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. 2025 Jun 10;47(7):258. doi: 10.1007/s10653-025-02576-9

Evaluation of radioactivity in chanterelle (Cantharellus cibarius) and health implications

Dagmara Strumińska-Parulska 1,✉, Aleksandra Moniakowska 1, Karolina Szymańska 1, Jerzy Falandysz 2,✉
PMCID: PMC12152021  PMID: 40493290

Abstract

The contamination, accumulation, spatial distribution, and potential health risk of 137Cs, 210Po, 210Pb, and 40K in chanterelles collected across Poland were examined using a validated methodology (gamma-ray and alpha-particle spectrometric measurements). The values of anthropogenic 137Cs activity concentration in mushrooms were between 118 and 1647. Bq∙kg−1 dry weight (dw), while for natural 40K from 1316 to 1895 Bq∙kg−1 dw. The activity concentrations of 210Po in chanterelles were between 2.23 and 8.57 Bq∙kg−1 dw and in forest topsoil between 11.4 and 83.0 Bq∙kg−1 dw. Corresponding values for 210Pb were 1.50–6.14 and 7.74–46.1 Bq∙kg−1 dw, respectively. An assessment of the annual radiation doses and cancer risk related to 137Cs, 40K, as well as 210Po and 210Pb (related to 238U series) consumed with chanterelle showed that 137Cs and 210Po give a similar risk, but 2–3 orders of magnitude higher than 40K and 210Pb.

Graphical abstract

graphic file with name 10653_2025_2576_Figa_HTML.jpg

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10653-025-02576-9.

Keywords: Radiocesium 137Cs, Potassium 40K, Polonium 210Po, Radiolead 210Pb, Mushrooms, Effective radiation dose, Cancer risk

Introduction

Concentrations of toxic elements such as lead, cadmium, and mercury in wild edible mushrooms are usually much higher than in farmed plant or animal foods (Melgar et al., 1998; Nnorom et al., 2012). The mycelia of macrofungi, as well as the rhizomorphs of some species, can effectively absorb, concentrate, and transfer metallic elements and metalloids, including minerals and hazardous moieties, from the soil solution, plant or other food substrates into the edibles (Persson & Holm, 2011; Tlalka et al., 2008; Yafetto, 2018). These morphological parts of macrofungi can sometimes be used in environmental biomonitoring as indicators to assess the level of soil pollution and the quality of the ecosystem, including its contamination with radionuclides, as both anthropogenic activities and geological processes impact their presence in the pedosphere and biosphere (Barcan et al., 1998; Grodzinskaya et al., 2003).

The European mushroom market is worth around EUR 1.5 billion, half of which belongs to the Netherlands and Poland. According to the Statistical Office, in 2022, Poland produced about 350,000 tons, of which 60–70% was exported (GUS, 2024; Trade.gov.pl, 2024). Wild mushroom sales have become more popular in many countries, and one of Europe’s best-selling wild mushrooms, valued for their aroma and taste, is Cantharellus cibarius Fr. (common name golden chanterelle or common/yellow chanterelle or girolle) of the genus Cantharellus and the Basidiomycota phylum (Peintner et al., 2013). Among wild mushrooms harvested in Poland, chanterelles accounted for up to 73% of the total (GUS, 2024). So far, attempts to cultivate this species have been unsuccessful, so the product provided for sale must be collected from the wild. The species can be traded and exported in the European Union under the Combined Nomenclature (CN) system, which defines them as sensitive products, and Poland is a leading producer and exporter (Škubla, 2007).

