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. 2025 May 6;34(11):2489–2496. doi: 10.1007/s10068-025-01868-1

Effect of ultra-high pressure treatment on the physico-chemical properties of emulsified meat analogs

Jeong-Heon Kim 1, Yoo-Jeong Choi 1, Yea-Ji Kim 1, Ji Yoon Cha 1, Tae-Kyung Kim 1, Dong-Hyun Kim 2, Yun-Sang Choi 1,✉
PMCID: PMC12145334  PMID: 40492032

Abstract

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of ultra-high pressure (UHP) treatment on the physicochemical and structural properties of emulsified alternative meat products. Emulsified samples were treated at pressures of 100–500 MPa and their pH, color, moisture contents, WHC (water holding capacity), viscosity, emulsion stability and textural properties were analyzed. The results showed that UHP significantly improved pH, lightness and redness in all treatment groups. Treatment at 300 MPa showed minimal differences from the control group in most parameters, but viscosity, water holding capacity, hardness, cohesiveness were significantly improved. These results confirm that UHP treatment positively affects the water holding capacity and structural stability of emulsified alternative meat products. Therefore, this study provides a basis for the practical application of UHP technology in the development of alternative meat products with improved functional and structural properties.

Keywords: Textured vegetable protein (TVP), Tenebrio molitor larvae, Transglutaminase, Ganoderma lucidum, Ultra-high pressure (UHP)

Introduction

Global warming caused by environmental pollution can lead to problems such as extreme weather and water shortages, which can reduce livestock production (Nam et al., 2022). As a result, the need for alternative proteins to address food security issues has been increasingly emphasized and interest in the development of alternative protein foods, such as plant-based alternatives, insect-based alternatives and cultured meats, has grown (Hadi and Brightwell, 2021). Among plant-based alternatives, textured vegetable protein (TVP) is produced through an extrusion process that mimics the muscle fiber structure of meat and is often used to mimic processed meat products. Among edible insects, Tenebrio molitor larvae are known for their high protein content, rich mineral composition, and diverse functional compounds. They are increasingly recognized as an environmentally friendly protein source due to their low greenhouse gas emissions during farming (Choi et al., 2023; Lee et al., 2022). Combining these two protein sources may better mimic the structural and nutritional properties of meat; however, further research is needed to achieve the stable formation of structures in processed meat products.

Transglutaminase (TG) is considered to be an excellent binder for protein-based foods because it has the ability to improve the physical properties of protein-containing foods and is a cross-linking enzyme that helps to bind protein molecules together (Duarte et al., 2020). On the other hand, Ganoderma lucidum, a group of fungi belonging to the Basidiomycota, are reported to be low in calories and high in fiber (Zhong et al., 2024). In addition, previous studies have shown that the addition of mushroom powder to processed meat products improves water holding capacity and sensory preference, so it is believed that it may affect the structural stability of processed meat products when used as a food additive (Jeong et al., 2021).

Ultra-high pressure treatment, one of the non-thermal sterilisation technologies, is widely used in the food industry (Simonin et al., 2012). Previous studies have shown that ultra-high pressure treatment of meat causes structural changes in proteins, and that the application of ultra-high pressure of 100–300 MPa causes actomyosin in meat to dissociate, resulting in an increase in the solubility of myofibrillar proteins (Chen et al., 2022). However, UHP treatment at relatively high pressures of 300 MPa or more can cause excessive denaturation of proteins (Shi et al., 2020). This can have a negative effect on the quality of the meat, so a 200 MPa treatment is generally considered to be the optimum condition for improving the suitability of the meat for processing (Zhang et al., 2017).

Therefore, this study was conducted to determine the effects of 100–500 MPa ultra-high pressure treatment on the structural properties of TVP and Tenebrio molitor larvae homogenate mixed with TG and Ganoderma lucidum powder, and to determine the physicochemical properties of emulsified meat analogue prepared using these materials.

