Why avoidance? The impact of childhood emotional abuse on social avoidance

Abstract

Childhood is a critical period for the development of social relationships, and experiences of abuse during this time can have long-lasting negative effects on social interactions. This study has explored the relationship between childhood emotional abuse and social avoidance in college students, using the social cognitive model of rejection sensitivity and the model of social support degradation as theoretical frameworks. A total of 422 Chinese university students (285 females and 157 males), aged from 19 to 25 (M = 21.27, SD = 3.47), participated in this study. Data were collected using different tools: Childhood Abuse Questionnaire, the Rejection Sensitivity Scale, the Perceived Social Support Scale, and the Social Avoidance and Distress Scale. Results indicated that: (1) emotional abuse were significantly positively correlated with social avoidance; (2) rejection sensitivity mediated the relationship between childhood emotional abuse and social avoidance; (3) perceived social support also served as mediators in the relationship between childhood emotional abuse and social avoidance in college students. These findings suggest that enhancing individuals' perceived social support or reducing rejection sensitivity may be effective strategies for improving social avoidance.

Introduction

Child abuse has long been a significant social concern, drawing considerable attention and discussion within academic circles. A mental health study found that 13.8% of adults had experienced some form of abuse during childhood, with emotional abuse being the most common [1]. In China, research shows that as many as 36.7% of college students reported having experienced emotional abuse during childhood [2]. As a specific form of child abuse, childhood emotional abuse refers to behaviors such as scolding, sarcasm, rejection, opposition, and other forms of psychological denial inflicted by parents or significant others throughout the child’s life. This breeding environment is detrimental to children’s physical and psychological development and often persists throughout childhood [3]. Although emotional abuse occurs more frequently than other forms of abuse, it often goes unnoticed due to its subtle nature [4]. Researchers argue that childhood emotional abuse is more damaging to psychological development than other types of abuse, and its harmful effects frequently continuing into adulthood [5]. Clearly, addressing emotional abuse is both necessary and meaningful. Previous research on the impact of emotional abuse on individual development has largely focused on internalizing problems. For instance, numerous studies have demonstrated that emotional abuse increases the risk of depression to some extent [6], triggers suicidal ideation [7], and contributes to social anxiety [8]. However, relatively little attention has been paid to the externalizing consequences of emotional abuse, particularly social avoidance. From a developmental perspective, university students, as they transition into adulthood, must navigate changes in social roles and establish new interpersonal networks. This period is associated with an increased likelihood of social difficulties, including social avoidance [9]. Compared to their peers without a history of abuse, individuals who have experienced childhood emotional abuse are more prone to social adjustment difficulties, a lack of social confidence, and avoidance behaviors during this stage [10]. Such difficulties exacerbate social isolation and severely undermine psychological well-being. Therefore, it is crucial to examine the relationship between childhood emotional abuse and social avoidance, as well as the underlying mechanisms driving this association. Yet, current research on this issue remains limited. So this study aims to fill that gap by investigating the influence of childhood emotional abuse on social avoidance among university students, seeking to provide empirical evidence that may inform strategies for preventing social avoidance in this population.

Childhood Emotional Abuse and Social Avoidance

Social avoidance refers to a behavior in which individuals avoid interacting with others or expressing a desire to converse due to various reasons [11]. This behavior is especially common among college students [12]. According to early maladaptive schema theory [13], children who have suffered abuse often develop a deep-seated sense of mistrust, believing they are unworthy of attention. This mindset can lead to anxiety in social situations, making them more likely to avoid social interactions. Early emotional abuse can cause individuals to feel shame, which gradually becomes internalized as a mindset shaped by these feelings, thereby developing a habit of hiding their true selves and avoiding social interactions [14]. Researchers have noted that those who have experienced emotional abuse tend to be more passive in social settings, often preferring solitude and avoiding emotional connections with others, which is reflected in behaviors like withdrawal and avoidance [15]. Furthermore, attachment theory [16] suggests that individuals who have endured traumatic events such as parental separation or abuse may develop insecure attachment styles, making them more prone to withdrawal and avoidance in social contexts. Studies also show that childhood trauma can lead to the development of negative attachment patterns, which increase a person’s sensitivity in social relationships. This heightened sensitivity often leads them to avoid social interactions to protect themselves from potential harm [17]. Additionally, there is a direct link between the severity of emotional abuse and the likelihood of social avoidance [18]. Based on this, we infer that childhood emotional abuse is a positive predictor of social avoidance.

