Advancements in nanofibers and nanocomposites: Cutting-edge innovations for tissue engineering and drug delivery—A review

Abstract

Nanofibers and nanocomposites have emerged as critical materials in biomedical applications, particularly for tissue engineering and medication delivery. These sophisticated nanomaterials are at the forefront of study because of their distinct features, which improve biocompatibility, mechanical strength, and functional adaptability. This review examines the most recent advances in nanomaterial production, characteristics, and applications, demonstrating their transformational promise in medicinal treatments and tissue engineering procedures. The advancement of advanced production processes such as electrospinning, self-assembly, and in situ, polymerization has substantially improved the structural and functional properties of nanofibers and nanocomposites. These techniques have resulted in materials with a high surface area-to-volume ratio, customizable degradation rates, and the capacity to closely imitate the extracellular matrix, making them great candidates for scaffolding and controlled drug delivery systems. The flexibility of nanofibers and nanocomposites in these applications is also notable because it offers new avenues for concentrated and sustained drug administration, which is critical for treating a variety of medical problems. Furthermore, these materials have demonstrated tremendous potential in regenerative medicine, providing novel solutions for the formation of bone, cartilage, skin, and neural tissues. The capacity to create tissues that closely resemble natural shapes and functions holds enormous promise for solving tissue repair and regeneration difficulties. As improvements continue, the incorporation of nanotechnology into biomedical engineering is projected to transform healthcare by providing more effective, targeted, and personalized treatments. These advancements mark a tremendous step forward, demonstrating the revolutionary power of nanofibers and nanocomposites in the future of medicine. The continuing investigation and development of these materials are anticipated to result in innovative medicines that improve patient outcomes and advance the profession of biomedical engineering.

Graphical abstract.

This is a visual representation of the abstract.

Introduction

The field of nanotechnology has significantly impacted biomedical sciences, with nanofibers and nanocomposites at the forefront of research and development. These materials have remarkable characteristics that make them ideal for a variety of medical applications, such as high surface area-to-volume ratios, mechanical properties that can be adjusted, and the capacity to mimic the extracellular matrix (ECM). Nanofibers, typically produced through methods such as electrospinning, self-assembly, and phase separation, exhibit a unique combination of flexibility and strength. Their high surface area-to-volume ratio enhances cell attachment and proliferation, which is crucial for tissue engineering (M. Angolkar et al.). ¹ The construction of scaffolds that closely resemble the extracellular matrix (ECM) found in nature is made possible by the careful manipulation of fiber diameter, alignment, and porosity, which provides the best conditions for tissue regeneration. For example, highly porous structures that support the flow of nutrients and oxygen—both essential for cell survival and proliferation in engineered tissues—can be created using electrospun nanofibers. These attributes have made them highly sought after for a range of applications, from drug delivery systems and tissue engineering scaffolds to filtration devices and sensors. Recent innovations in fabrication techniques, such as electrospinning, self-assembly, and phase separation, have significantly enhanced the ability to produce nanofibers with precise control over their structure and functionality (A. Y. Darwesh et al.). ² This has paved the way for the development of next-generation materials with unprecedented capabilities, enabling significant improvements in medical treatments, environmental protection, and industrial processes (A. R. Borah et al.). ³ This introduction provides an overview of the latest advancements in nanofiber technology, highlighting key developments and their potential impact on various sectors.

Nanocomposites, which integrate nanoparticles within a polymer matrix, offer another layer of functionality. These materials can be designed to possess specific mechanical properties, such as enhanced tensile strength and elasticity, by incorporating various types of nanoparticles like carbon nanotubes, graphene, or metal oxides. The resulting composites not only mimic the mechanical properties of natural tissues but also provide additional functionalities, such as electrical conductivity for neural applications or magnetic properties for targeted drug delivery. In tissue engineering, nanofibers and nanocomposites are used to create scaffolds for regenerating bone, cartilage, skin, and neural tissues. For bone regeneration, nanocomposites reinforced with hydroxyapatite or bioactive glass nanoparticles provide the necessary mechanical support and bioactivity to promote osteogenesis. In cartilage repair, the elasticity and resilience of nanocomposite scaffolds support the mechanical demands of joint movement while facilitating chondrocyte growth and extracellular matrix deposition (Keshu, M. et al.). ⁴ Nanofibers are excellent scaffolds for wound healing in skin tissue engineering because they share structural similarities with the extracellular matrix (ECM), which promotes fibroblast adhesion and proliferation. Additionally, functionalized nanofibers with antimicrobial properties can prevent infections, a critical factor in wound management. For neural tissue engineering, conductive nanocomposites facilitate the transmission of electrical signals, aiding in the regeneration of neural pathways and improving outcomes in nerve repair. As Figure 1 shows based on their engineering applications, which are based on electrical, mechanical, and/or optical behavior, nanocomposites are divided into two groups. One example of this kind of material is a semiconductor superlattice, also known as a nanolayered semiconductor, which is composed of alternating layers of single-crystal gallium aluminium and Ga AlxAs1-x. structural materials, that is, according to their mechanical characteristics. Metal matrix nanocomposites (MMNC), ceramic matrix nanocomposites (CMNC), and polymer matrix nanocomposites (PMNC) are the three types of nanocomposites that are differentiated based on the matrix material.

Figure 1.

Classification of nanocomposites (S. K. Panigrahy et al.) ⁵ .

In drug delivery systems, nanofibers and nanocomposites enable controlled and targeted delivery of therapeutic agents. The high surface area of nanofibers allows for substantial drug loading, while their tunable degradation rates ensure sustained release profiles. Surface modifications of these materials can achieve targeted delivery, directing drugs to specific cells or tissues, thus enhancing therapeutic efficacy and minimizing side effects for instance, nanoparticles within nanocomposites can be engineered to respond to external stimuli, such as pH or temperature changes, providing on-demand drug release capabilities (N. Aminu et al.). ⁶ Illustrates Figure 2. The application and advanced functionalities of nanofibers and nanocomposites position them as pivotal materials in the future of biomedical sciences. Their ability to replicate the complex structure and functions of natural tissues, combined with their customizable properties, makes them indispensable in developing next-generation medical treatments and regenerative therapies. As research continues to evolve, these nanomaterials hold the promise of transforming the landscape of medicine, offering innovative solutions to some of the most challenging medical problems.

