and practices that promote mother‐newborn attachment play a significant role in facilitating this connection immediately after childbirth (Shoghi et al. 2018).

Newborns come to understand the world primarily through touch, and the best form of this touch is the affectionate interaction with their mothers. Newborn massage has been shown to positively affect many physical parameters in newborns, with no reported negative effects (Mrljak et al. 2022). In addition to its physical benefits, newborn massage also fosters attachment, creating a reciprocal attachment between the mother and her newborn. Thus, newborn massage performed by the mother not only benefits the newborn's well‐being but also promotes positive outcomes for the mother. Numerous studies have demonstrated that newborn massage positively influences parental outcomes, including reducing worry, anxiety, perceived stress, depressive symptoms, and enhancing mother‐newborn interaction, maternal satisfaction, and maternal competence (McCarty et al. 2023). A systematic review of nine studies also showed that newborn massage positively affects parents' mood during the postpartum period (Fan et al. 2023). For example, in a study focusing on preterm newborns and their mothers, daily newborn massage performed by the mother had a positive effect on emotional attachment (Shoghi et al. 2018). Similarly, the research by Vicente et al. (2017) demonstrated that newborn massage provided by the mother led to reduced depressive symptoms, increased mother‐newborn interaction, and more positive parenting attitudes. It is well established that attachment and maternal depression are closely related, with the formation of attachment serving as a protective factor against the development of depression (Slomian et al. 2019). Meta‐analysis findings from 42 studies reveal a small but significant association between maternal depression and attachment to the newborn. In fact, mothers experiencing depression are twice as likely to have insecure attachment with their newborn compared to mothers without depression (Barnes and Theule 2019).

Given the significant role of maternal attachment in early child development and the positive impact of newborn massage on both maternal and newborn well‐being, it is crucial to explore interventions that can support the establishment of secure mother‐newborn attachment. However, despite the growing body of evidence on the benefits of newborn massage, limited research has specifically examined how newborn massage training influences maternal attachment and the prevention of postpartum depression, indicating a gap in the literature.

Therefore, this study aims to investigate the effects of newborn massage training on maternal attachment and postpartum depression. In line with this purpose, the research hypotheses are as follows:

Newborn massage training provided to pregnant women has a positive effect on maternal attachment.

Newborn massage training provided to pregnant women has a positive effect on preventing the development of postpartum depression.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Research Type and Sample

The data of this randomized controlled experimental trial were collected between November 2023 and February 2024, and the trial protocol was published on ClinicalTrials.gov (identification number: NCT06136520). The study population consisted of pregnant women attending a hospital in eastern Türkiye for follow‐up. Preliminary interviews were conducted with these women to assess their compliance with the study inclusion criteria. Forty‐six of these 102 pregnant women were excluded from the study (30 pregnant women did not have an uninterrupted internet connection and 16 pregnant women did not meet the inclusion criteria). The remaining 56 pregnant women were randomized to the intervention and control groups. Two pregnant women were excluded from the study because their study data were not accessible. Thus, the research continued with 54 pregnant women. The sample size was calculated by conducting power analysis (G*Power v3.1) based on similar studies in the literature (Doğan et al. 2023; Erçelik and Yılmaz 2023).

2.1.1. Inclusion Criteria

Being aged between 18 and 35, being primiparous and having a singleton pregnancy, not having a risky pregnancy (GDM, HT, etc.), being at the 32nd week of gestation, being a pregnant woman with internet access and knowledge of internet usage, giving birth at the 38th–40th week of gestation.

2.1.2. Exclusion Criteria

Pregnancy with congenital malformation, unwanted pregnancy, previous participation in newborn massage training, having become pregnant as a result of applying an assisted reproductive technology, having hearing and vision problems, having a known serious psychiatric disease diagnosis, and not breastfeeding after birth.

2.1.3. Criteria for Being Removed From the Study

Having a newborn hospitalized in the neonatal intensive care unit postpartum, a pregnant woman's desire to leave the study.