Mediating role of rejection sensitivity

While emotional abuse can lead to social avoidance, not everyone who experiences it develops social difficulties. So, what factors shape the connection between emotional abuse and social avoidance? The exact mechanisms behind this relationship are not fully understood, but rejection sensitivity may play a key role. Rejection sensitivity refers to an individual’s tendency to be overly alert and reactive to signs of rejection, even in situations where the rejection cues are subtle or unclear. This heightened sensitivity can lead to anxiety and the expectation of being rejected, often resulting in feelings of distress and anger [19]. The social-cognitive model of rejection sensitivity [20] suggests that this anxiety typically originates from early experiences of rejection. When faced with social interactions, individuals with high rejection sensitivity may have these fears triggered, leading them to react negatively, often by avoiding social situations altogether. Research shows that individuals who are highly concerned about being rejected are more likely to notice signs of rejection and tend to avoid social interactions as a way to protect themselves [21]. This avoidance behavior is more common among those with high rejection sensitivity, who consciously steer clear of forming close relationships with others [22]. It is evident that rejection sensitivity is closely linked to social avoidance. Furthermore, research has found that emotional abuse is a key factor that can increase rejection sensitivity. Individuals who have experienced more emotional abuse tend to exhibit higher levels of rejection sensitivity [23]; Childhood abuse increases an individual's sensitivity to rejection cues in social interactions during adulthood [24]. Children who have been abused often become more sensitive in social situations, fearing rejection and focusing more on negative feedback from others. This heightened awareness of rejection cues leads to increased rejection sensitivity [25]. As a result, individuals who have experienced emotional abuse are more likely to have higher rejection sensitivity, which in turn leads to more frequent social avoidance. Based on this, we believe that rejection sensitivity mediates the relationship between childhood emotional abuse and social avoidance.

Mediating role of perceived social support

Perceived social support refers to the subjective experience and feelings of being respected, understood, or supported by others in social contexts [26]. Previous research has confirmed a strong link between perceived social support and social avoidance, with an individual's level of perceived social support serving as a negative predictor of social avoidance. When individuals have a high perception of the social support around them, it boosts their confidence in social settings. This perceived support helps buffer the stress and anxiety that may arise in social interactions [27], thereby reducing the likelihood of social avoidance. Research has shown that college students who feel a strong sense of social support are more likely to actively participate in social interactions rather than avoid them [28]. In contrast, students with lower perceived social support often find it difficult to sense warmth and encouragement from others. This lack of fulfillment from social connections can lead them to withdraw and avoid social situations altogether [29]. Additionally, emotional abuse has been identified as a key factor that diminishes perceived social support. According to the social support deterioration model [30], stressful events can diminish an individual’s level of social support to some extent. Studies indicate that emotional abuse, as a form of negative stress, significantly negatively predicts an individual's perceived social support, that is, the higher the level of abuse an individual has experienced, the lower the perceived social support [31, 32]. In essence, emotional abuse disrupts an individual’s ability to meet emotional needs and undermines their perception of support from family, friends, and society, resulting in lower perceived social support [33]. Furthermore, individuals who experienced abuse during childhood generally have lower levels of social support in adulthood [34]. Given this understanding, we suggest that perceived social support serves as a mediator between childhood emotional abuse and social avoidance.

Current study

While some studies suggest that emotional abuse can influence individual behavior, few have explored how emotional abuse leads to social avoidance. In other words, the underlying mechanisms through which emotional abuse affects social avoidance remain unclear. Thus, this study aims to investigate the connection between childhood emotional abuse and social avoidance among college students, focusing on how rejection sensitivity and perceived social support influence this relationship. Based on the relevant literature, we propose the following hypothesis: (a) emotional abuse significantly influences social avoidance. (b) rejection sensitivity mediates the relationship between childhood emotional abuse and social avoidance. (c) perceived social support serves as mediators in the relationship between childhood emotional abuse and social avoidance in college students.

Methods

Participants

Using convenience sampling, a total of 475 questionnaires were distributed to university students in Jiangxi Province, China, with 442 valid responses collected (male = 157, female = 285), resulting in an effective response rate of 93.05%. The participants’ ages ranged from 19 to 25 years (M = 21.27, SD = 3.47). All materials and procedures were approved by the Ethics in Human Research Committee of the author’s university.

