A multifunctional nursing pad for lactating mothers

Abstract

Lactating mothers commonly use nursing pads to prevent milk from leaking and avoid staining their clothes. This research aims to develop a nursing pad that consists of a dual-layer structure: viscose fabric with three different grams per square meter (GSM) as an absorbent inner layer and a polyethylene laminated outer layer to provide barrier properties. The developed composite was further treated with varying concentrations (5%,10%, and 15%) of an antimicrobial finish to protect against skin infections and odor caused by the milk. Afterward, the composite was subjected to 5 and 10 washing cycles. Key performance parameters including water absorbency, hydrostatic head, antibacterial activity, odor evaluation, air permeability, and relative hand value were evaluated before and after washing cycles. The results demonstrate that the developed nursing pad provides all the essential features required for optimal performance.

Introduction

Medical textiles are a developing field in the global textile business due to their applications in healthcare and hygiene products¹. Its production contributes around 5% to the technical textiles market, including products like baby diapers, nursing wipes, menstrual pads, incontinence pads, nursing pads, and so on². Nursing pads, often known as breast pads, are used by lactating mothers during their maternity period to keep the skin dry and clean³. There are different types of nursing pads such as gel, silicon, and homemade nursing pads. Disposable and reusable nursing pads are the two main subcategories of these nursing pads⁴. This study focuses on reusable nursing pads which are economical, durable, and eco-friendly compared to disposable ones⁵. This makes the developed nursing pad an environmentally friendly option, corresponding with the market’s rising demand for reusable and sustainable products. Traditional nursing pads are made up of three layers: an innermost nonwoven layer of polyester or polypropylene that directly contacts the skin and wicks moisture away from the skin, an intermediate absorbent core composed of hydrophilic fibers and superabsorbent polymers that captures and retains liquid, and an outer impermeable polypropylene sheet that prevents leakage while allowing airflow⁶. This research focused on designing a dual-layer nursing pad that combines wicking and absorption features into a single, streamlined layer, while the second layer ensures excellent leakage protection. The goal is to simplify the pad, making it lighter and less bulky while improving overall comfort and wearability. Despite the wide variety of nursing pads available, lactating mothers still face various problems like insufficient absorbency and leakage that leave a wet and uncomfortable feeling to the mothers, leading to microbial growth, infections, and an unpleasant odor⁷. All these problems can be solved by developing a nursing pad with comfort, good handling, durability, excellent absorbency, and leak resistance. Additionally, antibacterial properties are essential to prevent the growth of microorganisms and odor. These properties can be achieved by choosing a suitable material. Various strategies have been noted in the literature to address the challenging issues regarding nursing pads. Ibrahim et al. developed a nursing pad and showed that viscose fiber had the highest rates of microbial resistance, water permeability, and absorption compared to other substrates tested (cotton, polyester, a viscose/polyester blend, polypropylene)⁴. Ozdil et al. worked on the inner absorbent layers of nursing pads. They discovered that among new-generation fibers (bamboo/viscose, silver fibers, soybean, and seaweed implant cellulose), soybean fibers when combined with cotton, offer outstanding absorbency, high liquid retention, antimicrobial properties, and air permeability⁶. Akduman et al. compare the nanofibers (TPU, CA, PEO) with a conventional polypropylene nursing pad, highlighting their thinness, lightweight, and breathability, making them suitable for disposable nursing pads³. In subsequent work, Akduman et al. incorporated lanolin into electrospun nanofibers (TPU, CA, PEO), proposing TPU nanofiber mats for elasticity and durability and CA nanofiber membranes for increased hydrophilicity and swelling qualities⁸. M. Aswini et al. proposed an economical and environmentally beneficial wet-laid process, utilizing alkali-treated bleached pine fibers to create soft, flexible, nonwoven absorbent cores for disposable nursing pads⁹. According to our best knowledge, while previous literature had explored many aspects of nursing pads, it had not fully addressed the hydrophobicity for leak resistance, while also increasing hydrophilicity for improved absorbency, as well as the integration of antibacterial properties and odor control within a single nursing pad design. Moreover, the previously developed nursing pads include several layers to stop leakage which increases the weight and bulkiness, causing discomfort for the user. Therefore, there was a clear need for a simple and lighter dual-layer nursing pad design with enhanced multi-functional properties to fulfill the practical demands of lactating mothers that not only improve maternal care but also promote sustainability by providing a reusable nursing pad that aligns with growing environmental concerns.