2.2. Data Collection Tools

A “Personal Information Form,” the “Prenatal Attachment Inventory,” “Beck Depression Inventory,” “Edinburgh Postpartum Depression Scale,” and the “Maternal Attachment Inventory” were utilized to collect the research data. The data collection tools are explained below.

2.2.1. Personal Information Form

This form was developed by the researchers using the literature (Mrljak et al. 2022; Çınar et al. 2022; Hartanti et al. 2019). It includes 9 questions about women's sociodemographic (age, educational status, employment status, income level, family type) and obstetric characteristics.

2.2.2. Prenatal Attachment Inventory (PAI)

It was developed by Müller (1993) to explain the feelings, thoughts, and conditions experienced by pregnant women during pregnancy and determine their level of attachment to their newborn in the prenatal period. Yılmaz and Beji (2013) carried out the validity and reliability study of the scale in Turkish. The scale, with a Cronbach's alpha value of 0.84 comprises 21 items and has a 4‐point Likert rating. The lowest score that can be received on the scale is 21, and the highest score is 84. An increase in the score from the scale shows that the level of attachment increases during pregnancy. Cronbach's alpha value was 0.85 in this study. The PAI was applied to primiparous pregnant women at the 32nd week of gestation after they were randomized to the groups and before the intervention to identify the similarity between the groups.

2.2.3. Beck Depression Inventory (BDI)

This 4‐point Likert scale consists of 21 items, and Hisli (1988) performed its validity and reliability study. The scale measures depressive symptoms, and its total score varies between 0 and 63. Scoring 0–9 points on the scale was determined as minimal depressive symptoms, scoring 10–16 points as mild depressive symptoms, scoring 17–24 points as moderate depressive symptoms, and scoring 25 points and above as severe depressive symptoms. The cut‐off score of the scale was accepted as 17 in the reliability study. Cronbach's alpha coefficient is 0.80 at the scale's cut‐off score of 17. Cronbach's alpha value was found to be 0.77 in the current work. After primiparous pregnant women at the 32nd week of gestation were randomized to the groups, the BDI was applied before the intervention to reveal the similarity between the groups.

2.2.4. Maternal Attachment Inventory (MAI)

The scale developed by Müller (1994) determines the level of attachment between the mother and newborn. In her study, Muller applied the scale to mothers with newborns between 30 and 40 days old. Cronbach's alpha coefficient of the scale is 0.85. Kavlak and Şirin (2009) carried out its validity and reliability study in Turkish. The validity and reliability study determined that the Maternal Attachment Inventory was valid and reliable for mothers of newborns aged between 1 and 4 months postpartum. The Turkish version of the scale comprises 26 items. Cronbach's alpha coefficient was calculated as 0.77 for mothers with 1‐month‐old newborns and 0.82 for mothers with 4‐month‐old newborns. Cronbach's alpha coefficient was determined to be 0.87 in the current work. The MAI was applied to mothers at weeks 6 and 10 postpartum to test the first hypothesis, H2.

2.2.5. Edinburgh Postpartum Depression Scale (EPDS)

Engindeniz (1996) conducted the validity and reliability study of the scale developed by Cox et al. (1987). The lowest score that can be received on the ten‐item scale is 0, while the highest score is 30. The cut‐off score of the scale is 12/13, and women scoring above 13 are considered to be at risk for depression. Cronbach's alpha coefficient of the scale is 0.79, and it was found to be 0.85 in the present study. The EPDS was applied to mothers at weeks 6 and 10 postpartum to test the second hypothesis, H1.

2.3. Research Process

In November 2023, pregnant women who presented to a hospital in eastern Türkiye for a pregnancy examination were recruited for the study. Pregnant women are admitted to the pregnancy outpatient clinic on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays. Women who presented to the outpatient clinic on these days and met the inclusion criteria were informed about the study. Pregnant women fulfilling the inclusion criteria were assigned to the groups according to predetermined sequence numbers. To ensure the participants' comfort and avoid interruptions when completing the questionnaires, the pre‐test was conducted in a room with a comfortable and quiet atmosphere in the waiting room of the pregnancy outpatient clinic.

