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. 2025 Feb 20;34(10):2189–2195. doi: 10.1007/s10068-025-01837-8

Impact of poly-γ-glutamic acid addition and pH changes on the 3D-food printability of cookie dough

Ha Eun Jeong 1,#, Chang Joo Lee 2,#, Sea C Min 1,✉
PMCID: PMC12064522  PMID: 40351728

Abstract

This study aimed to investigate the effects of poly-ɤ-glutamic acid (PGA) addition and pH adjustment on the rheological properties of cookie dough for 3D printing. Adding 1–2% PGA to the dough increased the storage modulus (G'), loss modulus (G''), shear modulus, tan δ, yield stress (τ0), phase angle, apparent viscosity, and hardness. Similarly, increasing the dough’s pH from 6.0 to 8.5 enhanced G', G'', shear modulus, τ0, and hardness. The addition of Alcalase to dough with high hardness modified the rheological parameters, making them to meet the required material criteria. The pH adjustment made the Alcalase treatment effective in modifying the parameters. The addition of 1% PGA or pH adjustment enabled successful 3D printing of the dough by improving fidelity, shape retention, and extrudability. Therefore, PGA addition and pH adjustment are effective methods for tailoring the physical properties of cookie dough for 3D printing applications.

Keywords: Fused deposition modeling, 3D printing, Cookie dough, Printability

Introduction

Most 3D food printing applications in the food industry are currently based on the fused deposition modeling (FDM) technique. In FDM-based 3D printing, the material is extruded through a nozzle and stacked layer by layer into the desired shape under defined conditions (In et al., 2024; Liu et al., 2019). Materials for FDM-based 3D printing must exhibit adequate extrudability to ensure smooth passage through the nozzle, shape-retention to support the weight of the printed structure, and fidelity to accurately replicate the designed shape (Jeong et al., 2024; Le-Bail et al., 2020). While cookie dough possesses uniform viscoelastic behavior suitable for FDM 3D printing (Pavičić et al., 2021), traditional cookie dough formulations are often unsuitable for this application due to excessive stickiness, poor extrudability, or structural instability, leading to shape collapse after printing (Yang et al., 2018).For cookie dough formulations that pose challenges in 3D printing, their suitability can be enhanced by modifying the composition or incorporating additives to improve viscoelasticity. Jeong et al. (2024) demonstrated that the addition of ultrasound treatment and CaCl2 to a jelly formulation could effectively transform the material to meet the required criteria for 3D printing.

Poly-γ-glutamic acid (PGA) is a biodegradable, non-toxic, anionic polyamide in which usually 104–107-Da L-glutamic acid molecules are polymerized via γ-carboxyl-α-amino amide linkages (Ashiuchi et al., 2010; Nair et al., 2023; Xie et al., 2020), and has gained much attention because of its potential applications in the field of regenerative medicine, the food industry, and others (Nair et al., 2023; Park et al., 2021). PGA improves the viscosity of wheat flour dough by increasing its water retention capacity (Fiora et al., 1990; Xie et al., 2020), and is used as a natural thickener in flour dough. Therefore, the addition of PGA can change the rheological properties of the dough to cookie dough formulations that are difficult to print using an FDM 3D printer and improve the viscoelasticity of the cookie dough formulation by increasing the moisture retention capacity of the dough, thus enhancing the formulation printability.

Adjusting the pH of flour-based dough is a common practice in pastry and bakery production to modify dough properties (Kim et al., 2011). As pH increases, the formation of disulfide bonds intensifies while sulfhydryl group content decreases. This increase in disulfide bonds contributes to the development of gluten and glutenin networks, enhancing both elasticity and viscosity (Chen et al., 2020; Shiau and Yeh, 2001). Thus, pH adjustment can be used as an effective method to control the physical properties of cookie dough and improve its suitability for 3D printing. When the optimal range of rheological parameters is identified for successful cookie dough printing, these parameters can serve as material criteria for 3D printing applications. If a dough formulation meets these criteria (rheological parameter ranges), successful printing can be achieved; otherwise, printing may fail. For formulations that do not meet the required criteria, rheological parameters can be modified by adding PGA or adjusting the pH, enabling successful 3D printing. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of PGA addition and pH adjustment on the rheological properties of cookie dough and to assess their potential to modify these properties for successful 3D printing.