In this study, the nursing pad’s hydrophilic layer comprises viscose fibers, which offer excellent absorbency, breathability, and comfort. Viscose fibers are biodegradable, regenerated cellulosic fibers with the same health and safety characteristics as natural ones. Due to their properties, these fibers are widely used in the medical and healthcare sectors¹⁰. Hydrophobic surfaces have been created using polymers, including polyester, polyethylene, epoxies, polyurethanes, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, polytetrafluorethylene, and polydimethylsiloxane¹¹. Among these polymers, polyethylene (PE) is a durable and lightweight polymer with zero leakage and is used to create hydrophobic surfaces¹². Silver has a long history of being used safely in the medical field and is recognized for its antibacterial properties against a wide variety of microorganisms¹³.

Experimental

Materials

Viscose fibers were kindly supplied by the National Textile University, Faisalabad, Pakistan with a length of 38 mm and 1.2 denier. Polyethylene sheet (breathable, high-density polyethylene (HDPE), 18 GSM) was generously provided by Chawla Enterprises, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Silvadur® 930 FLEX Antimicrobial finish was purchased from DuPont®.

Design of experiment (DOE)

Three weights of fabric GSM were selected to explore the effect of different fabric densities on absorbency and breathability. Three finish concentrations were chosen to evaluate the effects of varying antibacterial finish levels on bacterial growth and odor control. Different washing cycles were used to evaluate the finish durability and fabric reusability, simulating real-world use. The levels were selected to provide a comprehensive understanding of how each factor affects the nursing pad’s functionality. Three factors were selected as independent variables and their effects were analyzed at different levels, as presented in Table 1. The DOE consists of 27 experiments, as shown in Table 2, which examine the impact of input factors on response variables. A full factorial design was generated using Minitab® software. The statistical analysis was performed to determine the significance level and interaction of factors that is provided in supplementary data file as Fig. S1-S28.

Table 1.

Factors and their levels.

Factors	Levels
GSM of nonwoven fabric	100	200	300
Finish Concentration (% on the weight of fabric)	5	10	15
Washing	0	5	10

Table 2.

Design of experiment (DOE).

Run order	Sample ID	GSM	Antibacterial finish	Washing
1	A	100	5%	0
2	B	100	5%	5
3	C	100	10%	10
4	D	100	15%	10
5	E	100	15%	5
6	F	100	15%	0
7	G	100	10%	5
8	H	100	5%	10
9	I	100	10%	0
10	J	200	5%	5
11	K	200	15%	5
12	L	200	10%	5
13	M	200	5%	10
14	N	200	5%	0
15	O	200	10%	10
16	P	200	10%	0
27	Q	200	15%	10
18	R	200	15%	0
19	S	300	10%	5
20	T	300	15%	0
21	U	300	10%	0
22	V	300	10%	10
23	W	300	5%	0
24	X	300	15%	10
25	Y	300	5%	10
26	Z	300	15%	5
27	AB	300	5%	5

Methods

Non-woven web formation

A needle-punched nonwoven machine (Dong Won Roll Co. Ltd) was used to develop nonwoven samples with three different GSMs (100,200 and 300) for a nursing pad. To construct the web, the fibers were manually opened and run through a series of machines including a coarse fiber opening machine (DW-B/0), fine opener (DW-F/0), reserve hopper feeder (DW-C/H), baby carding machine (DW-C/H), and cross lapper (DW-C/L). Further, the prepared web was fed into a needle punching machine (DW/NP) at a depth of 10 mm to develop nonwoven fabric by mechanically orienting and interlocking the fibers with barbed felting needles, repeatedly passed into and out of the web¹⁴.