After measurements were performed on pregnant women who met the inclusion criteria and the groups were determined, the “Personal Information Form,” “Prenatal Attachment Inventory,” and “Beck Depression Inventory” were applied to the massage and control groups. Pregnant women in the massage group were provided with online 45‐min newborn massage training using an newborn model and baby oil at the 34th and 38th weeks of gestation. In the experimental group, the training program was built into each day of the week to increase the effectiveness of the intervention, increase patients' engagement, prevent disorganization, and better manage the training sessions (n = 4 in each subgroup). Four of the women in the experimental group were trained on Monday, four on Tuesday, four on Wednesday, four on Thursday, four on Friday, four on Saturday and four on Sunday. Reminder training was provided three times in total regarding the application of newborn massage for at least 15 min on days 10, 20, and 30 postpartum. Feedback was received from the massage group about the intervention they performed, and the newborn massage intervention they performed on their newborns was monitored online‐synchronously. The researchers HG and BU provided newborn massage training. The “Maternal Attachment Inventory” and the “Edinburgh Postpartum Depression Scale” were applied to the massage and control groups at weeks 6 and 10 postpartum. After the final measurements of the pregnant women in the control group were made at week 10 postpartum, the researchers provided 30‐min newborn massage training. The CONSORT checklist was used when reporting the study (Figure 1).

FIGURE 1.

FIGURE 1

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Consort diagram.

2.4. Ethical Considerations of the Study

The Istanbul University‐Cerrahpaşa Non‐Interventional Clinical Research Ethics Committee, where the study was conducted, gave ethical approval for this study (Subject: 132/2023 Number: E‐74555795‐050.01.04‐827 723). Permission was obtained from the hospital administration where the study was conducted. Informed consent was acquired from all participants who agreed to take part in the research. All stages of the study were conducted in line with the Declaration of Helsinki. Written permission was obtained for the following tools used in data collection: from Yılmaz for the Prenatal Attachment Inventory, from Hisli Sahin for the Beck Depression Inventory, from Kavlak for the Maternal Attachment Inventory, and from Engindeniz for the Edinburgh Postpartum Depression Scale. According to the research results, infant massage positively affects maternal attachment and prevents the development of postpartum depression. The mothers in the control group were contacted and informed of these results and provided with informational training about infant massage. Postpartum depression was identified in a mother in the control group. The mother was informed by the researchers and referred to a mental health specialist.

2.5. Data Analysis and Evaluation

IBM SPSS 27.0 package program was utilized in data analysis. Normality (Shapiro–Wilk) was tested for quantitative variables. Furthermore, outliers, extreme values, and multi‐collinearity were checked. Continuous variables are described as means, standard deviations (SD), minimum and maximum values. Between‐group comparisons were made with the Mann–Whitney U test. Categorical variables are expressed as frequencies and percentages. The χ 2 test was conducted with the objective of examining between‐group differences. The Wilcoxon signed rank test was used to analyze the scores obtained from the Maternal Attachment Inventory and Edinburgh Postpartum Depression Scale between the groups according to measurement time.

3. Results

The results of this study focus on the comparison of the prenatal characteristics and postpartum outcomes between the massage and control groups. Specifically, the data provide insights into maternal attachment and depression levels, as well as the impact of newborn massage training on these outcomes over time.