Materials and methods

Materials

Cookie dough was prepared using soft wheat flour (77.0 g/100.0 g starch, 8.0 g/100.0 g protein, and 1.5 g/100.0 g lipids; CJ Co., Ltd, Seoul, Korea), granulated sugar (CJ Co., Ltd, Seoul, Korea), and olive oil (Sempio Foods Co., Seoul, Korea). Poly-γ-glutamic acid (PGA) was supplied by BioLeaders Co. (Yongin, Korea). Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and Alcalase® (2.4 U/g) were used for pH control and were purchased from Samchun Pure Chemical Co. (Pyeongtaek, Korea) and Sigma-Aldrich (St Louis, MO, USA), respectively.

Cookie dough formulation

This study utilized a cookie dough formulation suitable for 3D printing, as determined in a previous study (In et al., 2021), in investigating the effects of PGA concentration and pH adjustment on the dough's properties required for 3D printing. The formulation exhibited high fidelity, shape retention, and extrudability and was composed of 51% soft wheat flour (w/w, wet basis), 20% sugar, 10% olive oil, and 19% water. This formulation (FM-O) satisfied the material criteria established in earlier studies. A second formulation (FM-X), developed in a previous study (In et al., 2021), did not meet these criteria. FM-X contained 48% soft wheat flour (w/w, wet basis), 20% sugar, 10% olive oil, and 22% water. Modifications, including PGA addition or pH adjustment, were applied to both FM-O and FM-X formulations. For example, FM-X formulations were added with PGA at 1% (FM-X-PGA 1%) or adjusted at pH 8.5 (FM-X-pH 8.5). To prepare FM-O, soft wheat flour (51 g) and sugar (20 g) were mixed with distilled water (19 g) and olive oil (10 g) at 600 rpm for 5 min using an electronic dough mixer (HM-680, Kenwood Ltd., Hampshire, UK) until a uniform dough mixture was obtained. For PGA-enhanced dough, PGA was added at concentrations of 1, 2, and 3% to 0.51 g, 1.02 g, and 1.53 g of soft wheat flour content, respectively, before combining the flour and sugar with water. Dough pH (7.0 or 8.5) was adjusted by dissolving NaOH in distilled water and adding to the mixture before mixing. The pH of the final dough was measured using a universal indicator paper (KA22-92A, Doosan, Korea). The 40.8 mg of Alcalase was dissolved in 22 g of distilled water, and this enzyme solution was used in place of distilled water in the formulation.

Cookie dough 3D printing requirement

As explained in the previous sections, earlier studies determined the material criteria by assessing the rheological properties of formulations with high fidelity, shape retention, and extrudability (In et al., 2021, 2022; Jeong et al., 2024). Rheological properties for determining material criteria are storage modulus (G'), loss modulus (G''), tan δ (G''/G'), shear modulus, yield stress (τ0), phase angle, apparent viscosity, and hardness, whose established values (range) are 7,165–12,590 Pa, 4,161–8,297 Pa, 0.58–0.69, 7,758–11,063, 50.22–86.45 Pa, 29.94–34.63°, 181.25–294.09 Pa·s, and 0.91–1.87 N, respectively. Of these rheological parameters, G', G'', and tan δ values are related to fidelity; G', shear modulus, tan δ, τ0, and hardness related to shape retention; and G', G'', shear modulus, apparent viscosity, phase angle, and hardness related to extrudability (Liu et al., 2018; Yang et al., 2018; Sun et al., 2015).