Materials and methods

Materials and treatments

Emulsified meat analogue were produced by modifying methods used in a previous study (Kim et al., 2024). TVP (Contex18, Solbar, Ningbo, China), which was used as an alternative protein source, was hydrated at 4 °C for 18 h and then cotton cloth was used to remove the unabsorbed moisture. The Tenebrio molitor larvae were purchased frozen from an edible insect breeding farm and thawed at 4 °C for 18 h for preparation. The TVP and Tenebrio molitor larvae were first homogenized in a blender (VH7230G, Bomann, Kempen, Germany), mixed at a ratio of 1:1, and then homogenized a second time in a ball cutter (C-Tronic 4VT, Sirman, Curtarolo, Italy). Subsequently, 2% Ganoderma lucidum powder (Dropship, Daegu, Korea) was added to the homogenate and 1% TG was added to the sample. The mixture was reacted at 25 °C for 1 h and then inactivated at 90 °C for 30 s. To use each alternative protein as a raw meat substitute in alternative meat products, it was mixed with pork fat in an 8:2 ratio and homogenized for three minutes using a ball cutter. The corresponding emulsions were ultra-high pressure treated at 0, 100, 200, 300, 400 and 500 MPa for 10 min, then filled into conical tubes at 30 g each, centrifuged at 1,000 × g for 5 min and heated at 80 °C for 30 min.

pH

A homogeneous solution was prepared to measure the pH before and after heating the emulsion. 2 g of sample and 10 mL of distilled water were homogenized in a homogenizer (T-25, Janke & Kunkel, Staufen, Germany) at 12,000 rpm for 2 min and then centrifuged at 6000×g for 15 min in a centrifuge (Combi 514R; Hanil science, Daejeon, Korea). The supernatant was then filtered through a 32-mesh filter and refrigerated for use in the experiment. The pH of the extract was measured using a pH meter (model 340, Mettler-Toledo GmbH, Schwerzenbach, Switzerland) and corrected using pH 4, 7 and 10 buffers.

Color

The chromaticity of the emulsion was measured using a color difference meter (CR-410, Minolta, Japan) calibrated with a white plate with a chromaticity of L* + 97.83, a* − 0.43, and b* + 1.98.

Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)

Approximately 30 mg of emulsion was placed in a differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) sample pan and heated from 25 °C to 95 °C at a rate of 10 °C/min using a DSC4000 (PerkinElmer, Waltham, MA, USA). Changes in denaturation temperature and heat capacity of the emulsion were recorded during heating.

Moisture contents

The moisture content of the emulsion was measured according to the AOAC method (2000). Moisture content was measured using the 105 °C isothermal drying method and expressed as a percentage.

Water holding capacity (WHC)

The water holding capacity of the emulsion was measured by the centrifugal method according to previous studies (Kim et al., 2024). 1 g of emulsion was placed in a conical tube containing Whatman paper no. 1 (Whatman, Kent, UK) and centrifuged at 500×g for 10 min. The percentage of water removed was calculated by comparing the weights before and after centrifugation.

Viscosity

The viscosity of the emulsion before heating was measured at a shear rate of 50 1/s using a rheometer (MCR102, Anton Paar GmbH, Austria) equipped with a 25 mm diameter plate at 4 °C.

Emulsion stability

The stability of emulsions prepared from alternative proteins and back fat to heating was measured using the method of Shin et al. (2022). The graduated glass tube was divided into compartments with a 20-mesh wire mesh, 20 g of emulsion was added and heated at 80 °C for 30 min. The glass tube containing the liquid separated from the sample after heating was left at 20 °C for three hours and the volume of separated oil and moisture was determined and expressed as the volume of separated liquid relative to the mass of the sample.

Texture profile analysis (TPA)

The textural properties of the emulsions were assessed using a texture analyzer (TA-XTplus; Stable Micro Systems, Godalming, UK) equipped with a 40 mm diameter probe. Samples were prepared with dimensions of 25 mm in diameter and height. Measurements were performed at a test speed of 5 mm/s, with 50% compression strain and a trigger force of 5 g, following the methodology described by Shin et al. (2022).

Statistical analysis

All experiments were repeated at least three times to obtain the mean and standard deviation, and statistical analysis was performed using one-way analysis of variance in SPSS Statistics 20.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, USA). Significant differences were determined when the probability of the mean between each treatment group, as determined by Duncan's multiple range test, was less than or equal to 0.05.