Polyethylene (PE) lamination

After developing the nonwoven fabric, PE lamination was applied to one side through a hot melt laminating machine from Jiangsu Kuntai Machinery Co. Ltd (KT-JF/B). This process develops a dual-layer composite by combining nonwoven fabric and PE, ensuring high peel strength. The method was derived from the literature and modified to meet the specific requirements of our system¹⁵. Reactive polyurethane (PUR) hot melt adhesive was used to fuse the layers. The process involved passing the fabric between two horizontal rollers, the lower roller passed the fabric while the upper roller fused a PE sheet onto the fabric through hot melt adhesive. Following the process, the samples were dried for 24 h to ensure complete adhesion and stability.

Application of antibacterial finish

Silvadur® finish was applied to the fabric using the pad-dry-cure method, adapted from the literature, and altered depending on the product’s need¹⁶. To prepare the solution, Silvadur® was diluted to three different concentrations (5, 10, and 15%) at room temperature (24 °C). Samples were first immersed in the solution to ensure a thorough soaking. Excessive solution was removed by passing the samples through padding rollers under constant pressure (2 bar) using a pad-dry-cure machine (Dong Won Roll Co. LTD). Subsequently, the samples were dried and cured at 150 °C for 3 min. Following these steps, the design and development of a dual-layer nursing pad is visually represented in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1.

Schematics of dual-layered nursing pad prototype that has an absorbent hydrophilic nonwoven viscose inner layer and a hydrophobic PE-laminated outer layer, highlighting the features of breathability, antibacterial properties, odor control, and reusability.

Washing

Treated fabric samples underwent 5 and 10 washing cycles according to the ISO 105-CO3 standard. Washing was performed at 60 °C for 30 min using an aqueous soap solution (containing 5 g of water and 2 g of anhydrous sodium carbonate per liter of water) to assess the durability of the applied finish and to determine the nursing pad’s reusability¹⁷. It benefits both consumers and manufacturers by increasing product quality while reducing environmental impact as there is no need to toss away many pads every day and they are not going to end up in a landfill. Specific samples were kept unwashed to compare the testing results of washed and unwashed specimens.

Characterization

Water-holding capacity determination

The absorbency of fabric samples was evaluated through a water-holding capacity test. The testing procedure followed the protocols outlined in the literature but was modified to fulfill the study’s objectives^18,19. Each sample (4 × 4 cm) was weighed individually and then soaked in water (100 ml) to ensure thorough saturation. After soaking, the samples were placed on blotting paper to remove excessive water, preventing any additional water from being transferred to the balance machine during measurement. The samples were weighed again to calculate their water content. The reported water content represents the amount of water retained by the sample.

Hydrostatic head test

A hydrostatic head test was performed to evaluate the fabric’s water resistance by measuring its ability to withstand water penetration under hydrostatic pressure²⁰. This test was conducted according to the AATCC 127 standard. For the test, a fabric sample was placed on an apparatus with a circular opening. Water is then steadily applied to the fabric sample with constant increasing pressure, forming a water column that exerts pressure on the fabric. This process continued until water started to leak through the fabric and this point was recorded as the hydrostatic pressure of the fabric, expressed in cm H₂O unit²¹.

Antibacterial test method

The antibacterial activity of treated fabric samples was assessed qualitatively and quantitively. For the qualitative assessment S. aureus (a Gram-positive bacteria) was used according to the AATCC 147 standard. In this method, the bacterial culture stock solution was prepared in nutrient agar and randomly dispersed across the surface of the agar plate. The fabric samples (2.5 × 2.5 cm) were then placed on the agar plate and incubated for 24 h at 37 °C. The antibacterial activity was determined by observing the area under the fabric samples and the absence of bacterial growth demonstrated the antibacterial efficacy²².

The AATCC 100 standard was conducted to quantitively measure the inhibition of bacterial growth. Fabric samples measuring 4.8 cm × 4.8 cm were used, according to the standard requirement²³. A bacterial solution was made in a nutrient broth of 100 ml and incubated at 37 ± 1 °C for 24 h with a concentration of 1 × 10⁵ CFU/mL. Each fabric sample, treated and untreated, was covered with 0.1 mL of diluted bacterial solution and placed at 37° C for 24 h. After the incubation period, the bacteria were neutralized and the samples were vortexed in a sterile buffer solution for one minute to collect the surviving bacteria. The number of surviving bacteria was then determined through the serial dilution plate count method. Two assessments were performed: Zero contact time assay, where bacteria were extracted immediately after inoculation, and 24-h contact time assay, where bacteria were extracted after 24 h of exposure. Antibacterial activity was then calculated using the standard formula²⁴.