Figure 2.

Applications of nanocomposites and nanofibers (U. O. Uyor et al.) ⁸ .

Their versatility and potential to transform medicine by offering innovative solutions to some of the most challenging medical problems as research into them advances make them indispensable for developing regenerative therapies and next-generation medical treatments. This game-changing potential emphasizes how crucial it is to keep funding and researching the use of nanomaterials in drug delivery to make discoveries that could dramatically enhance patient care and treatment efficacy.

Figure 3.

Applications of electro spinning in nanofibers (S. Nemati et al.) ¹⁶ .

Hydrogel description

Hydrogels contain nanofibers, excellent fibers with sizes in the nanometre range. They mirror natural tissues’ extracellular matrix (ECM) and improve structural integrity when incorporated into hydrogels. Current developments centre on methods of electrospinning that yield nanofibers with particular chemical and physical properties in Figure 3. These hydrogels reinforced with nanofibers have higher tissue regeneration abilities, stronger mechanical qualities, and increased cell adhesion. Their porosity structure facilitates waste and nutrition exchange, both of which are essential for tissue engineering scaffold cell survival. The integration of nanocomposites, a combination of nanoparticles and a polymer matrix, into hydrogels is gaining momentum as a means of introducing novel capabilities like antibacterial characteristics, controlled drug release, and stimulus responsiveness. Smart hydrogels that react to external stimuli (such as temperature, pH, light, or magnetic fields) can be created by incorporating nanoparticles such as silver, gold, or magnetic particles into hydrogels (D. Sahu et al.) ⁷ Because they allow for exact control over release rates and can target specific tissues or cells, these smart nanocomposite hydrogels are proving to be very useful in drug delivery systems are illustrated in Figure 4. Recent advances in tissue engineering have concentrated on producing hydrogel scaffolds that can be 3D printed and embedded with nanofibers and nanocomposites to mimic the structural and functional characteristics of real tissues. As Figure 5 illustrates these hydrogel-nanocomposite systems facilitate faster and more efficient tissue regeneration by combining growth factors and bioactive chemicals, which makes them perfect for applications such as bone, cartilage, and skin restoration. Hydrogels made of nanofiber and nanocomposite are being developed to provide extremely regulated and long-lasting medication delivery. For instance, hydrogels loaded with nanoparticles can react to variations in the physiological environment (such as pH or temperature) to release medications at a regulated pace, reducing adverse effects and optimizing therapeutic efficacy. These developments are especially significant for managing chronic diseases, where localized, long-term medication distribution is essential.

Figure 4.

Schematic diagram of melt spin nanofibers (F. Zhang et al.) ¹⁸ .

Figure 5.

Schematic representation of the different types phase separated composite (A. Li et al.) ²⁰ .

Table 1.

Fabrication techniques of nanofibers.

Sl. No	Technique	Process	Advantages	Applications
1.	Sol–gel method	Mixing of precursors in solution, followed by gelation and drying to form nanocomposite	High purity, control over structure	Coatings, sensors, drug delivery systems
2.	In situ polymerization	Nanoparticles are dispersed in monomer, followed by polymerization to embed nanoparticles	Strong interface between matrix and nanoparticles	Automotive components, packaging, biomedical devices
3.	Melt blending	Nanoparticles are mixed into molten polymer, followed by solidification	Solvent-free, suitable for large-scale production	Packaging, electronics, structural materials
4.	Solution blending	Nanoparticles and polymer are dissolved in solvent, followed by mixing and evaporation	Uniform dispersion of nanoparticles	Drug delivery, biomedical devices, coatings
5.	Hot pressing	Nanoparticles and polymer mixture are heated and pressed to form nanocomposite sheets	Produces dense, strong materials	Structural materials, aerospace, automotive applications
6.	Solvent casting	Nanoparticles are mixed with polymer solution and cast into a mold, followed by solvent evaporation	Simple, cost-effective	Thin films for packaging, coatings, and drug delivery systems

Historical background

Nanofibers have revolutionized various fields, particularly biomedical engineering, materials science, and environmental technology. As ultra-fine fibers with diameters in the nanometre range, nanofibers exhibit unique properties such as high surface area-to-volume ratio, remarkable mechanical strength, and tunable physical and chemical characteristics. The journey of nanocomposites and nanofibers began in the mid-twentieth century with the exploration of nanoscale reinforcements in polymers. Researchers initially focused on improving the mechanical properties of polymers by incorporating nanosized fillers, which significantly enhanced their strength and durability are shown in Figure 6. The 1990s marked a pivotal period in this field with the discovery of carbon nanotubes, which possess extraordinary mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties are shown in Table 1. This discovery revolutionized the development of nanocomposites, enabling the creation of materials with superior performance characteristics. Concurrently, the advancement of electrospinning techniques allowed for the production of nanofibers with diameters in the nanometer range. Electrospinning uses an electric field to stretch a polymer solution into fibers. These early innovations laid a robust foundation for the application of nanocomposites and nanofibers in biomedical fields fields are shown in Figure 7. Driven by the need for materials that can mimic natural tissue and deliver drugs effectively, researchers began to explore the biomedical potential of these nanomaterials. Nanofibers, with their high porosity and structural similarity to the extracellular matrix (ECM), proved ideal for tissue engineering scaffolds. For tissue regeneration, they improve cell adhesion, differentiation, and proliferation. Similarly, nanocomposites have opened up new avenues for the development of cutting-edge drug delivery methods due to their superior mechanical and bioactive capabilities. As Figure 8 demonstrates, the pioneering advancements in nanocomposites and nanofibers have significantly impacted the fields of tissue engineering and drug delivery, setting the stage for ongoing innovations in biomedical engineering.