Results and discussion

pH and color

The pH and chromaticity before and after heating of the ultra-high pressure (UHP) processed emulsified meat analogue are shown in Table 1 (p < 0.05). The pH of the UHP-treated emulsified meat analogue showed an overall increase after heating. The 500 MPa treatment exhibited the highest pH among the treatment groups regardless of heating, while the 200 MPa treatment resulted in the lowest pH (6.33) after heating. In a study investigating the effect of pH changes on protein gel containing edible insect protein, Kim et al. (2022) observed that the pH of the sample increased after heat treatment. This finding is consistent with the results of the present study and was attributed to heat-induced denaturation of the insect protein, which resulted in structural changes in the protein (Hamm and Deatherage, 1960). The UHP treatment also affected the pH of the emulsified meat analogue. The difference in pH between samples may be attributed to structural and chemical changes in meat proteins induced by UHP treatment (Orlien, 2017). In a study on the effects of UHP on the properties of edible insect protein, Kim et al. (2021) reported that an increase in pH was observed during UHP treatment of edible insect protein, which was judged to be the result of a decrease in acidic groups associated with protein denaturation. Therefore, this denaturation causes the protein to unfold and expose more amino acid residues, which can release protons and affect the overall acid–base balance, and is thought to require appropriate UHP processing (Orlien, 2017).

Table 1.

pH and color of emulsified meat analogue with ultra-high pressure treated at different pressures

Traits Control 100 MPa 200 MPa 300 MPa 400 MPa 500 MPa
pH Raw 6.33 ± 0.06ab 6.29 ± 0.01b 6.29 ± 0.02b 6.34 ± 0.02ab 6.30 ± 0.01b 6.37 ± 0.03a
Heated 6.37 ± 0.01ab 6.35 ± 0.02b 6.33 ± 0.01c 6.37 ± 0.01ab 6.33 ± 0.01cd 6.39 ± 0.01a
Color of raw emulsion L* 43.70 ± 0.01c 44.18 ± 0.01b 42.40 ± 0.01e 44.48 ± 0.13a 40.57 ± 0.18f 43.11 ± 0.27d
a* 5.19 ± 0.03d 5.26 ± 0.02bc 5.29 ± 0.04ab 5.22 ± 0.02cd 5.35 ± 0.05a 4.86 ± 0.07e
b* 12.10 ± 0.03a 12.15 ± 0.03a 11.49 ± 0.03b 12.22 ± 0.05a 10.93 ± 0.02c 11.42 ± 0.24b
Color of heated emulsion L* 43.03 ± 0.74bc 43.13 ± 0.39bc 45.47 ± 0.67a 43.99 ± 0.42b 42.17 ± 1.04 cd 41.87 ± 1.07d
a* 6.52 ± 0.11b 6.47 ± 0.14b 6.83 ± 0.13a 6.83 ± 0.12a 6.39 ± 0.04b 6.40 ± 0.13b
b* 14.49 ± 0.27c 14.45 ± 0.26c 15.37 ± 0.30a 14.82 ± 0.16b 14.56 ± 0.21bc 14.81 ± 0.45bc
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All values are mean ± standard deviation of three replicates

a−fDifferent letter in superscript meant significant difference (p < 0.05)

Control, non-ultra-high pressure; 100 MPa, 100 MPa ultra-high pressure; 200 MPa, 200 MPa ultra-high pressure; 300 MPa, 300 MPa ultra-high pressure; 400 MPa, 400 MPa ultra-high pressure; 500 MPa, 500 MPa ultra-high pressure

In the case of chromaticity, the lightness (L*), redness (a*) and yellowness (b*) tended to increase when treated with UHP compared to the control group, and decreased from the 400 MPa treatment. In terms of lightness, the 300 MPa treatment area showed the highest value before heating, but the 200 MPa treatment showed the highest value after heating. Before heating, the 200 MPa treatment showed the highest value for redness, and after heating, the 200 and 300 MPa treatments showed the highest value. Kim et al. (2022) reported that the protein gel containing insects showed color differences upon heating due to the color pigment of edible insects, which showed a similar trend to the results of this study. Also, the observed color change in the emulsified meat analogue is likely due to structural changes in the proteins induced by the UHP treatment, resulting in protein denaturation (Hong et al., 2005). Since the redness of meat products is related to their sensory palatability, the high redness of the sample after heating can be considered a positive indicator in the development of emulsified meat analogue (Guimarães et al., 2022). Therefore, in the development of emulsified meat analogue, changes in pH and color due to UHP processing may affect the quality characteristics and palatability of the sample.

Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)

The results of DSC analysis of the thermal properties of UHP processed emulsified meat analogue when heated are shown in Table 2. The onset temperature of the peak did not differ significantly between the treatment groups (p < 0.05). The peak temperature, end temperature, and enthalpy change were the highest for the 400 MPa treatment among all treatment groups, and there was no significant difference for all treatment groups except for the 400 MPa treatment. According to previous studies, the thermal stability of insect proteins was higher than that of pork proteins, and the high stability of these insect proteins may have affected the results of this study (Kim et al., 2020). Meanwhile, when subjected to UHP, meat products undergo changes in the protein structure, which results in changes in the maximum temperature and enthalpy (Sukmanov et al., 2019). This structural change can increase the thermal stability and thus the maximum temperature (Kim et al., 2021). This effect can increase the processing stability of emulsified meat analogue, but also affect the texture and functionality, so it is believed that appropriate UHP processing is necessary to achieve the desired results in emulsified meat analogue substitutes or processed products. Therefore, it has been confirmed that 400 MPa UHP treatment can form a new denaturation peak during heating.

Table 2.

Thermal stability of emulsified meat analogue with ultra-high pressure treated at different pressures

Control 100 MPa 200 MPa 300 MPa 400 MPa 500 MPa
Onset temperature (°C) 58.80 ± 0.36 58.78 ± 0.23 58.74 ± 0.13 58.66 ± 0.44 58.59 ± 0.15 59.03 ± 0.62
Peak temperature (°C) 60.62 ± 0.21b 60.56 ± 0.19b 60.33 ± 0.31b 60.36 ± 0.14b 61.09 ± 0.27a 60.63 ± 0.23b
End temperature (°C) 63.21 ± 0.67b 62.38 ± 0.73b 62.64 ± 0.71b 62.84 ± 0.75b 65.15 ± 1.36a 63.31 ± 1.60b
Δ H (J/g) 0.01 ± 0.01b 0.01 ± 0.00b 0.01 ± 0.00b 0.01 ± 0.01b 0.03 ± 0.01a 0.02 ± 0.01ab
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All values are mean ± standard deviation of three replicates

a−bDifferent letter in superscript meant significant difference (p < 0.05)

Control, non-ultra-high pressure; 100 MPa, 100 MPa ultra-high pressure; 200 MPa, 200 MPa ultra-high pressure; 300 MPa, 300 MPa ultra-high pressure; 400 MPa, 400 MPa ultra-high pressure; 500 MPa, 500 MPa ultra-high pressure

Moisture contents, water holding capacity (WHC) and viscosity

Moisture contents refers to the amount of water that remains in the structure after heating samples with the same amount of water added, and UHP treatment had a significant effect on the moisture content of emulsified meat analogue (Table 3) (p < 0.05). The highest moisture content was observed in the 500 MPa treatment, and the increase in moisture content in emulsified meat analogue during the UHP treatment may be due to structural changes in proteins induced by high pressure (Kaur et al., 2016). UHP treatment induces protein denaturation, resulting in the exposure of hydrophilic groups such as amino and hydroxyl groups (Braspailboon and Laokuldilok, 2024). This results in an improvement in WHC of the protein, which allows it to trap more water in the matrix (Kaur et al., 2016).

Table 3.

Moisture contents, water holding capacity (WHC) and viscosity of emulsified meat analogue with ultra-high pressure treated at different pressures

Traits Control 100 MPa 200 MPa 300 MPa 400 MPa 500 MPa
Moisture content (%) 42.00 ± 0.12b 41.85 ± 0.43b 41.80 ± 0.15b 41.79 ± 0.52b 42.44 ± 0.43ab 42.72 ± 0.25a
WHC (%) 22.67 ± 0.91c 24.17 ± 1.40bc 26.50 ± 0.72a 25.29 ± 1.12ab 23.88 ± 1.31bc 22.72 ± 1.31c
Viscosity (Pa∙s) 2.00 ± 0.38b 2.53 ± 0.19b 2.48 ± 0.27b 2.70 ± 1.43b 16.82 ± 2.39a 14.98 ± 0.52a
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All values are mean ± standard deviation of three replicates

a−cDifferent letter in superscript meant significant difference (p < 0.05)

Control, non-ultra-high pressure; 100 MPa, 100 MPa ultra-high pressure; 200 MPa, 200 MPa ultra-high pressure; 300 MPa, 300 MPa ultra-high pressure; 400 MPa, 400 MPa ultra-high pressure; 500 MPa, 500 MPa ultra-high pressure