Measures

Emotional abuse

The Chinese version of the short-form Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) [35] was used to measure the participants'experiences of emotional abuse. Emotional abuse and neglect were assessed using a 5-point scale (1 ="never"5 ="always"), comprising 10 items (e.g. Someone in my family had said insulting or hurtful things to me). Higher scores indicate higher emotional abuse. In this study, the Cronbach’s α of the scale was 0.90.

Rejection sensitivity

Rejection sensitivity was measured using the Rejection Sensitivity Scale [36], which includes 18 items (e.g. I have always been worried about disappointing others) rated on a 5-point scale (1 ="strongly disagree"5 ="strongly agree"). Higher scores indicate higher rejection sensitivity. The Cronbach’s α was 0.84 in the current research

Perceived social support

The Perceived Social Support Scale [37] was used to assess participants’ perceived social support from three sources: family, friends, and others. The scale consists of 12 items (e.g. I can rely on my friends when facing difficulties), each rated on a 7-point scale (1 ="strongly disagree"7 ="strongly agree"). Higher score reflect a greater level of perceived social support. The Cronbach’s α for this sample was 0.88.

Social avoidance

The Social Avoidance and Distress Scale [38] was used to measure social avoidance. The study focused on the social avoidance dimension, which includes 14 items (e.g. I often want to stay away from crowds) rated on a binary scale (0 ="no"1 ="yes"). Higher scores indicate greater severity of social avoidance. The Cronbach’s α of the scale was 0.92 in this study.

Procedure

The researchers distributed the questionnaires offline. Participants first provided demographic information and were informed that the study investigated social avoidance, with all data used solely for scientific purposes and collected anonymously. Then they completed the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ), Rejection Sensitivity Scale, Perceived Social Support Scale, and Social Avoidance and Distress Scale. The questionnaires were collected after approximately five minutes, and participants received a small gift as a token of appreciation.

Data analysis strategy

First, we used SPSS 24.0 for descriptive statistics and Pearson correlation analysis. Next, model 4 of PROCESS macro is used for measure variables’ mediating relationship. We ran this model with 5000 resamples bootstrapping and a 95% confidence interval (95% CI). It is statistically significant, if values of the lower and upper limits of the 95% CIs do not include 0. We used p < 0.05 as the criterion to determine the statistical significance. In the regression analysis of this study, we report standardized regression coefficients (β) rather than unstandardized coefficients (B). Standardized coefficients quantify the relative impact of independent variables on the dependent variable, enabling direct comparisons across variables with different measurement scales and providing a clearer interpretation of the strength of their relationships.

Results

Common method bias test

Given that self-report measures were used in this study, Harman’s single-factor test was conducted to check for common method bias. The analysis showed that 10 factors had eigenvalues greater than 1, and the largest factor accounted for 22.44% of the variance, which was far less than 40%, indicating that there was no significant common method bias in this study.

Preliminary analyses

Table 1 showed that emotional abuse, rejection sensitivity, and social avoidance were all significantly positively correlated with each other, while perceived social support was significantly negatively correlated with emotional abuse and social avoidance. Additionally, there were significant correlations between gender and emotional abuse, rejection sensitivity, and social avoidance, so gender was included as a control variable in further analyses.

Table 1.

Descriptive statistics and Pearson correlation coefficient

Gender: male = 1, female = 0

^*p<0.05

^*p<0.001. The same below

Testing for the moderated mediation model

To assess whether mediating effects are present, this study utilized Model 4 of the PROCESS macro developed for data analysis. Controlling for demographic variables, emotional abuse was taken as the independent variable, rejection sensitivity and perceived social support as mediating variables, and social avoidance as the dependent variable. As shown in Table 2, regression analysis revealed that emotional abuse positively predicted rejection sensitivity (β = 0.23, p < 0.001) and had a significant negative effect on perceived social support (β = ‒0.60, p < 0.001). When emotional abuse, rejection sensitivity, and perceived social support were analyzed together as predictors of social avoidance, both emotional abuse and rejection sensitivity were found to significantly predict higher levels of social avoidance (β = 0.19, p < 0.001; β = 0.33, p < 0.001), while perceived social support significantly predicted lower levels of social avoidance (β = ‒0.20, p < 0.001).