1

In Eq. (1), B refers to the bacterial colonies counted at 0 contact time and A refers to the count after 24 h.

Odor evaluation test

Odor assessment was conducted qualitatively under realistic use scenarios using a sensory method. It highly depends on human assessors, potentially increasing variability. The odor test can be evaluated through the wear or incubation method²⁵. In this study, the incubation method was used where 2 ml of cow’s milk was dropped onto the fabric samples (3 × 3 cm) using a pipette. Then the samples were incubated in sealed jars at room temperature for 8 h. Assessments were conducted every 2 h by a panel of 9 human assessors selected from National Textile University, Faisalabad, Pakistan.

Air permeability test

The air permeability test was used to evaluate the breathability of the fabric samples by using the SDL Atlas M021A AP tester as it provides precise measurement of airflow through the fabric, according to the ASTM D737-04 standard. This approach evaluates airflow rate by measuring the time required for a specific volume of air to pass through the fabric at a given pressure²⁶.

Relative hand value

The relative hand value test was conducted using the Phabrometer according to the AATCC-202 standard. It provides objective measurements of fabric softness, smoothness, resilience, and wrinkle recovery. The Phabrometer provided an optimal balance of accuracy, objectivity, and practicality. This method evaluates the fabric’s hand feel by simulating the human touch experience²⁷.

Results and discussion

Water holding capacity

A Water holding capacity (WHC) test was carried out to measure absorbency, as it directly measures liquid retention. It evaluates the fabric’s ability to retain water within its structure, expressed as a percentage of its dry weight. This test demonstrated that viscose fabric exhibited exceptional absorbency. There is a direct correlation between fabric GSM and absorbency as fabrics with lower GSM tend to absorb less water; however, those with higher GSM have a more remarkable ability to retain water²⁸. In this study, the WHC of viscose fabric with different GSMs (100, 200, and 300) was calculated using Eq. (1) after measuring the sample’s dry (w_d) and wet weight (w_w)²⁹.

2

The findings indicate that while the absolute water absorption increases with higher GSM, the WHC percentage remains relatively consistent and does not follow the expected trend based on the absolute values. This is due to the WHC formula in which dry weight increases proportionally, canceling the effect of increasing GSM. The impact of the finish on WHC appears to be minimal. This is due to the hydrophilic properties of the finish, enhancing water interaction with the fibers rather than repelling it and allowing the fabric to maintain its absorbency³⁰. Additionally, a nonwoven structure absorbs water through capillary action, where water is drawn into the fabric through even the tiniest pores³¹. As a result, the finish does not affect the fabric’s inherent ability to hold water. However, washing significantly impacted WHC as samples with 10 washing cycles exhibited a substantial decrease in WHC. On the other hand, the highest capacity was observed in unwashed samples as shown in Fig. 2 which presents the most notably distinct samples while the complete sample dataset is provided in the supplementary file as Fig. S29. This decline in WHC is due to shrinkage and compaction of the fabric structure during washing. Since nonwoven viscose is very absorbent, repeated washing damages the fabric’s structural integrity, resulting in smaller pore size and a consequent reduction in the material’s ability to hold water³².

Fig. 2.

WHC of PE laminated nonwoven viscose composites, displays variations in water absorption capacity based on different GSM levels, finish concentrations, and washing cycles.

In this study, the WHC test involved immersing samples in water for one hour to simulate real-life conditions. This duration reflects practical scenarios, accurately representing the fabric’s ability to absorb and retain water over an extended period. This approach ensures that the findings are relevant and applicable in everyday use.