WHC, which is the ability to retain moisture in the sample from external forces after heating, showed significant differences among the treatment groups (p < 0.05). Compared to the control group, WHC was higher in all treatment groups and was highest in the 200 MPa treatment, which may be due to the structural changes in the protein that occur during the UHP treatment (Kaur et al., 2016). In a previous study, Wang et al. (2021) reported that foods containing vegetable proteins exhibited the highest WHC when subjected to high-pressure treatment at 200 MPa, which aligns with our findings. This effect is likely due to the increased pressure partially unfolding the proteins, facilitating interactions between subunits to form a flexible network that traps water, thereby enhancing WHC (Wang et al., 2021; Puppo et al., 2004). Conversely, the WHC of the emulsified meat analogue decreased when subjected to high-pressure processing at 300 MPa or higher. This trend is consistent with previous studies, which have reported that continuous increases in pressure or holding time lead to protein aggregation in foods containing vegetable proteins, ultimately reducing WHC (Wang et al., 2021). These results suggest that high-pressure processing at 200–300 MPa is optimal for effectively enhancing the WHC of emulsified meat analogues.

The viscosity characteristics of the emulsified meat analogue were investigated during UHP processing (Table 3). UHP treatment increased the viscosity of the emulsified meat analogue, with the highest viscosity observed at 400 MPa treatment, and no significant change was observed in the control group at 100–300 MPa treatment (p < 0.05). The increase in viscosity of emulsified meat analogue with UHP treatment is thought to be the result of protein denaturation and aggregation (Xu et al., 2023). Meanwhile, the viscosity of emulsified meat analogue increased sharply when treated at 400 MPa. Pressures of 300 MPa or less can improve the viscosity of the emulsified meat analogue, but higher pressures of 400 MPa or more will cause excessive coagulation, forming a dense, hard gel.

Therefore, the results confirmed that the composite emulsion formed by UHP treatment of emulsified meat analogue improved the stability of the emulsion structure in terms of WHC. In addition, UHP treatment generally had a positive effect on improving the viscosity of emulsified meat analogue before heating, and the 200–300 MPa treatment was the most effective.

Emulsion stability

Emulsion stability is an indicator of the ability of a protein structure to retain moisture and oil when heated, and the effects of UHP treatment on the emulsion stability of emulsified meat analogue are described in Table 4. Compared to the control group, the amount of oil separated increased during the UHP treatment, and the amount of water separated did not show a significant difference until the 300 MPa treatment, but increased after the 400 MPa treatment (p < 0.05). According to previous research, proteins unfold at moderate pressure (100–300 MPa), exposing hydrophilic and hydrophobic groups to improve emulsification (Liu et al., 2024). However, at higher pressures, excessive aggregation and cross-linking of denatured proteins occurs, reducing the ability to stabilize the emulsion (Wang et al., 2023). Similarly, previous studies have shown that pressure-induced denaturation of proteins disrupts interactions within emulsions, thereby reducing the emulsifying capacity of the proteins (Villamont et al., 2016; O’sullivan et al., 2016). In addition, Kim et al. (2021) reported that emulsion stability decreases as pressure increases in a study of edible insect protein extracted under pressure, and that this is due to the pressure denaturation of animal protein, which is a result of the unstable interaction of the emulsion. Also, the emulsifying ability of edible insect protein can also be affected by the solubility, concentration, and hydrophobicity of the protein (Kim et al., 2021). Therefore, it is believed that 200–300 MPa treatment is required to have a positive effect on the emulsion stability of emulsified meat analogue.

Table 4.

Emulsion stability of emulsified meat analogue with ultra-high pressure treated at different pressures

Traits Control 100 MPa 200 MPa 300 MPa 400 MPa 500 MPa
Total exudate (%) 4.00 ± 1.00b 4.25 ± 0.50b 4.33 ± 0.58b 4.50 ± 0.71b 8.33 ± 0.58a 8.67 ± 1.15a
Oil exudate (%) 1.25 ± 0.35d 1.67 ± 0.29c 1.67 ± 0.29c 1.67 ± 1.15c 1.75 ± 0.35b 1.88 ± 0.25a
Water exudate (%) 3.25 ± 0.35b 2.33 ± 0.29b 2.67 ± 0.76b 3.50 ± 0.71b 6.25 ± 0.35a 6.67 ± 1.15a
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All values are mean ± standard deviation of three replicates

a−dDifferent letter in superscript meant significant difference (p < 0.05)

Control, non-ultra-high pressure; 100 MPa, 100 MPa ultra-high pressure; 200 MPa, 200 MPa ultra-high pressure; 300 MPa, 300 MPa ultra-high pressure; 400 MPa, 400 MPa ultra-high pressure; 500 MPa, 500 MPa ultra-high pressure