Figure 6.

Schematic representation of situ polymerization (N. H. Yusof et al.) ²² .

Figure 7.

Applications of solution bending technique in nanocomposites (X. Wang et al.) ²⁶ .

Figure 8.

Applications of polymeric nanofibers in tissue engineering (V. Kumar et al.) ³⁰ .

Table 2.

Fabrication techniques of nanocomposites.

Sl. No	Technique	Process	Advantages	Applications
1.	Electrospinning	The high voltage applied to the polymer solution, forming fibers as the solvent evaporates	Continuous fibers, controllable diameters	Tissue engineering, drug delivery, filtration membranes
2.	Self-assembly	Molecular interactions (e.g. hydrogen bonding) organize molecules into nanofibers	Highly uniform fibers, precise molecular alignment	Biomedical applications (tissue scaffolds, drug delivery)
3.	Phase separation	Polymer solution undergoes solvent removal, causing phase separation into the nanofibrous structure	Controlled porosity and structure	Tissue engineering scaffolds, drug delivery systems
4.	Drawing	Polymer droplet are manually stretched into thin fibers using mechanical means	Long, continuous fibers, uniform diameters	Small-scale applications, research purposes
5.	Template synthesis	Polymer deposited in template pores (e.g. AAO), forming fibers upon template removal	Precise control over fiber diameter and shape	Electronics, drug delivery, energy storage.
6.	Melt spinning	Polymer melt extruded through nozzles rapidly cooled to form solid fibers	Suitable for large-scale production, solvent-free	Textiles, filtration, industrial applications

Nanocomposites

Nanocomposites are cutting-edge materials that combine nanomaterials with traditional matrices to improve their performance and characteristics in a range of applications. Nanocomposites are materials with special properties that outperform those of conventional materials. These properties are achieved by combining nanoparticles, such as metals, ceramics, or polymers, into a base material. These improvements include higher chemical reactivity, greater mechanical strength, and increased thermal and electrical conductivity. Because of their adaptability, nanocomposites can be used in a wide range of applications, such as tissue engineering and drug delivery systems, where they can be used to create better scaffolding for tissue regeneration and enable targeted and controlled release of medicinal drugs. The use of nanomaterials presents questions regarding possible toxicity and environmental effects even with their benefits. Understanding and reducing these hazards while using the advantages of nanocomposites is still essential for expanding their use in industry, technology, and medicine as research continues (M. Y. Khalid et al.) ⁹

Advancement and toxicity of nanocomposites

Due to their improved tissue regeneration, tailored release, and drug stability, recent developments in nanocomposites have greatly improved tissue engineering and drug delivery systems. As Figure 9 Illustrates the tissue scaffolds’ mechanical qualities are improved and drug release patterns can be precisely controlled thanks to nanocomposites, which are materials composed of nanoparticles mixed with polymers or other substances. To enhance tissue healing or enable more effective and targeted medication administration, these materials can be engineered to react to particular physiological conditions. Toxicological problems are brought up by the use of nanocomposites, though (K. S. Pushpa Valli et al.). ¹⁰ Nanoparticles’ small size and large surface area may result in unfavorable interactions with tissues and cells that could trigger inflammatory or cytotoxic reactions. The possibility of long-term organ buildup and the effects of nanomaterial breakdown on the environment are more causes for concern. To solve these toxicity concerns and guarantee the safe use of nanocomposites in therapeutic and medical settings, thorough safety assessments and in-depth research are needed are shown in Table 2.

Figure 9.

Applications of nanomaterials in tissue engineering.

Figure 10.

Nanoparticle use in drug development & drug delivery treatment for several diseases.

Nanofibers

Nanofibers are nanomaterials with dimensions ranging from 1 to 1000 nanometers. Nanofibers have received a lot of attention in the scientific and industrial domains because of their unique structural and functional features. Their unusually high surface area-to-volume ratio, porosity, and mechanical strength make them extremely versatile and adaptable to a wide range of applications. Nanofibers can be made from a variety of materials, including polymers, metals, ceramics, and carbon-based compounds, utilizing techniques like electrospinning, melt-blowing, and self-assembly (M. Zheng et al.). ¹¹ Electrospinning is the most extensively utilized of these technologies, allowing for the creation of continuous nanofibers with exact control over fiber diameter and orientation. These fibers can be functionalized with bioactive chemicals, nanoparticles, or medicines, creating new possibilities in disciplines including biomedicine, energy storage, and environmental science. Nanofibers are used in tissue engineering to create scaffolds that imitate the extracellular matrix, promoting cell proliferation and tissue regeneration are shown in Figure 10. They are also utilized in drug delivery systems, which allow for the regulated release of medicinal substances. Furthermore, nanofibers are used in filtration, sensor technology, and wearable electronics, where their fine structure and conductivity provide distinct advantages. As research advances, nanofibers have the potential to revolutionize future technologies (A. Raizaday et al.) ¹²

Types of nanofibers

1. Polymeric nanofibers

2. Carbon nanofibers

3. Metallic nanofibers

4. Ceramic nanofibers

5. Composite nanofibers

6. Coaxial nanofibers

7. Natural nanofibers

Nanofibers in tissue engineering

Ultrafine fibers known as nanofibers normally have dimensions between a few micrometers and nanometers. Their exceptional mechanical qualities, large surface area-to-volume ratio, and capacity to produce extremely porous structures define them. Because of these characteristics, nanofibers can be used in a variety of processes, such as medication delivery, tissue engineering, filtration, and wound healing. The process of creating nanofibers frequently includes methods like electrospinning, which gives exact control over the morphology and diameter of the fibers. Nanofibers can resemble the extracellular matrix of real tissues because of their nanoscale size, which encourages cell adhesion and development (Y. Zhang et al.). ¹³ In addition, the large surface area of these agents facilitates substantial drug loading and surface functionalization, which in turn allows for targeted administration and regulated release of therapeutic agents. All things considered, nanofibers are a novel and adaptable material.