Table 1 presents data on the prenatal descriptive characteristics of the massage and control groups and a comparison of their total mean scores on the “Prenatal Attachment Inventory” and the “Beck Depression Inventory.” Whereas the mean age in the massage group was 25.1 ± 3.7 and the total marriage duration was 21.7 ± 13.1, the mean age and the total marriage duration were 26.8 ± 3.1 and 27.4 ± 10.8, respectively, in the control group. While 51.9% of the mothers in the massage group were higher education graduates, 59.3% of the mothers in the control group were secondary school graduates. Most women in both groups were employed (85.2% in the massage group and 81.5% in the control group). Whereas 88.9% of the spouses in the massage group were employed, all spouses in the control group were employed. Concerning the economic well‐being level of women, the income of the vast majority in both groups was equal to their expenses (51.9% in the massage group and 63.0% in the control group). The gender of newborns in the massage group was female at 63.0% and 70.4% of newborns in the control group were female. All women participating in the study had planned and desired pregnancies. While the mode of delivery was vaginal delivery at 66.7% in the massage group, vaginal delivery constituted 70.4% in the control. All data on descriptive characteristics were similar between the groups (p > 0.05) (Table 1).

TABLE 1.

Comparison of prenatal characteristics data (N = 54).

Massage group (n = 27) Control group (n = 27)
Individual features M ± SD Min‐max M ± SD Min‐max Test p
Age (years) 25.1 ± 3.7 19–34 26.8 ± 3.1 23–33 −1.955 a 0.051
Duration of marriage (month) 21.7 ± 13.1 3–48 27.4 ± 10.8 4–48 −1.920 a 0.055
n % n %
Education level 2.013 b 0.366
Primary education 2 7.4 2 7.4
Secondary education 11 40.7 16 59.3
Higher education 14 51.9 9 33.3
Spouse's employment status 3.176 b 0.075
Yes 24 88.9 27 100
No 3 11.1 — —
Employment status 0.133 b 0.715
Yes 23 85.2 22 81.5
No 4 14.8 5 18.5
Income level 2.090 b 0.352
Income less than expenditure 4 14.8 1 3.7
Income matches expenditure 14 51.9 17 63.0
Income more than expenditure 9 33.3 9 33.3
Sex of the baby 0.333 b 0.564
Girl 17 63.0 19 70.4
Boy 10 37.0 8 29.6
Desire for pregnancy
Yes 27 100 27 100
No — — — —
Mode of delivery 0.086 b 0.770
Vaginal delivery 18 66.7 19 70.4
Cesarean section 9 33.3 8 29.6
Scale scores M ± SD Min‐max M ± SD Min‐max
Prenatal attachment inventory total score 67.8 ± 7.5 51–83 68.7 ± 7.7 42–79 −0.667 a 0.505
Beck depression inventory total score 9.1 ± 6.3 1–29 7.4 ± 5.2 0–17 −0.902 a 0.367
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Abbreviations: M, mean; Max, maximum; Min, minimum; SD, standard deviation.

a

Mann–Whitney U.

b

χ 2.

Considering the total scores on the PAI, the mean score in the massage group was 67.8 ± 7.5, and it was 68.7 ± 7.7 in the control group. The mean score on the BDI was 9.1 ± 6.3 in the massage group, and the mean score was 7.4 ± 5.2 in the control group. Similarity was identified between the groups in terms of both scale scores (p > 0.05) (Table 1).

Upon examining measurements performed at week 6 postpartum, statistical significance at a very high level was determined between the groups in terms of the scores received on the MAI and the EPDS (p < 0.001). The measurements made at week 10 postpartum also found a very high level of statistical significance between the groups in terms of the scores received on both the MAI (p = 0.001) and the EPDS (p > 0.001). Accordingly, at both measurement times, the massage group scored higher on the MAI and lower on the EPDS than the control group (p < 0.05). Concerning the change in the scores from the postpartum scales over time, no difference was revealed between the two measurements in both the massage and control groups in terms of both scales (p > 0.05) (Table 2).

TABLE 2.

Comparison of “maternal attachment inventory” and “edinburgh postpartum depression scale” scale scores in the postpartum period (N = 54).