Table 2.

The moderated mediating effect of emotional abuse on social avoidance

To further validate the mediating effects, the study employed the bias-corrected nonparametric percentile Bootstrap method. As shown in Table 3, the mediating effects of rejection sensitivity and perceived social support were significant, with a total effect value of 0.20. Specifically, the mediating effect was composed of two indirect effects: Indirect effect 1 (emotional abuse → rejection sensitivity → social avoidance) and Indirect effect 2 (emotional abuse → perceived social support → social avoidance). The effect size for the first indirect pathway was 0.07, with a 95% Bootstrap confidence interval of [0.03, 0.12], which does not include zero, indicating that rejection sensitivity significantly mediates the relationship. The effect size for the second indirect pathway was 0.12, with a 95% Bootstrap confidence interval of [0.06, 0.19], also excluding zero, indicating that perceived social support plays a significant mediating role. The specific pathways through which emotional abuse leads to social avoidance are shown in Fig. 1.

Table 3.

Mediating effect test

Fig. 1.

The moderated mediation model (N = 442)

Discussion

This study examines how childhood emotional abuse influences social avoidance in college students, offering deeper insight into this relationship. First, the findings show that students who experienced emotional abuse during childhood are more likely to engage in social avoidance. Secondly, the inclusion of mediating variables revealed significant direct and indirect effects: childhood emotional abuse not only directly affects social avoidance but also exerts an indirect influence through heightened rejection sensitivity or lower perceived social support.

Childhood emotional abuse and social avoidance

The study found that childhood emotional abuse is a positive predictor of social avoidance in college students, aligning with Hypothesis 1. This result further supports maladaptive schema theory [13], which argues that traumatic experiences such as emotional neglect and abuse during early development lead to the formation of negative schemas. Individuals with such schemas tend to have negative perceptions of interpersonal relationships, which play a central role in the development of social anxiety disorders. Since social avoidance is a key feature of social anxiety, early emotional abuse have a lasting impact on an individual’s social behaviors. Research indicates that individuals who have experienced emotional abuse and neglect are more likely to develop maladaptive self-perceptions, leading them to adopt avoidance as a strategy for coping with social stress [39]. Among college students, those with a history of emotional abuse are also more likely to experience heightened anxiety in social situations [40]. According to general adaptation syndrome hypothesis [41], when individuals face various stressors, anxiety responses prompt them to take action to cope with challenges. In social situations, individuals who feel anxious often resort to avoiding interactions to protect themselves. Recent research on addiction has also shown that individuals with higher levels of emotional abuse tend to display more frequent social avoidance behaviors [42]. These findings confirm that childhood emotional abuse can predict higher levels of social avoidance in college students.

Mediating role of rejection sensitivity

This study demonstrates that rejection sensitivity acts as a mediator between childhood emotional abuse and social avoidance, confirming Hypothesis H2. On one hand, the findings support the social-cognitive model of rejection sensitivity [20], which posits that experiences of rejection during childhood shape an individual’s anxious expectation of rejection. This anxiety leads them to interpret even vague or neutral social cues as signs of rejection. When individuals who have endured emotional abuse find themselves in social situations that resemble past negative experiences, their heightened anxiety about rejection triggers stronger feelings of rejection. The researchers found that childhood emotional abuse often results in low self-esteem [43], making individuals particularly fearful of rejection in social settings, thus exhibiting higher levels of rejection sensitivity. On the other hand, the study confirms that rejection sensitivity is a significant predictor of social avoidance. Those with heightened rejection sensitivity not only become more attuned to signs of rejection in social interactions but also experience strong negative emotional responses, such as anxiety and distress, which often lead to behavior characterized by avoiding social situations altogether [44]. Conversely, individuals with lower rejection sensitivity are more likely to approach social interactions with an open and accepting attitude, respond positively to others, and are less inclined to avoid social engagement [45]. Therefore, individuals who experienced emotional abuse in childhood are more likely to have elevated rejection sensitivity, which in turn results in increased social avoidance.