Determining rheological parameters

The rheological characteristics of the cookie dough formulations were measured using a rotary rheometer (MCR 92, Anton Paar, Graz, Austria) equipped with a parallel-plate geometry (plate diameter: 50 mm; measuring system diameter: 25 mm; measuring system height: 115 mm; and measuring gap: 10 mm). Data acquisition and analysis were performed using Anton Paar RheoCompass software (Graz, Austria). Key rheological parameters, including storage modulus (G'), loss modulus (G''), tan δ, shear modulus, and phase angle, were calculated as the average values within the linear viscoelastic region (shear strain: 0.0001–0.01%) obtained from amplitude sweeps conducted by varying strain in the range of 0.0001–0.1% at a fixed frequency of 1 Hz (Kim et al., 2017; 2019; Liu et al., 2018). The shear modulus was calculated as the slope of the linear portion of the stress–strain curve derived from these amplitude sweeps (Kim et al., 2019). The apparent viscosity value was measured by carrying out shear stress sweeps by increasing the shear rates from 0.1 to 10 s−1, and the apparent viscosity of each formulation was determined using rheological parameters at a shear rate of 10 s−1 (Yang et al., 2018). Since measurement becomes challenging as dough samples tend to roll out of the geometry at shear rates greater than 10 s−1 (Gholamipour-Shirazi et al., 2019), the shear rate applied to the sample during measurement was specified within the range of 0.1–10 s−1. The hardness of the cookie dough formulation was measured using a texture analyzer (TA-XT2, Stable Micro System Co. Ltd., Surrey, UK) according to the method described by Yang et al. (2018). The sample (30 g) was measured in a slab (5.5 × 4.0 × 1.0 cm). A cylindrical probe (P/20p) with a diameter of 20 mm was used. The probe was set to compress the dough samples to 25% strain, with the trigger force acting downward with forces of 0.049 N, 0.029 N, 0.019 N; the return speed was set, was set to 2 mm/s. Hardness was determined as the maximum force (N) on the curve during the compression of the dough formulation (Yang et al., 2018).

3D printing

Cookie dough was printed using a syringe-type extrusion-based fused deposition modeling (FDM) 3D printer (FoodBot MF, Changxing Shiyin Technology Co. Ltd., Hangzhou, China). The 3D printing system consisted of a heating barrel that maintained the temperature of the formulation in the syringe, an extrusion head equipped with a nozzle, and a printing platform on which the object was printed. The cookie dough was shaped in the form of a cone with a height of 20 mm and a bottom diameter of 25 mm, and the Autodesk 123D Design program (Autodesk, Inc., CA, USA) was used for 3D modeling. The printing conditions, such as nozzle diameter, layer height, and extruder moving speed, were directly sent to the 3D printer in G-code format using the Simplify3D slicer software (Cincinnati, USA). The heating barrel temperature, nozzle temperature, extruder temperature, nozzle diameter, layer height, coasting distance, and extruder moving speed set in this study were 25 °C, 25 °C, 25 °C, 0.84 mm, 0.75 mm, 10 mm, and 6 mm/s, respectively.

Experimental design

All experiments were performed in triplicates. In each repeat experiment, the rheological parameters or hardness were measured using three different portions of the same dough. All data were analyzed by one-way ANOVA using SPSS (ver. 24.0; IBM SPSS Inc., New York, NY, U.S.A). Duncan’s multiple-range test was conducted for cases with significant differences.

Results and discussion

Effects of PGA addition on the rheological parameters needed to 3D print cookie dough formulations

Table 1 shows the effects of PGA on the rheological parameters of cookie dough. When PGA was added at a concentration of 1 or 2% of soft wheat flour content, the elasticity of the dough formulation increased by increasing G', shear modulus, τ0, and hardness. The viscosity of the dough formulation also increased by increasing G'', phase angle, and apparent viscosity. In addition, tan δ representing the ratio of G″ to G′ increased, indicating that increment in viscosity was relatively larger than that in elasticity. On the contrary, the addition of PGA increased G', G'', shear modulus, τ0, apparent viscosity, and hardness of the dough sample added with 3% PGA (FM-O-PGA 3%). The tan δ and the phase angle that exhibits solid-like behavior as the value approaches 0 decreased (Gholamipour-Shirazi et al., 2019) Therefore, the addition of 3% PGA was found to increase both viscoelasticity of the dough, and elasticity more than viscosity. PGA is an anionic polymer containing a large number of free carboxyl groups, and when added to cookie dough, it interacts with wheat gluten to form a complex network structure containing water molecules (Xie et al., 2020). Adding PGA to flour dough increases its water retention capacity (Xie et al., 2020), which in turn increases the viscosity. In addition, the increase in dough elasticity with the addition of PGA aligned with previous findings (Bajestani et al., 2020; Sun et al., 2015). The increase in elasticity due to the addition of PGA is attributable to the chain structure formed by the electrostatic repulsion of the carboxylate groups in PGA with the amino groups of the gluten molecules in the dough (Clark et al., 2001). In particular, when PGA is added at higher than 3% by weight of the soft wheat flour, more chain branches form a stable and strong dough network structure (Şanlı et al., 2011), and this seems to further increase elasticity and hardness of the dough. The addition of PGA to the cookie dough formulation affected 3D printing requirements by changing the rheological parameters of the dough and increasing its viscoelasticity and hardness of the dough formulation.