Water penetration under hydrostatic pressure

The hydrostatic head test evaluates the nursing pad’s hydrophobicity as it measures the fabric’s ability to resist water penetration under applied pressure before leakage starts³³. In this study, samples with three different GSMs (100,200 and, 300) were selected from the above 27 samples designed according to a comprehensive DOE. These selected samples have a constant hydrophobic PE lamination, ensuring uniformity in the outer barrier properties across the varying GSMs. The results showed that samples (F and N) withstand 70 cm of water column pressure, while sample (U) maintained its integrity up to 60 cm before showing any signs of leakage as shown in Table 3. The difference of 10 cm with an increase in GSM (300) is due to the fabric’s higher density with good absorbency and increased saturation which reduced the fabric’s ability to withstand more pressure³⁴. However, the results among the three samples are relatively similar, with no statistically significant difference, which indicates that polymer lamination played a significant role in determining leak resistance.

Table 3.

Hydrostatic pressure values that each sample sustains before allowing water to penetrate through.

Samples	F	N	U
GSM	100	200	300
Hydrostatic resistance (cmH2O)	70	70	60

According to the literature, a hydrostatic result of 1000 cm H₂O or more is ideal, while the 60–70 cm H₂O resistance is not enough compared to high-performance waterproof fabrics²¹. However, it is important to understand this data within the context of the nursing pad application. In real-life situations, the maximum pressure that breast milk may exert is far less than the pressure required to meet the hydrostatic head standards for waterproof fabrics. Hence, 60–70 cm H₂O resistance is sufficient to guarantee efficient leak resistance in nursing pads.

Antibacterial activity

To assess the antibacterial performance of the nursing pad samples, both qualitative and quantitative evaluations were performed. The qualitative test followed the AATCC 147 standard to examine bacterial inhibition zones to ascertain the antibacterial activity of the samples. On the other hand, quantitative evaluation was carried out according to the AATCC 100 standard to determine bacterial count reductions after a certain incubation time. These methods delivered extensive analysis of the sample’s antibacterial properties by establishing their capabilities to inhibit bacterial growth. A detailed discussion of results from both testing approaches are presented in the following sections.

Qualitative test

The antibacterial activity was evaluated on 5 samples of nonwoven viscose fabric. Sample C1 was kept as a control while the remaining 4 samples (T, W, X, and Y), pretreated with silvadur® antibacterial finish, were selected from the 27 samples of DOE. The antibacterial assessment of fabric samples was done qualitatively following the AATCC 147 standard against S. aureus bacteria. This standard was adopted because it was economical and practical, making it suitable for antibacterial resistance testing. During the test, the sample’s nonwoven sides faced the agar plate, and the bacterial colonies were checked under the fabric samples. According to the results, it is evident that the control sample (C1) without any finish showed clear bacterial growth, while treated samples were clear, as shown in Table 4.

Table 4.

Antibacterial test results of nonwoven viscose fabric.

Samples	Finish applied	Washing cycles	Bacterial growth in sample contact area	Clear zone of inhibition (mm)
C1	0% conc	0	yes	0.00
T	15% conc	0	No	0.00
W	5% conc	0	No	0.00
X	15% conc	10	No	0.00
Y	5% conc	10	No	0.00

The samples (T, W, X, and Y) inhibit the growth of S. aureus bacteria and indicate antibacterial effectiveness despite being treated with different concentrations of silvadur® finish and undergoing washing cycles which proves the pad’s efficacy in practical use for nursing mothers by minimizing the chances of bacterial infections. As shown in Fig. 3, the zone of inhibition is 0 due to the non-leaching effect as samples themselves are resistant to microbial growth and do not release any antibacterial agents into the surroundings, leading to no zone inhibition³⁵.

Fig. 3.

Agar plate containing fabric samples, which were examined for antibacterial activity against S. aureus using the AATCC 147 standard.

Quantitative test

For the quantitative antibacterial assessment, the same five samples used in the qualitative test were analyzed, following the AATCC 100 standard. The results confirmed the strong antibacterial effectiveness of the Silvadur finish in all tested samples. As shown in Fig. 4. control sample C1 displayed almost no bacterial reduction (2 ± 0.4%) because it lacked antibacterial protection, showing the importance of implementing the antibacterial treatment. Sample T (15% finish, 0 wash) showed the greatest reduction in bacteria (99.8 ± 1.0%) due to the highest finish concentration which has a strong antibacterial effect. Similarly, sample W (5% finish, 0 wash) had high efficacy with 99.1 ± 1.2% reduction. However, washed samples did show a small drop in antibacterial efficiency as sample X (15% finish, 10 washes) and sample Y (5% finish, 10 washes) showed a bacterial reduction up to 95.8 ± 0.8% and 90.0 ± 0.4% respectively. This decline in antibacterial efficiency can likely be attributed to the washing cycles that partially leached or degraded the antibacterial finish, making it less effective over time. Despite this reduction, the samples showed considerable antibacterial activity after multiple washes, showing the durability of the applied finish.