Fabrication technique

Several advanced techniques are used in the manufacture of nanofibers for tissue engineering to create highly specialized scaffolds that mimic the extracellular matrix. The most popular of these methods is electrospinning because of its adaptability and capacity to produce continuous nanofibers with precise morphology and diameter. By using a high voltage on a polymer solution, electrospinning produces tiny jets that move in the direction of a collector and eventually solidify into fibers. Other noteworthy production techniques include self-assembly, in which molecules spontaneously organize into nanofibers driven by non-covalent interactions, and phase separation, which makes use of the thermodynamic instability of polymer solutions to generate fibrous structures. Moreover, pre-made templates are used in template synthesis to shape polymers into nanofiber forms. Certain advantages, such as fine control over fiber architecture, composition, and mechanical properties, distinguish each of these methods, which makes them appropriate for particular tissue engineering applications (E. Gezmis-Yavuz. et al.) ¹⁴

Nanofibers’ power to assist cell proliferation, differentiation, and tissue regeneration is further enhanced by their ability to be functionalized with bioactive substances. Nanofiber-based scaffolds are expected to be a key component of next-generation tissue engineering solutions, providing better outcomes for patients suffering from degenerative illnesses and tissue damage, as long as fabrication techniques continue to progress.

Fabrication technique of nanofibers

Electrospinning

Electrospinning is the most common technique for fabricating nanofibers, involving the application of a high-voltage electric field to a polymer solution, which creates fibers with diameters ranging from nanometres to micrometers. This method is highly versatile, allowing for the use of various polymers and the incorporation of bioactive molecules, which makes it particularly valuable for biomedical applications. Recent advancements in electrospinning include the development of coaxial electrospinning, enabling the creation of core-shell fibers. These core-shell structures are highly beneficial for controlled drug release and tissue scaffolding applications, as they can encapsulate therapeutic agents within the core while maintaining a protective outer shell. This innovation enhances the functionality and efficiency of nanofibers in drug delivery systems and tissue engineering, providing precise control over the release kinetics of drugs and supporting the regeneration of complex tissue structures (K. S. Dayisoylu et al.) ¹⁵

Melt spinning

This method involves melting and extruding a polymer through a spinneret to form fibers. It is particularly advantageous for producing fibers from thermoplastic polymers, as it eliminates the need for solvents, thereby reducing potential cytotoxicity. The absence of solvents not only enhances the biocompatibility of the fibers but also simplifies the production process, making it more environmentally friendly and cost-effective. Furthermore, the melt spinning technique allows precise control over the fiber diameter and morphology by adjusting the processing parameters such as temperature, extrusion rate, and spinneret design. This capability is crucial for tailoring the fibers to specific biomedical applications, such as creating scaffolds with optimal mechanical properties and porosity for tissue engineering. The method's ability to produce high-quality, solvent-free fibers makes it a valuable tool in the development of safe and effective materials for medical use. Moreover, recent advancements have made it easier to fabricate fibers with the precise mechanical strengths and rates of degradation needed for a range of tissue engineering applications (L. Xie et al.). ¹⁷ Additionally, new possibilities for creating scaffolds that promote tissue regeneration and cell growth have been made possible by incorporating biocompatible and biodegradable polymers into melt-spinning. Additionally, the technique has been modified to allow for the direct insertion of functional additives into the fibers during the spinning process, such as growth factors and antibacterial agents. A popular method for creating nanocomposites is melt spinning, which uses its ease of use and scalability to create fibers with embedded nanoparticles. To create continuous fibers, melt spinning works by first heating a polymer to a molten condition and then extruding it through a spinneret. To preserve the structural integrity of the fiber, the polymer is quickly cooled and solidified by a cooling medium, such as air or water, as it leaves the spinneret. Before extrusion, nanoparticles are evenly distributed throughout the polymer melt in the context of nanocomposites. Because of this integration, the mechanical, thermal, and functional properties of the fibers are improved when the nanoparticles become immersed within them during the formation process.

Phase separation

Phase separation is a fabrication technique where a polymer solution undergoes a thermodynamic process, leading to the separation into two distinct phases, resulting in the formation of a porous nanofiber structure. This method involves dissolving a polymer in a suitable solvent, followed by inducing phase separation through cooling, solvent evaporation, or the addition of a nonsolvent. The polymer-rich phase solidifies into nanofibers, while the polymer-poor phase creates pores within the fibers. One of the primary advantages of phase separation is its ability to precisely control the morphology and porosity of the nanofibers. By adjusting parameters such as polymer concentration, temperature, and the type of nonsolvent used, researchers can tailor the pore size, fiber diameter, and overall architecture of the scaffold to meet specific tissue engineering requirements (H. Yang et al.) ¹⁹ This technique is particularly beneficial for applications where nutrient and waste exchange are critical, such as in cartilage and liver tissue engineering. The highly porous structure mimics the natural extracellular matrix, promoting cell adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation, thereby enhancing tissue regeneration.

In tissue engineering, phase separation is a frequently utilized approach to create porous composite scaffolds that closely resemble the extracellular matrix seen in nature. A homogenous polymer solution is split into two separate phases—a polymer-rich phase and a polymer-poor phase—according to the principle of phase separation. Usually, this is accomplished by adding a nonsolvent to the polymer solution or by changing the temperature. The polymer-poor phase, which typically consists of the solvent, is eliminated when the polymer-rich phase hardens and produces a porous structure. Bioactive substances like nanoparticles, growth factors, or cells can be added to the polymer solution before phase separation in the context of composites for tissue engineering.