Table 1.

Effects of PGA addition to cookie dough on the material parameters representing fidelity, shape retention, and extrudability of the cookie dough formulations

Formulation Material parameters1
G' (Pa) G'' (Pa) tan δ Shear modulus (Pa) τ0 (Pa) Phase angle (°) Apparent viscosity (Pa·s) Gel strength (N)
FM-O 9,641 ± 899b 6,436 ± 310b 0.67 ± 0.04b 9,765 ± 1,164c 71.8 ± 9.57b 33.8 ± 1.39bc 285 ± 58.0b 1.06 ± 0.09b
FM-O-PGA 21% 21,908 ± 3,315c 14,425 ± 1,171c 0.66 ± 0.05b 20,918 ± 455d 243.8 ± 26.3c 33.6 ± 2.12bc 463 ± 53.1c 3.53 ± 0.26c
FM-O-PGA 2% 24,865 ± 3,315c 18,669 ± 1,923d 0.76 ± 0.06c 24,232 ± 545e 278.7 ± 10.5d 37.2 ± 2.12c 564 ± 47.5d 3.88 ± 0.17d
FM-O-PGA 3% 29,929 ± 4,951d 20,892 ± 2,086d 0.71 ± 0.06bc 28,246 ± 654f 431.6 ± 35.1e 35.2 ± 2.07bc 649 ± 61.2d 5.07 ± 0.07e
FM-X 3,240 ± 410a 1,769 ± 94.0a 0.55 ± 0.06a 3,079 ± 265a 35.5 ± 2.25a 28.9 ± 2.50a 149 ± 53.1a 0.40 ± 0.05a
FM-X-PGA 1% 8,178 ± 965ab 5,130 ± 262b 0.62 ± 0.03ab 8,010 ± 568b 79.5 ± 5.46b 32.3 ± 1.98ab 183 ± 47.5a 1.26 ± 0.09b
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1Data represent means ± standard deviations (n = 3). The values with different superscripts within a column are significantly different (p < 0.05). 2The PGA concentration is presented with respect to the weight of soft wheat flour (w/w)

Table 1 presents the effect of adding 1% PGA to the formulation (FM-X) that did not meet the printing requirements owing to its low fidelity, shape retention, and extrudability on its rheological parameters. The addition of 1% PGA to FM-X (FM-X-PGA 1%) increased G', G'', tan δ, shear modulus, τ0, phase angle, apparent viscosity, and hardness values of the formulation. This result demonstrates that the addition of 1% PGA to FM-O and FM-X had the same effect (Table 1). Furthermore, adding 1% PGA to FM-X resulted G', G'', tan δ, shear modulus, τ0, phase angle, apparent viscosity, and hardness values to satisfy material criteria. The addition of PGA affected the rheological parameters of the cookie dough formulation, suggesting that PGA possesses sufficient potential as a material for controlling the properties of 3D printing cookie dough.