Fig. 4.

Bacterial reduction levels on the selected samples with different finish concentrations and washing cycles.

Odor evaluation

In textiles, the odor can be recognized through human sensory evaluation as it is detected via the sense of smell. The human nose is a very accurate and sensitive measuring tool for odor, but this method is not reliable because there could be variation and chances of human error. This method can be authentic only if the selected assessors are screened and trained properly for odor assessment³⁶. Odor is produced by bacterial growth; however, using an antibacterial finish inhibits the bacterial growth and keeps the samples odor-free. The incubation test method used in this study was derived from the literature and adjusted according to the study’s requirements^37,38. For this test, 5 samples were selected: one sample (C2) served as a control, while the other four (W, AB, T, and X) were picked from the DOE. The odor was assessed organoleptically and categorized according to its intensity as no odor, mild, discrete, and strong. The test was continued for 8 h with assessments made every 2 h, and the average result from 9 individuals was recorded, as shown in Table 5.

Table 5.

The average results of odor assessment, conducted at 2-h intervals.

Time	Sample (C2)	Sample (W)	Sample (AB)	Sample (T)	Sample (X)
2 h	Strong	No	Mild	No	Mild
4 h	Strong	Mild	Mild	No	Discrete
6 h	Strong	Mild	Discrete	Mild	Discrete
8 h	Strong	Discrete	Discrete	Mild	Discrete

Findings showed that the samples with higher finish concentrations extend odor control duration, enhancing comfort and freshness for nursing mothers. However, washing significantly impacts the concentration of the antibacterial finish, which affects the odor intensity. Sample C2 (control) had a strong odor throughout the selected time. The odor of sample W (5% finish, 0 wash) gradually increased over time. Despite being treated with a low finish concentration, the sample was unwashed, allowing the antibacterial finish to remain intact. Sample AB (5% finish, 5 washes) developed a mild odor after 2 h, which became discrete after 6 h because washing reduced the efficacy of the antibacterial finish. In the first 4 h, no odor was identified in sample T (15% finish, 0 wash). This sample exhibited only a mild odor even after 8 h due to the sample’s unwashed state, and a higher antibacterial finish concentration may have delayed odor intensity. Lastly, in sample X (15% finish, 10 washings) a mild odor was initially detected after 2 h, which increased significantly after 4 h. Even with the high concentration of antibacterial finish, repeated washing (up to 10 cycles) compromised the finish layer’s integrity, resulting in a discrete odor as early as 4 h. This implies that an antibacterial finish initially reduces odor, but repeated washings could destroy the finish’s efficiency, increasing odor over time and reinforcing the validity of previously reported data³⁹.

Air permeation through the fabric

Air permeability (AP) is an important feature influencing the comfort of nursing pads, as it determines the fabric’s breathability. AP was assessed by the volume of air in cubic centimeters that passes perpendicularly per second through one square centimeter of fabric at a pressure of 125 Pa⁴⁰. This test was performed on the sample’s nonwoven and laminated sides. According to the results, fabric GSM, finish concentrations, and washing cycles substantially impact AP, as sample A (100 GSM, 5% finish, and 0 wash) exhibited the highest, while sample X (300 GSM, 15% finish and 10 washes) demonstrated the lowest AP. It was reported that the fabric GSM is a crucial factor since lighter fabrics have a more porous structure, making them more air-permeable. In contrast, heavier fabrics are denser and have a more compact structure, restricting airflow⁴¹. In this study, AP results match the statement as 100 and 200 GSM samples maintained higher levels of AP, whereas samples with 300 GSM displayed a slight decrease in AP, as shown in Fig. 5. It shows only the significantly different samples to highlight important differences, whereas the complete dataset, which includes all the samples, is provided in supplementary file as Fig. S30.