Texture profile analysis

The physical properties of the emulsified meat analogue with UHP processing are shown in Table 5. Compared to the control group, the hardness, cohesiveness, and gumminess of the emulsified alternative meat products increased up to 200–300 MPa treatment, but decreased from 400 MPa treatment (p < 0.05). There was no significant difference in springiness and chewiness between the control group and the 300 MPa treated group, but it decreased after the 400 MPa treatment. This is believed to be the result of the UHP treatment inducing partial denaturation of the protein, exposing hydrophobic and hydrophilic groups and making molecular interactions more active (Li, 2024). Previous studies have reported that UHP treatment in the pressure range of 100–300 MPa increases the gel strength, cohesiveness, and WHC of meat products, thereby improving structural integrity, which is consistent with the results of this study (Braspailboon and Laokuldilok, 2024). Meanwhile, the physical properties were reduced compared to the control group after treatment at 400 MPa (p < 0.05). Previous studies have reported that when the pressure exceeds 400 MPa, excessive protein denaturation occurs, causing the protein to lose its functional flexibility and aggregate excessively to form a small but brittle structure, which is similar to the trend of the results of this study (Liu et al., 2021). Therefore, it is believed that the 400 MPa treatment caused excessive protein aggregation, which reduced elasticity and hardness (Kim et al., 2021). Therefore, it is believed that the 200–300 MPa UHP treatment, which showed improved results in terms of physical properties, is the appropriate pressure for the development of emulsified meat analogue.

Table 5.

Textured profile analysis of emulsified meat analogue with ultra-high pressure treated at different pressures

Traits Control 100 MPa 200 MPa 300 MPa 400 MPa 500 MPa
Hardness (N) 428.10 ± 29.23c 473.80 ± 14.22b 528.67 ± 28.37a 510.76 ± 12.46a 468.94 ± 21.87b 465.56 ± 12.71b
Springiness 0.33 ± 0.03a 0.31 ± 0.02a 0.33 ± 0.01a 0.31 ± 0.03a 0.26 ± 0.02b 0.26 ± 0.03b
Cohesiveness 0.20 ± 0.01bc 0.25 ± 0.02a 0.24 ± 0.03a 0.22 ± 0.01b 0.20 ± 0.01 cd 0.18 ± 0.01d
Gumminess (N) 99.31 ± 8.50b 116.02 ± 7.93a 112.59 ± 5.28a 112.39 ± 5.65a 97.03 ± 5.11b 92.75 ± 9.72b
Chewiness (N) 33.23 ± 3.10a 35.83 ± 2.00a 33.40 ± 3.06a 34.57 ± 4.66a 24.32 ± 3.20b 24.28 ± 3.89b
Open in a new tab

All values are mean ± standard deviation of three replicates

a−dDifferent letter in superscript meant significant difference (p < 0.05)

Control, non-ultra-high pressure; 100 MPa, 100 MPa ultra-high pressure; 200 MPa, 200 MPa ultra-high pressure; 300 MPa, 300 MPa ultra-high pressure; 400 MPa, 400 MPa ultra-high pressure; 500 MPa, 500 MPa ultra-high pressure

In conclusions, the application of UHP treatment to emulsified meat analogue resulted in significant improvements in pH, lightness and redness in all treatment groups, along with a tendency to increase WHC. In addition, hardness, cohesiveness and gumminess were increased, while springiness and chewiness remained unchanged. Treatment at 400 MPa gave the peak temperature and viscosity, but adversely affected WHC and emulsion stability due to excessive protein denaturation. In contrast, the 300 MPa treatment showed minimal differences from the control in most parameters, but effectively improved viscosity, WHC, hardness, cohesiveness. These results demonstrate that UHP treatment can positively influence the WHC and structural stability of emulsified meat analogue when applied under optimal conditions. Based on these results, UHP treatment at approximately 300 MPa is recommended to achieve desirable functional and structural properties in emulsified meat analogue. This study provides valuable insights for the development of high quality alternative meat analogue using UHP technology.

Acknowledgements

This research was supported by the Main Research Program [E021200-05] of the Korea Food Research Institute (KFRI), funded by the Ministry of Science and ICT (Korea). This research was also partially supported by the Technology Development Program (1425175616) funded by the Ministry of SMEs and Startups (MSS, Korea). This work was supported by the High Value-Added Food Technology Development Program [RS-2024-00398457] of the Korea Institute of Planning and Evaluation for Technology in Food, Agriculture, and Forestry (IPET), funded by Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs (Republic of Korea).

Footnotes

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