Mediating role of perceived social support

This study found that perceived social support plays a significant mediating role between childhood emotional abuse and social avoidance, confirming Hypothesis 3. On one hand, higher levels of childhood emotional abuse were shown to predict lower levels of perceived social support. This supports the social degradation model [30], which suggests that individuals who have experienced negative life events tend to have a diminished ability to perceive support, understanding, or care from others, whether family or friends. Empirical research also indicates that early experiences of abuse often lead to cognitive deficits in recognizing social resources, further hindering an individual’s ability to perceive social support [46]. As a result, the more an individual has experienced abuse, the less capable they are of perceiving social support [47], the findings of this study are consistent with this. On the other hand, perceived social support negatively predicts social avoidance. In other words, the more social support an individual feels they have, the less likely they are to avoid social interactions. Individuals with high levels of perceived social support tend to interpret others’ actions more positively, feel more confident in social settings, and are more likely to engage in social interactions, thus exhibiting less social avoidance [48]. In contrast, those with lower perceived social support often experience a limited sense of external care and assistance, which affects not only their emotional connections with others but also their behaviors in social situations. These individuals are more likely to withdraw or avoid social contact [49]. This aligns with the results of the current study, which indicate that individuals who feel less social support are more likely to engage in social avoidance. In sum, childhood emotional abuse diminishes an individual’s ability to perceive social support, which in turn increases their tendency to avoid social situations.

Implications and limitations

This study used a parallel mediating model examine the impact of childhood emotional abuse on social avoidance among college students, as well as the mediating roles of rejection sensitivity and perceived social support, offering important implications for future research. First, the study highlighted the relationship between childhood emotional abuse and social avoidance, emphasizing the need to eliminate not only physical abuse (such as corporal punishment and verbal insults) in family upbringing but also the less visible but profoundly harmful effects of emotional abuse on children. Second, drawing on social-cognitive model (Downey, 1996), the research explored the role of rejection sensitivity within this framework and the mediating function of perceived social support, thus providing partial support and extension of the model. Finally, the study provided valuable insights for interventions targeting social avoidance in college students. Specifically, for individuals who had experienced childhood emotional abuse, enhancing perceived social support or reducing rejection sensitivity would help mitigate social avoidance issues.

However, the study also has several limitations. First, as a cross-sectional study, it cannot establish definitive causal relationships between variables. Future research could address this by employing more robust methods, such as longitudinal or experimental designs. Second, data collection relied on self-reports, which may be susceptible to bias, particularly social desirability bias. More objective measures could enhance the reliability of future findings. Third, in order to eliminate the influence of irrelevant variables, we processed the data with gender and age as control variables, but did not consider more other variables that could affect the results. Therefore, other demographic variables that could influence the results such as socioeconomic status should be controlled for in future studies to enhance interpretability. Finally, this study focused on rejection sensitivity and perceived social support as mediators, but other factors, such as emotional insecurity, sensory processing sensitivity, and psychological resilience, may also play important roles. Future research should explore these additional factors to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the underlying mechanisms.

Conclusions

In conclusion, this study provides novel evidence on the relationship between childhood emotional abuse and social avoidance. By identifying rejection sensitivity and perceived social support as mediating factors, our findings advance the understanding of how emotional abuse contributes to social avoidance. These results highlight the importance of early intervention strategies aimed at reducing childhood emotional abuse to mitigate its long-term impact on social functioning. Additionally, targeted interventions that focus on lowering rejection sensitivity and enhancing perceived social support may serve as effective approaches to reducing social avoidance in university students. Future research should explore the underlying neurobiological and psychological mechanisms linking childhood emotional abuse to social avoidance, providing a stronger empirical foundation for developing tailored clinical and public health interventions.

Abbreviations

CEAB

Childhood Emotional Abuse

RS

Rejection Sensitivity

PSS

Perceived Social Support

SA

Social Avoidance

CTQ

Childhood Trauma Questionnaire

Authors’ contributions

X. L. Zheng responsible for the concept of the article, providing methodological guidance, as well as writing and editing work. J. W. Xie wrote the original draft, R. N. Cai handled the investigation, Z. Q. Liu managed the data, and L. Xu was responsible for the software component. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

Funding

This research was supported by University Humanities and Social Sciences Research Project of Jiangxi Province, China (XL24103), Shanghai Municipal Course Ideological and Political Demonstration Project (2022 KC211) and the 2023 Postgraduate Innovation Special Fund Project of Jiangxi Province, China (YC2023–S862).

Data availability

No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

This study was approved by Gannan Normal University, approval number GNNU20240416. All experiments were performed in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their participation in the study.

Consent for publication

Not Applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.