Fig. 5.

AP test results for laminated nonwoven fabric samples, measured on both sides: the front (nonwoven) and the back (PE-laminated). The Y-axis represents the air permeability values for each side, while the X-axis indicates the corresponding fabric samples under different GSM, finish concentrations, and washing conditions.

The finish concentrations also affect AP due to the nonwoven structure, characterized by empty spaces, allowing the finish to penetrate and reduce AP^42,43. Consequently, samples with the lowest finish concentration (5%) showed better AP than those with the highest finish concentrations (10% and 15%). According to the literature, washing is another factor that influences AP⁴⁴. After washing, the fibers in the nonwoven structure become entangled, increasing the fabric’s compactness. Nonwoven viscose is highly absorbent and shrinks after washing, leading to a more compact structure. This effect is more prominent in higher GSM (denser) fabrics, resulting in lower AP. In this study, samples with 5 washes did not show a drastic change in AP, as the fibers had not entangled significantly; however, after 10 washes, a noticeable decrease in AP was observed due to the deterioration of fabric structure over multiple washing. The AP of the nonwoven side was not significantly affected by PE lamination due to its breathable and microporous structure, which permits air to pass through and maintain AP⁴⁰. Nevertheless, on the laminated side, the PE lamination is the primary factor affecting the AP. Since the PE lamination was constant across all samples, the AP results on this side were not statistically different and remained relatively consistent as shown in Fig. 5. Overall, the findings of the laminated side were insignificant with minimal variations across all samples as shown in Fig. S30, presented in the supplementary file. The findings indicate that the nursing pad exhibits moderate air permeability, making it appropriate for daily use as it will effectively regulate body temperature by allowing airflow while preventing sweat accumulation and discomfort for nursing mothers.

Relative hand value

Relative hand value (RHV) measures a fabric’s tactile properties, including softness, smoothness, resilience, and wrinkle recovery rate. Softness is the opposite of stiffness, which is measured by bending length⁴⁵. GSM mainly affects the softness as sample E (100 GSM, 15% finish, and 5 washes) showed the highest softness results while sample X (300 GSM, 15% finish, and 10 washes) exhibited less softness as shown in Fig. 6A. Lighter fabrics are more flexible and pliable due to less dense structure, making them softer. Conversely, heavier fabrics are denser and more compact, resulting in less softness²⁷. The antibacterial finish and washing treatment do not significantly impact the lower GSM samples (100 and 200). However, 300 GSM samples demonstrated variations after washing due to the higher density and absorbency. Initially, the samples with 0 wash did not show the highest softness due to the finish absorbed by the fabric, making it slightly stiffer⁴². After 5 washes, the washing process subsides the stiffness of the finish, enhancing softness. However, after 10 washes, the fabric’s structure may wear down, potentially reducing softness⁴⁶.

Fig. 6.

RHV test results for laminated nonwoven fabric samples with different GSM levels, finish concentrations, and washing conditions. It illustrates variations in (A) softness, (B) smoothness, (C) resilience, and (D) wrinkle recovery rate, highlighting the influence of fabric structure and treatments on tactile properties.

Smoothness is the quality of a fabric surface with a uniform texture. In smoothness, the results indicate no significant difference across the samples. However, when considering the samples with higher and lower smoothness levels, it is evident that structural differences between the lower and higher GSM substantially impact smoothness. Sample T (300 GSM, 15% finish, and 0 wash) exhibited the highest smoothness, while sample H (100 GSM, 5% finish, and 10 washes) showed the lowest smoothness, as shown in Fig. 6B. These results support the existing literature, indicating that the fabrics with lower GSM are less smooth due to voids and empty spaces between the fibers, resulting in a more open and less compact structure. Conversely, higher GSM fabrics have enhanced smoothness due to their dense and compact arrangement of fibers, leading to a more even and continuous surface²⁷. The effect of finish and washing on smoothness is that the higher finish concentration enhances the fabric’s smoothness by reducing surface roughness and friction⁴⁷. Nevertheless, this effect diminishes after repeated washings as it reduces the finish’s efficacy, decreasing fabric smoothness⁴⁸.