Situ polymerization

In situ polymerization is a widely used technique for the fabrication of nanocomposites and nanofibers, offering significant advantages in terms of uniformity and material properties. This method involves the polymerization of monomers in the presence of dispersed nanoparticles, ensuring an even distribution of the nanoparticles throughout the polymer matrix. The process typically begins with the dispersion of nanoparticles in a monomer solution, followed by the initiation of polymerization through heat, radiation, or chemical initiators. This technique is particularly effective in enhancing the mechanical, thermal, and chemical properties of the resulting nanocomposites, making them suitable for various applications in tissue engineering. In situ polymerization allows for the creation of nanocomposites with tailored properties by adjusting the type and concentration of nanoparticles, the monomer composition, and the polymerization conditions. For nanofibers, in situ polymerization can be integrated with electrospinning to produce fibers with embedded nanoparticles, leading to enhanced structural integrity and functional performance (Y. Dou et al.) ²¹

The resulting nanofibers exhibit superior mechanical strength, biocompatibility, and bioactivity, making them ideal for scaffolding in tissue engineering applications such as bone, cartilage, and vascular tissue regeneration.

The exact inclusion of bioactive components within a polymer matrix during the polymerization process is made possible by the crucial technology known as in situ polymerization, which is used to create composite scaffolds in tissue engineering. The concept of operation is starting the polymerization of monomers inside a mold or other suitable place, where the bioactive components—such as growth factors, nanoparticles, or cells—have already been distributed. The bioactive ingredients are first mixed with monomers and initiators in this approach. The monomers react to produce lengthy polymer chains after polymerization is started, usually by heat, light, or chemical catalysts. This encapsulates the bioactive components within the expanding polymer network. The bioactive compounds are distributed uniformly throughout the composite scaffold as a result of this process. The capacity of in situ polymerization to create intricate, three-dimensional structures with carefully regulated mechanical and biological properties is its main benefit. By imitating the extracellular matrix seen in nature, these scaffolds can be made to encourage cell adhesion, growth, and differentiation (B. Mahanty et al.). ²³ Moreover, in situ approaches are a very successful way to create functional tissue engineering constructions since the mild polymerization settings they frequently employ assist in maintaining the biological activity of integrated components.

Solution bending

Solution blending is a widely used technique for fabricating nanocomposites, leveraging the synergistic properties of nanoparticles and polymers. The process begins with the thorough mixing of nanoparticles and polymers in a suitable solvent. This solvent serves as a medium to ensure uniform dispersion of the nanoparticles throughout the polymer matrix. Once the nanoparticles are evenly distributed, the next step is solvent evaporation. This can be achieved through various methods such as heating, vacuum drying, or using a combination of both to remove the solvent completely (Z. Li et al.) ²⁴ The removal of the solvent leaves behind a solid nanocomposite material with the nanoparticles embedded within the polymer matrix. The resulting nanocomposite benefits from the unique properties of both components. Nanoparticles, owing to their high surface area and distinct physical and chemical properties, impart enhanced mechanical strength, thermal stability, and sometimes even electrical conductivity to the polymer matrix. The polymers, on the other hand, provide structural integrity, flexibility, and processability to the composite. This technique is particularly advantageous for producing nanocomposites with tailored properties, as the type and concentration of nanoparticles, choice of polymer, and solvent can be varied to meet specific application requirements. The creation of sophisticated materials for application in tissue engineering, medication delivery, and electronics can be achieved by the comparatively easy process of solution blending, which can be scaled up for industrial manufacturing. Overall, solution blending is a versatile and efficient method for creating nanocomposites that combine the best properties of nanoparticles and polymers, paving the way for innovative advancements in various technological domains (K. Zang et al.) ²⁵

Solution Blow spinning is a novel technology for creating composite scaffolds in tissue engineering that combines electrospinning and classical blow spinning. The working idea is to dissolve a polymer in a solvent to form a viscous solution that is then delivered through a nozzle. Compressed air or gas is accelerated around the nozzle, ejecting and stretching the polymer solution into fine fibers. As the solvent evaporates quickly during this procedure, the fibers harden and create a non-woven mat on a substrate. Before the blow-spinning process, bioactive elements like nanoparticles, growth factors, or cells can be added to the polymer solution to create composite scaffolds. As a result, the fibrous scaffold of the composite material has an even distribution of these bioactive chemicals. The resulting scaffold is perfect for tissue engineering applications because of the high surface area, porosity, and interconnectivity of the fibers, which promote cell adhesion, proliferation, and nutrient exchange. The promise of solution blow spinning to develop novel materials for regenerative medicine is enhanced by its adaptability and capacity to create scaffolds with customized features. Solution-bending synthesis of nanocomposites for tissue engineering is a painstaking procedure that starts with the preparation of polymer solutions that contain nanoparticles and ends with the electrospinning of the solutions to form nanofibrous scaffolds (Y. Zheng et al.) ²⁷ To create a homogenous solution, the polymer and nanoparticles are first dissolved in the proper solvent. After that, this solution is put into a syringe that has a needle and is exposed to a strong electric field. The solution forms a charged jet under the influence of the electric field, which elongates and thins as it moves in the direction of a grounded collector.

Tissue engineering

Tissue engineering is being revolutionized by nanocomposites and nanofibers, which provide sophisticated methods for generating regenerative and functional tissues. Because of their large surface area and capacity to resemble the extracellular matrix, nanofibers make an excellent scaffold for the development of new tissues and cell proliferation. Growth factors or bioactive compounds can be added to these electrospun fibers to improve cell adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation—thereby facilitating efficient tissue regeneration (B. Mishra et al.). ²⁸ The combination of nanofibers with substances like hydroxyapatite or nanoparticles to create nanocomposites provides extra advantages like increased mechanical strength and bioactivity. These composite scaffolds can be customized to assist in the restoration of skin, cartilage, and bone, among other tissues. By offering a biomimetic environment that encourages osteoblast activity, for example, nanocomposites can help with bone regeneration. Researchers are developing more individualized and efficient regeneration therapies by incorporating these materials into tissue engineering techniques, which will ultimately lead to better outcomes in regenerative medicine.