Effects of pH increase on rheological parameters to 3D print cookie dough formulations

Table 2 shows the effect of pH adjustment on the rheological parameters of cookie dough. The G', G'', shear modulus, τ0, apparent viscosity, and hardness of cookie dough increased with increasing pH, and the tan δ and phase angle showed a decreasing tendency. Therefore, raising the pH of the cookie dough increased the dough viscosity and elasticity, and, in particular, had a more significant increase in elasticity. In general, when the pH of flour dough is high (e.g., pH 9), disulfide bonding and sulfhydryl-disulfide interactions actively occur in the dough (Shiau and Yeh, 2001), and sulfhydryl-disulfide interactions has been identified to strengthen the gluten network and increase dough viscoelasticity (Chen et al., 2020; Mirsaeedghazi et al., 2008). As a result, an increase in the pH of the cookie dough changed its material properties by increasing its viscoelasticity and hardness, thereby influencing 3D printing requirements such as fidelity, shape retention, and extrudability.

Table 2.

Effects of pH adjustment of cookie dough on the material parameters representing fidelity, shape retention, extrudability of the cookie dough formulations

Formulation Material parameters1
G' (Pa) G'' (Pa) tan δ Shear modulus (Pa) τ0 (Pa) Phase angle (°) Apparent viscosity (Pa·s) Gel strength (N)
FM-O 9,641 ± 899b 6,436 ± 310b 0.67 ± 0.04b 9,765 ± 1,164b 71.8 ± 9.57b 33.8 ± 1.39b 285 ± 58.0bc 1.06 ± 0.09a
FM-O-pH 7.0 14,475 ± 1,882c 9,178 ± 668c 0.64 ± 0.04b 14,745 ± 4,826b 106 ± 21.1bc 32.6 ± 1.61b 359 ± 22.5c 2.89 ± 0.23b
FM-O-pH 8.5 33,136 ± 3,723d 15,826 ± 1,238d 0.50 ± 0.04a 31,541 ± 4,871c 228 ± 31.8d 26.4 ± 1.84a 519 ± 39.9d 4.63 ± 0.95c
FM-X 3,240 ± 410a 1,769 ± 94.0a 0.55 ± 0.06a 3,079 ± 265a 35.5 ± 2.25a 28.9 ± 2.50a 149 ± 53.1a 0.40 ± 0.05a
FM-X-pH 8.5 11,198 ± 1,468bc 5,797 ± 307b 0.52 ± 0.05a 10,018 ± 1,159b 125 ± 16.7c 27.6 ± 2.11a 243 ± 37.0b 0.83 ± 0.08a
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1Data represent means ± standard deviations (n = 3). The values with different superscripts within a column are significantly different (p < 0.05)

Table 2 presents the physical properties of the cookie dough when the pH of FM-X, which did not satisfy the printing requirements, was increased to 8.5 (FM-X-pH 8.5). Raising the dough’s pH increased G', G'', shear modulus, τ0, apparent viscosity, and hardness, while decreased tan δ and phase angle. The pH control of the rheological properties of the FM-O-pH 8.5 sample had the same effect as that of the FM-X-pH 8.5. The G', G'', shear modulus, and apparent viscosity of the formulation with increased pH satisfied printing requirements by being included in material criteria determined in previous studies, however, the tan δ, τ0, phase angle, and hardness were excluded from material criteria. To meet the material criteria, the tan δ and phase angle of the pH-adjusted formulation had to be larger, and τ0 and hardness had to be smaller. This implies that 3D printing is easier when the formulation exhibits more liquid-like behavior by increasing its viscosity more than its elasticity. Alcalase can be added to the formulation to improve the ease of printing by lowering the elasticity of the pH-adjusted formulation (Kim et al., 2001; Yin et al., 2010; Zhang et al., 2018). In this study, Alcalase was added to the dough after increasing the pH of the pH-adjusted cookie dough to 8.5 to increase Alcalase enzyme activity (optimum pH: 8.0 − 9.5), and G', G'', shear modulus, τ0, and hardness decreased to 13,383 Pa, 6,670 Pa, 11,888, 98.88 Pa, and 4.10 N, respectively. Elasticity is reduced when the protein network of the dough is destroyed by enzymatic hydrolysis of proteins by Alcalase (Ghribi et al., 2015). The decreased elastic portion of the viscoelastic behavior seemed to increase tan δ and phase angle and decrease τ0 and hardness. As a result, the addition of Alcalase appeared to have changed the pH-adjusted formulation such that it does not satisfy the material criteria. In addition to this method, Guo et al. (2021) reported that physical treatments, such as microwave heating, can increase the storage and loss moduli thereby changing the properties of 3D printing materials.