First measurement (6th week postpartum) Second measurement (10th week postpartum) Difference between measurements
M ± SD Min‐max M ± SD Min‐max Test, p value
Maternal attachment inventory
Massage group (n = 27) 103.1 ± 1.1 101–104 102.6 ± 2.1 96–104 −0.536 b , p = 0.592
Control group (n = 27) 97.2 ± 4.5 81–104 98.7 ± 4.9 86–104 −1.247 b , p = 0.212
Difference between groups Test p
−5.823 a < 0.001* −3.432 0.001*
Edinburgh postpartum depression scale
Massage group (n = 27) 0.4 ± 0.8 0–3 0.85 ± 1.1 0–4 −1.296 b , p = 0.195
Control group (n = 27) 5.5 ± 3.1 1–14 3.62 ± 2.8 0–10 −1.930 b , p = 0.054
Difference between groups Test p
−6.130 a < 0.001* −4.227 < 0.001*
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Note: * p < 0.05 indicates statistical significance.

a

Mann–Whitney U test.

b

Wilcoxon–Signed test.

4. Discussion

The present study performed to investigate the impact of newborn massage on maternal attachment and postpartum depression found no statistically significant difference between the newborns in the massage and control groups in terms of gender, mode of delivery, and breastfeeding status and between the mothers in the massage and control groups in terms of age, marriage duration, education level, employment status, employment status of their spouses, income level, and the desired pregnancy status. The homogeneous distribution of the groups is important for eliminating the confounding effects of these factors on maternal attachment and the development of postpartum depression. Upon reviewing the literature, it was found that women who wanted to become pregnant did not experience problems in terms of mental health and attachment difficulties (McNamara et al. 2022). A study comparing multiparous and primiparous mothers revealed that the attachment status of primiparous mothers was worse than that of multiparous mothers. Considering the effect of the mode of delivery, it is stated that birth by cesarean section has very little impact on the mother‐newborn attachment (Yoshida et al. 2020). Women in the groups exclusively breastfeed their newborns. When the literature is reviewed, it is seen that breastfeeding is a factor that increases attachment to the mother (López‐Fernández et al. 2023; Linde et al. 2020) and prevents the development of postpartum depression (Xia et al. 2022). The fact that the participants in the study were all primiparous and had similar delivery modes helped to minimize potential confounding factors related to maternal attachment. Furthermore, a comparison of the prenatal attachment levels and depression status between the two groups at the initial measurement revealed no significant differences, suggesting that the groups were comparable in these aspects. Jangjoo et al. (2021) determined that the desired pregnancy status affected maternal attachment and that attachment levels increased with the training provided (Jangjoo et al. 2021). Considering the desired pregnancy status among women included in the study, the pregnancy of all women was desired. Accordingly, the similarity of the groups explains the absence of difference in the first measurements.

Attachment is a process that occurs through the interaction between the mother and newborn, in which both parties are satisfied and enjoy. It provides the basis for establishing the newborn's relationships with the outside world and their psychological development. While the attachment experience that the newborn will have with the mother forms the basis of the attachment experiences they will have in the future, the emotional impact of the above‐mentioned experience continues throughout their life (Çınar et al. 2022). Newborn massage promotes the development of the mother‐newborn attachment and encourages parents to touch their newborns lovingly (Shoghi et al. 2018). In the present study, it was observed that newborn massage had a positive effect on maternal attachment. Studies have shown that newborn massage mostly has positive effects on the newborn's physical parameters (Taheri et al. 2018; Mrljak et al. 2022; Doğan et al. 2023). The study on the effect of newborn massage on attachment determined that mothers in the massage group had higher attachment (Erçelik and Yılmaz 2023). Hartanti et al. (2019) provided newborn massage training to mothers of newborns aged between 3 and 6 months and evaluated it for 30 days. At the end of the 30th day, the attachment levels of mothers in the massage group were found to be higher than those of mothers who did not receive massage training (Hartanti et al. 2019). The current study indicated the positive effect of newborn massage on maternal attachment. Thus, the first hypothesis, H1, was confirmed. Newborn massage is one of the important non‐pharmacological interventions that should be implemented to support maternal attachment.

Postpartum depression impacts about 10%–15% of women and disrupts mother‐newborn interaction, which is essential for child development. Attachment to the mother is required for the healthy maturation of the newborn's social, cognitive, and behavioral skills. It has been reported that mothers with postpartum depression display less attachment, decreased sensitivity to the newborn, and harsher or more disturbing parenting behavior (Brummelte and Galea 2016; O'Mahony et al. 2023).