Applications in tissue engineering

Nanocomposites produced through solution blending have shown tremendous potential in tissue engineering, offering innovative solutions for regenerating damaged or diseased tissues. These materials can be engineered to mimic the extracellular matrix (ECM), providing a supportive scaffold that promotes cell adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation. For example, nanocomposites containing bioactive nanoparticles such as hydroxyapatite or bioglass are used in bone tissue engineering to enhance osteoconductive and mechanical strength, thereby facilitating bone regeneration. Similarly, in cartilage tissue engineering, nanocomposites incorporating chondroitin sulfate or hyaluronic acid can replicate the native cartilage matrix, supporting chondrocyte growth and extracellular matrix production (Y. A. Amnieh et al.) ²⁹

Additionally, nanocomposites with conductive properties, achieved by incorporating nanoparticles like carbon nanotubes or graphene, are being explored for neural tissue engineering to support nerve cell growth and electrical signal transmission. The versatility of solution blending in fabricating nanocomposites with tailored properties makes it a powerful tool for advancing tissue engineering applications, offering the potential to improve patient outcomes through more effective and biomimetic tissue regeneration strategies.

Bone tissue engineering with nanocomposites

To effectively regenerate bone, scaffolds’ mechanical qualities and osteoconductive must be improved. In bone tissue engineering, nanocomposites containing ceramic nanoparticles, such as hydroxyapatite and bio-glass, are crucial for this. Hydroxyapatite, a naturally occurring mineral form of calcium apatite, is known for its excellent biocompatibility and ability to promote osteointegration, making it an ideal component for bone scaffolds. When incorporated into polymer matrices, hydroxyapatite nanoparticles significantly improve the scaffold's mechanical strength, closely mimicking the natural bone's structural and functional properties (K. Zhang et al.) ³¹ Bioglass, another prominent ceramic material, has unique bioactive properties that facilitate the formation of a strong bond between the scaffold and the surrounding bone tissue. These nanoparticles also induce the deposition of a hydroxycarbonate apatite layer on the scaffold's surface, which is chemically and structurally similar to bone minerals, further promoting osteoconductivity. The integration of these ceramic nanoparticles into nanocomposite scaffolds can be achieved through various fabrication techniques, including solution blending, electrospinning, and 3D printing. These methods allow for precise control over the scaffold's composition, architecture, and porosity, optimizing its performance in bone regeneration applications. Using nanocomposites in bone tissue engineering is a revolutionary method that tackles important issues in bone regeneration and repair. This area of study makes use of the special qualities of nanocomposites—a blend of biocompatible polymers and nanoparticles—to build scaffolds that resemble the extracellular matrix found naturally in bone. These scaffolds support the adhesion, growth, and differentiation of cells and aid in the regeneration of bone tissue (H.-C. Yu et al.). ³² Treating bone deformities and fractures is one of the main uses of scaffolds based on nanocomposite technology in bone tissue creation. Conventional techniques, such as bone grafting, frequently have drawbacks like infection risk, donor site morbidity, and scarce transplant supply. On the other hand, nanocomposite scaffolds provide an adaptable and resistant-to-infection substitute that may be made to match the biological and mechanical characteristics of the original bone. Because of their increased bioactivity and mechanical strength, nanocomposites are especially well-suited for load-bearing applications, where they can maintain the structural integrity of the growing bone. For example, the osteoconductivity of the scaffold can be greatly enhanced by nanocomposites containing hydroxyapatite nanoparticles, a crucial mineral component of bone, which encourages the formation of new bone tissue. Moreover, adding bioactive nanoparticles to the scaffold, like zinc oxide or silver, can provide it antibacterial qualities and lower the risk of surgery site infections. In the field of bone tissue engineering, nanocomposite scaffolds are also essential for the creation of sophisticated drug delivery systems. Through the incorporation of growth factors or therapeutic compounds into the nanocomposite matrix, these scaffolds can deliver a localized and prolonged release of bioactive molecules, thereby augmenting the healing process (Z. Golshirazi et al.) ³³ For instance, osteogenesis can be accelerated and bone regeneration can occur more quickly and efficiently by the progressive release of bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) from the scaffold. Furthermore, the synthesis of multipurpose scaffolds with integrated sensing properties is made possible by nanocomposites. In addition to monitoring the surrounding biological environment, these intelligent scaffolds can offer real-time input on the healing process. This capacity is particularly useful in intricate clinical situations where prompt intervention and accurate monitoring can have a big impact on patient outcomes.

In summary, a major development in the field of regenerative medicine has been made with the use of nanocomposites in bone tissue engineering. Researchers and medical professionals can create scaffolds with improved mechanical strength, bioactivity, and multifunctionality in addition to supporting bone regeneration by utilizing the special qualities of nanocomposites. This novel strategy has the potential to significantly enhance patient results in a variety of orthopedic and dental applications, which will ultimately aid in the creation of more dependable and efficient therapies for ailments and accidents involving the bones (Z. Golshirazi et al.) ³⁴