The viscoelasticity of the dough increased by adding PGA or increasing the pH; this improves the fidelity among printing requirements, producing an object with higher resolution, because the extrudate exiting the nozzle is formed and maintained at a constant thickness (Pulatsu et al., 2020). Therefore, the improvement of printing requirements means increasing the values of G', G'', and tan δ related to obtain fidelity; G', shear modulus, tan δ, τ0, and hardness to obtain shape retention; and G', G'', shear modulus, apparent viscosity, phase angle, and hardness to obtain extrudability. The results of this study demonstrated that adding PGA and adjusting the pH have significant potential for providing more control over the properties of materials used in the 3D printing of cookie dough.

Comparison of 3D printed cookie dough shapes

Images of cookie dough printed with FM-O, FM-X, FM-X-PGA 1%, and FM-X-pH 8.5 are shown in Fig. 1. An object with a uniform surface was printed using FM-O as the dough smoothly passed through the nozzle and the extrudate exiting the nozzle was formed and maintained at a constant thickness. Moreover, the first extruded layers were retained firmly without collapsing during the stacking process; therefore, the object was structurally stable and printed almost identical to the targeted shape when observed with the naked eye (Fig. 1A). In contrast, when FM-X was extruded through the nozzle, the printed output exhibited mushy and irregular lines, and the deposited layers failed to support their own weight during the stacking process. This outcome seems to be attributable to FM-X, which did not possess sufficient viscoelasticity of the dough because of the relatively low content of soft wheat flour. Therefore, printing an accurate cone-shaped dough was challenging and the shape of the printed object spread over time (Fig. 1B). Meanwhile, despite the low content of soft wheat flour, FM-X-PGA 1% and FM-X-pH 8.5 formed cookie doughs similar to the shape of the output obtained from FM-O (Fig. 1C and D). As mentioned in the previous sections, this was because the addition of PGA and an increase in pH increased the viscoelasticity of FM-X. In a previous study, Jeong et al. (2024) suggested that if the extruded output from the nozzle was not sufficiently gelled, an unstable structure was formed, that spread sideways over time; layer deposition could be achieved by increasing viscoelasticity. Thus, treatment of dough formation with PGA addition and pH adjustment can be used to improve dough printability. The addition of PGA and pH adjustment to cookie dough can be applied to control the properties of the materials used in 3D dough printing. If the formulation used for cookie dough printing is poorly printed, a method developed for property adjustment can be used to make the formulation to match the rheological parameters (material criteria) required for 3D dough printing, thereby improving the printability of the material. The property adjustment method developed in this study is expected to expand the range of material selection for printing stable cookie dough with the desired shape.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

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Comparison of the jelly appearances printed with different formulations. A Cookie dough printed with the formulation satisfying the printing criteria (FM-O). B Cookie dough printed with the formulation deviating from the printing criteria (FM-X). C Cookie dough printed with the formulation deviating from the printing criteria, but added with PGA at 1% (w/w soft wheat flour) (FM-X-PGA 1%). D Cookie dough printed with the formulation deviating from the printing criteria, but adjusted to pH 8.5 (FM-X-pH 8.5)

This study investigated the effects of adding PGA or adjusting the pH of cookie dough formulations on the rheological parameters required for FDM-based 3D dough printing. When the FDM method was applied to formulations that did not satisfy the material criteria for printing, the rheological parameters of the formulations changed to satisfy the material criteria after each treatment. Therefore, this result implies that adding PGA and adjusting the pH of cookie dough can be used to control the properties of materials used in 3D printing. If the formulation used for cookie dough printing has poor print quality, the property control method developed in this study can be used to improve the printability of the material by modifying the rheological parameters of the formulation to satisfy the material criteria required for 3D dough printing. The developed property control method is expected to expand the range of material selections for printing stable cookie doughs to form the desired shapes.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by a research grant from Seoul Women’s University (2025).

Declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Footnotes

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Ha Eun Jeong and Chang Joo Lee have been contributed equally to this work.

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