When the literature is reviewed, it is stated that newborn massage improves mothers' mental health and reduces anxiety, depression, and stress (Galanakis et al. 2015). Permanent decreases occur in the anxiety and stress levels of mothers who continue to massage their children after discharge (Holditch‐Davis et al. 2014). The study by Dehkordi et al. (2019) showed that postpartum depression did not develop in mothers who massaged their newborns. In the present study, one mother in the control group developed postpartum depression, and there was no case of postpartum depression in the intervention group. Moreover, the EPDS scores of the mothers in the massage group were found to be lower and significant in comparison with the control group (p < 0.05). The aforesaid result is similar to the literature, and applying newborn massage prevents the development of postpartum depression in the mother.

The absence of a difference in the changes in the measurements performed during the postpartum period over time reveals the protective effect of newborn massage in terms of depression development and the strengthening effect in terms of the mother‐newborn attachment. Accordingly, hypothesis H1, the second hypothesis of the study, was confirmed.

5. Conclusions and Recommendations

Mother‐newborn attachment can be strengthened during pregnancy by determining prenatal attachment and depression status and providing an appropriate approach to those who have detected problems in this regard. In this way, the risk of the newborn's neglect and abuse can be reduced. Newborn massage, one of the non‐pharmacological methods to strengthen the mother‐newborn attachment, should be taught to pregnant women during pregnancy, and they should be encouraged to apply it in the postpartum period. In this way, the development of postpartum depression after childbirth can be prevented, and mother‐newborn attachment can be strengthened. It is recommended that these almost cost‐free interventions be transformed into a routine in clinical practice for the formation of healthy generations. It is recommended that midwives, who are health professionals, continue their care and counseling services on online platforms. Future studies should include long‐term follow‐up and evaluation to better understand the sustained effects of newborn massage on maternal attachment and postpartum depression.

6. Limitations and Strengths

The study data are based on women's self‐reports, so the results cannot be generalized. Emphasis was placed on group matching, and the measurements of two important issues, maternal attachment and postpartum depression development, were not affected. However, considering that there are many factors influencing the development of postpartum depression, other potential risk factors were not assessed in this study. Additionally, due to the limited sample size, the applicability of the findings may be limited. Blinding could not be applied to the massage group, which may have affected the results. The study is also limited to primiparous pregnant women in Türkiye, and the results are confined to a 10‐week period. Therefore, caution should be exercised when interpreting the results, as their generalizability may be limited. One of the strengths of the study is that it was conducted with the same sample, meaning that the women share similar characteristics. The researchers continue their education in the field of midwifery and hold a newborn massage practitioner certificate. Furthermore, this study contributes to the growing body of evidence supporting the benefits of newborn massage for both mothers and newborns.

7. Relevance for Clinical Practice

The findings of this study suggest that incorporating newborn massage training into antenatal care can significantly benefit maternal well‐being by strengthening maternal attachment and preventing postpartum depression. Given the positive impact of newborn massage on both mental health and the mother‐newborn attachment, healthcare providers, especially midwives, should consider incorporating this intervention into routine prenatal care. As a cost‐effective, non‐pharmacological approach, newborn massage can be easily integrated into both in‐person and online counseling sessions. By teaching expectant mothers how to perform newborn massage during pregnancy and supporting them to continue its practice postpartum, healthcare professionals can contribute to the prevention of postpartum depression and foster a stronger, healthier mother‐newborn relationship.

Author Contributions

Betül Uncu: conceptualization, methodology, software, supervision, writing – original draft, writing – review and editing, formal analysis. Hicret Gök: conceptualization, methodology, writing – review and editing.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Acknowledgments

We thank all pregnant women who helped us in data collection and made this study possible.

Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work.

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to privacy or ethical restrictions.

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Associated Data

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Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to privacy or ethical restrictions.

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