Neural tissue engineering with conductive nanofibers

Neural tissue engineering benefits significantly from the use of conductive nanofibers, such as those made from polyaniline or carbon nanotubes, which support neural cell growth and facilitate nerve regeneration. The conductive nature of polyaniline and carbon nanotubes is particularly advantageous, as it enables the transmission of electrical signals, which is essential for the proper functioning and regeneration of nerve tissues. This electrical conductivity can stimulate neural cell proliferation and differentiation, promoting the formation of functional neural networks. Furthermore, these nanofibers’ high surface area and porosity promote effective waste elimination and nutrient exchange, which raises cell viability. By integrating these conductive nanofibers into scaffolds, researchers can create biomimetic platforms that not only support the structural integrity of neural tissues but also restore their electrical activity, paving the way for innovative treatments for neurodegenerative diseases, spinal cord injuries, and other nerve damage conditions (Z. Katoli et al.) ³⁵

Cartilage tissue engineering with nanocomposites

Applications for cartilage tissue engineering now seem to choose nanocomposites that contain nanoparticles like hyaluronic acid or chondroitin sulfate. These nanoparticles closely resemble components of the natural cartilage matrix, allowing them to mimic its structure and function effectively. By integrating these biomimetic nanoparticles into polymer matrices, nanocomposites can provide a supportive scaffold that promotes chondrocyte proliferation and matrix production. Chondroitin sulfate and hyaluronic acid, known for their chondrogenic properties, enhance cell adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation, thereby facilitating the regeneration of cartilage tissue. Moreover, these nanoparticles can improve the mechanical properties and stability of the scaffold, ensuring its suitability for load-bearing applications (N. Mohammadi et al.). ³⁶ By leveraging the unique properties of nanocomposites, researchers aim to develop advanced therapies for cartilage repair and regeneration, addressing challenges associated with cartilage injuries, osteoarthritis, and other degenerative joint diseases. With continued research and innovation, nanocomposite-based approaches hold significant promise for improving the clinical outcomes of patients suffering from cartilage-related conditions.

Drug delivery system

Drug delivery has undergone a revolutionary change since the development of nanotechnology, which has made use of nanocomposites and nanofibers to provide novel solutions. These cutting-edge materials offer special benefits for precisely and effectively delivering medicinal ingredients. Because of their high surface area-to-volume ratio and flexible manufacturing techniques, nanofibers can be designed to encapsulate medications and release them gradually. They can be modified to improve targeted delivery, bioavailability, and drug stability. Similar to this, by fusing different materials, like polymers or nanoparticles, with nanofibers, nanocomposites provide more utility by combining several attributes into one system. Drug release that is both sensitive and persistent is made possible by the ability of these composites to react to particular physiological circumstances, such as pH or temperature fluctuations (U. Nagarajan et al.). ³⁷ In combination, nanocomposites and nanofibers offer a breakthrough in drug delivery systems, opening up new avenues for the treatment of complicated illnesses with better therapeutic results and fewer side effects.

Applications in drug delivery system

Targeted drug delivery

Targeted drug delivery represents a sophisticated approach aimed at enhancing therapeutic efficacy while minimizing side effects by precisely delivering medications to specific cells, tissues, or organs. This strategy involves the use of various carriers, such as nanoparticles, liposomes, or polymeric micelles, which can be functionalized with targeting ligands to selectively recognize and bind to receptors or antigens overexpressed on the surface of target cells. Through this selective targeting, drugs can be delivered directly to diseased tissues while sparing healthy cells, thereby reducing systemic toxicity and improving patient outcomes. The utilization of nanoparticles in targeted drug administration has garnered significant interest owing to their distinctive characteristics, which comprise tiny size, vast surface area, and changeable surface chemistry (V. Vatanpour et al.)³⁸ Through the application of targeting moieties, such as peptides, aptamers, or antibodies, to the surface of nanoparticles, researchers can precisely localize therapeutic medicines to specific regions within the body for instance, in cancer therapy, nanoparticles functionalized with tumor-targeting ligands can selectively accumulate in tumor tissues via the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect, allowing for localized drug release and improved anticancer efficacy (V. Vatanpour et al.) ³⁸ Moreover, targeted drug delivery systems can be engineered to respond to specific stimuli present in the microenvironment of diseased tissues, further enhancing their precision and therapeutic outcome. For example, pH-sensitive nanoparticles can release drugs in response to the acidic environment of tumors, while stimuli-responsive hydrogels can release drugs upon exposure to temperature, light, or enzymatic activity.

Lastly, the therapy of a number of diseases, including cancer, infectious diseases, inflammatory disorders, and neurological ailments, could be completely transformed by targeted drug delivery. By harnessing the principles of nanotechnology and molecular targeting, targeted drug delivery systems offer a promising avenue for personalized medicine, enabling tailored therapeutic interventions that maximize efficacy and minimize adverse effects. Continued research and innovation in this field are essential for translating these promising concepts into clinically viable solutions that can benefit patients worldwide.

Sustained release for chronic disease management

Since steady therapeutic levels must be maintained over extended periods, sustained medication release is essential for the management of chronic diseases including diabetes and cardiovascular disorders. Dosing requirements associated with traditional medication delivery techniques might result in inconsistent drug levels and poor patient compliance. Drugs like insulin or anti-inflammatory medicines can be released gradually over several days or even weeks thanks to biodegradable polymeric nanofibers, which present a viable alternative (V. Jessamine et al.) ³⁹ There is less need for frequent delivery because these nanofibers progressively break down and release the medicine at a consistent rate. In addition, it is possible to design nanocomposite hydrogels to release medications gradually and continuously in response to stimuli like pH or temperature changes. By ensuring that therapeutic effects are maintained through responsive and regulated delivery, adverse effects are minimized and patient outcomes are enhanced. When combined, nanofibers and nanocomposites provide novel ways to improve the treatment of long-term illnesses.