Resilience is the ability of a fabric to return to its original form after being bent, compressed, or stressed. Sample Z (300 GSM, 15% finish, and 5 washes) exhibited the highest resilience, while sample A (100 GSM, 5% finish, and 0 wash) demonstrated the lowest resilience, as shown in Fig. 6C. This supports previous findings by demonstrating that higher GSM fabric exhibits greater resilience due to increased fiber density⁴⁹. Resilience does not change significantly with different finish concentrations or washing cycles due to the PE lamination which strengthens the fabric structure. This durable lamination serves as a protective layer, allowing the fabric to preserve its integrity and resilience even after repeated washes and treatments⁵⁰.

The wrinkle recovery rate (WRR) of nonwoven viscose demonstrates that fabric GSM has no significant influence on WRR due to the same PE lamination across all samples as shown in Fig. S31, provided in the supplementary file. This lamination appears to stabilize the WRR across fabrics with varying GSM due to the flexibility and toughness of PE, which enhances the fabric’s dimensional stability, allowing it to maintain its shape and structure under various conditions⁵¹. However, the antibacterial finish substantially impacts WRR as samples with higher finish concentrations show better WRR than those with lower finish concentrations. Sample R (200 GSM,15% finish, and 0 wash) exhibits the highest while sample Y (300 GSM,5% finish, and 10 washes) showed the lowest WRR, as shown in Fig. 6D. This is due to the fabric’s absorbent nature which absorbs the finish, resulting in mild stiffness⁵². This stiffness allows the fabric to recover from wrinkles quickly. Additionally, a well-absorbed finish can improve the fabric’s structural integrity by binding the fibers together. This improved cohesion results in a smoother surface, reducing friction between fibers and allowing them to return to their original shape after being creased^53,54. Washing also has a noticeable effect on WRR, as repeated washing removes the fabric’s finish, resulting in less wrinkle recovery. Moreover, washing causes fiber loosening and distortion, making it more difficult for the fabric to return to its original shape⁵⁵. Overall, the RHV test findings showed that the fabric samples were suitable since they had the desired softness, smoothness, and resilience which are essential properties for the nursing pad’s everyday use due to their contact with skin.

Conclusion

This study successfully created a nursing pad that meets the requirements of breast milk absorption and practical use. The dual-layer composite integrated an absorbent inner layer made from viscose fabric and a hydrophobic outer layer with PE lamination, demonstrating high performance across various characterizations. Different concentrations of Silvadur® finish and washing cycles did not compromise the antibacterial efficacy, as all treated samples inhibit bacterial growth. However, it does affect the odor as samples with lower finish concentrations and repeated washes developed a noticeable odor over time. Although higher finish concentration and repeated washing reduce AP, the nursing pad maintained adequate water absorbency and hydrostatic head value, making them ideal for their intended application. RHV results revealed that lower GSM samples (100 and 200) were softer. Higher finish concentration enhanced the WRR, whereas repeated washing compromised the performance of wrinkle recovery. Resilience was significantly better in higher GSM (300) samples, whereas smoothness remained consistent across all samples. This developed nursing pad with multi-functional properties improves hygiene and comfort. Additionally, the lighter and less bulky design improves wearability, making it more convenient for everyday use. However, after the analysis, it was observed that the sample’s performance decreased after 10 washes, indicating that the durability of the nursing pad still needs improvements, future research should focus on it to ensure long-term performance and effectiveness. Overall, the study emphasizes that the developed composite can provide desirable features for nursing pads. It also offers significant insights for future development in this domain as this invention will not only improve maternal care but also promote sustainability by providing a reusable nursing pad.

Author contributions

I.Z: Methodology, data curation, and original draft preparation. Z.N: Investigation, original draft preparation. S.R.B: Formal analysis, validation, and writing—review and editing. M.U: Validation, and writing—review and editing. A.I: Resources, writing—review and editing, project administration, funding acquisition M.A.N: Conceptualization, resources, writing—review and editing, project administration, funding acquisition, and supervision.

Funding

The authors acknowledge the funding from the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan under grant no. TTSF-195 for completing this research work.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-025-98216-4.