Wound healing and tissue regeneration

Multifunctional materials can successfully address wound healing by providing both antibacterial protection and assistance for tissue regeneration. Advanced wound dressings that not only prevent infection but also encourage healing can be made from nanofibers, such as those coated with antibiotics or silver nanoparticles. This is a new treatment. Antimicrobial drugs are delivered to the wound site via the electrospun nanofibers, which also serve as a scaffold to promote tissue regeneration and cellular proliferation. Furthermore, the healing process can be improved by using nanocomposite scaffolds that include biominerals or growth hormones (Y. Iqbal et al.) ⁴⁰

Combination therapy

Combination therapy, facilitated by nanocomposites, represents a groundbreaking approach in modern medicine, particularly in addressing complex diseases such as cancer. Nanocomposites offer a unique platform for co-delivering multiple drugs simultaneously, enabling synergistic effects that can enhance treatment efficacy while minimizing adverse effects. By incorporating different therapeutic agents into a single carrier system, nanocomposites can target multiple pathways involved in disease progression, leading to more comprehensive and effective treatment outcomes. In cancer therapy, for instance, nanocomposites can deliver chemotherapy drugs along with targeted agents or immunotherapeutic agents, exploiting complementary mechanisms of action to overcome drug resistance and tumor heterogeneity (J. Liu et al.) ⁴¹ Additionally, nanocomposites can provide controlled release profiles, allowing for precise modulation of drug concentrations at the target site over extended periods. This controlled delivery not only improves therapeutic efficacy but also reduces systemic toxicity, thereby enhancing patient tolerance and compliance. All things considered, combination therapy enabled by nanocomposites has great potential to transform the way many diseases are treated, opening up new directions for personalized and precision medicine strategies that can greatly enhance patient outcomes and quality of life (S. Zhang et al.) ⁴²

Drug delivery for neurological disorders

Drug delivery across the blood–brain barrier (BBB) is a key hurdle for neurological illnesses such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease. The efficacy of conventional medicines is typically limited due to their inability to break through this protective barrier. Because they are designed to transport neurotrophic factors or small-molecule medications straight to the brain, nanofibers present a possible remedy (Q. Huang et al.) ⁴³ Because of its structural design, novel delivery techniques that circumvent the blood–brain barrier and distribute medicinal medicines to areas of most need—like intranasal or implanted systems—are made possible. Furthermore, by increasing their solubility and facilitating their passage across the BBB, lipid-based nanocomposites improve the administration of hydrophobic medications. By addressing the issues with solubility and optimizing medication delivery for neurodegenerative illnesses, this strategy may result in more effective therapies and better results for those dealing with these difficult conditions (S. Lu et al.) ⁴⁴

Inhalable drug delivery for respiratory diseases

Effective medication delivery to the lungs is essential for the rapid treatment of conditions like asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), as well as for improving lung function. An important development in this field is the development of inhalable nanofibers, which can be designed to include bronchodilators or anti-inflammatory drugs that dissolve in the lungs themselves, allowing for more effective drug deposition in respiratory tissues and targeted delivery (M. Gao et al.) ⁴⁵ By carefully concentrating medication where it is required, this method maximizes the therapeutic benefit. A single inhalation can enable combination therapy thanks to the ability of nanocomposite-based aerosols to contain numerous medications. For diseases like cystic fibrosis, where controlling infection and airway inflammation at the same time is critical, this is very helpful. By utilizing these cutting-edge delivery methods, therapies can be made more effective and efficient, which will improve management.

Personalized medicine

When applied to nanocomposites, personalized medicine offers a revolutionary method of adjusting medical care to each patient's specific biological profile. This strategy seeks to improve the accuracy and efficacy of medical interventions by combining nanocomposites with cutting-edge diagnostic instruments and medicinal substances. Drugs or therapeutic agents can be delivered using highly regulated nanocomposites that target particular cells or tissues and modify release profiles to suit the demands of the user (M. Puccetti et al.). ⁴⁶ For example, treatment can be tailored to a patient's specific physiological characteristics by using nanocomposites that react to genetic markers or other indicators related to their illness. Nanocomposites can be customized to fit a patient's metabolic rate or disease development in drug delivery systems, enhancing therapeutic success and reducing adverse effects. This personalization also extends to other healthcare settings. In the end, personalized medicine utilizing nanocomposites is a big advancement toward offering more customized, effective medical care (M. Baghal Behyar et al.) ⁴⁷

Conclusion and future scope

To summarise, nanofibers and nanocomposites have emerged as revolutionary tools for tissue engineering and drug delivery, providing novel solutions that greatly advance medical therapies. Their distinct qualities, which include a large surface area, customizable mechanical strength, and the capacity to distribute medications in a regulated and targeted manner, have resulted in significant advances in a variety of therapeutic fields. Nanofibers are an effective scaffold for tissue regeneration, and nanocomposites improve drug delivery systems with multifunctional and responsive architectures. Despite these developments, difficulties remain, especially regarding the possible toxicity and long-term impacts of nanomaterials. To ensure safe use in medical settings, future research in nanofibers and nanocomposites must prioritize addressing safety concerns and minimizing undesirable consequences. Rigorous safety assessments are required to uncover potential toxicological concerns and long-term health effects related to nanomaterials. This includes evaluating their interactions with biological systems, potential accumulation in tissues, and general biocompatibility. Developing novel materials with improved safety profiles, such as those that decay harmlessly or have low cytotoxicity, will be critical for increasing their use in clinical applications.

Furthermore, combining nanofibers and nanocomposites with cutting-edge technology promises to improve their efficacy and precision. Nanotechnology has the potential to assist personalized medicine by producing customized drug delivery systems and tissue scaffolds. Advanced imaging tools, such as in vivo fluorescence and MRI, can help track and evaluate nanocomposite behavior inside the body, resulting in more accurate and effective treatments. As the field advances, interdisciplinary collaboration will be essential. Combining skills from materials science, biology, engineering, and clinical practice will make it easier to translate these innovations from the lab to real-world applications. This collaborative approach will assist in overcoming hurdles, streamlining regulatory processes, and accelerating the incorporation of nanotechnology into ordinary medical practice, ultimately enhancing patient outcomes and widening the scope of nanotechnology's effect in medicine.