Although edible wild mushrooms are considered a valuable food resource in various parts of the world, they may contribute considerably to the radiation dose of many consumers who prefer wild-harvested mushrooms over cultivated ones (Schunko & Vogl, 2020). The radioactive pollution of food products with natural and anthropogenic nuclides, especially artificial ones such as 137Cs, 90Sr, 239+240Pu, etc., is a continuing hazard to human health because of their long-lived nature. Radiocaesium, particularly 137Cs (half-life 30.08 years), is a long-lived nuclide, a result of global radioactive fallout after nuclear weapon tests, recognized to undergo a biogeochemical cycle in forest ecosystems, persisting for years after the initial pollution (IAEA, 2024). More recently, nuclear power plant accidents in Chernobyl (1986) and Fukushima (2011) caused severe pollution in the neighboring land areas (Steinhauser et al., 2014). Potassium-40 (40K) is a naturally occurring radioactive isotope of the common biologically essential element potassium, representing about 2.4% of the earth’s crust by weight. The half-life of 40K is 1.248 × 109 years, constituting about 0.0117% (117 ppm 40K-to-K ratio) of total natural potassium (IAEA, 2024). Its origin is primordial, and 40K was created in nuclear reactions, which started with the ‘Big Bang’, the cosmic explosion about 14 billion years ago (Lundqvist, 2022). 40K provides the biggest amount of natural radioactivity in biota. A typical adult person’s body contains about 140 g of potassium; thus, about 140 g multiplied by 0.0117% gives 16.4 mg of 40K, which decays and may give to 4300 Bq through the life of an adult person (comparably less in children) (Escareño-Juarez & Vega-Carrillo, 2011). The studied isotopes, polonium 210Po (a highly hazardous radiotoxic alpha emitter) and radiolead 210Pb, are prevalent in the environment as natural by-products of 238U decay. Their half-lives are 138.376 days for 210Po and 22.20 years for 210Pb (IAEA, 2024). Both are considered ultra-trace nuclides, although their physical and chemical properties and radiotoxicity may substantially contribute to the overall radiation dose to humans (Carvalho et al., 2017). Moreover, 210Po is one of the most potent toxic nuclides among naturally occurring radioisotopes to which humans are exposed; what is more, in 2006, it was used as a poison to kill Mr. Alexander Litvinenko (Olszewski et al., 2019; Persson & Holm, 2011). Some products create a worldwide problem related to radiation exposure and may exert hazardous effects on wildlife and humans via contamination, mainly as technologically enhanced naturally occurring radioactive material (TENORM) present in certain foods, which 210Po and 210Pb can be (Al-Mashhadani et al., 2020). Their activity concentrations in edible vegetation depend on the geological composition of the lithosphere. Also, human activities such as agricultural practices, use of phosphate and other fertilizers, mining or coal burning in power plants influence their enhanced concentrations (Strumińska-Parulska and Falandysz, 2020; Strumińska-Parulska et al., 2021a, 2021b).

C. cibarius has widely been characterized for the occurrence of toxic metallic and metalloid elements and is known to absorb the essential macro- and micro-nutrients and other mineral constituents (e.g. rare earth elements, scandium, yttrium) that are sequestered in the fruiting bodies and persist in culinary processed mushroom meals (Drewnowska & Falandysz, 2015; Drewnowska et al., 2017; Mędyk et al., 2023). This study aimed to investigate the occurrence levels and accumulation of 137Cs, 40K, 210Po, and 210Pb in the mushroom species to recognize their concentration capacity and the potential risks they pose to human consumers. By understanding these factors, we can assess the safety of these mushrooms and provide guidelines for minimizing exposure to harmful radionuclides through dietary intake. The Council of the European Union has already stated that the protection against natural radiation sources should be fully integrated within the overall requirements under Directive 2013/59/Euratom and permitted levels of radioactive contamination of food following a nuclear accident 2016/52/Euratom (Euratom, 2013, 2016).

Materials and methods

C. cibarius sensu stricto is an ectomycorrhizal species restricted to Europe that grows in deciduous and coniferous forests. At the same time, the closely related C. cibarius species can also be found in Eurasia, North America, the Middle East (east of Iraq), and Africa (Kirk et al., 2011). The mature fruiting bodies of C. cibarius are 3–10 cm high, with 1–12 cm wide caps, yellow to orange-yellow, with smooth, matte surfaces. As characteristic of the Basidiomycota phylum, C. cibarius are filamentous macrofungi that develop a hymenophore, i.e., the hymenium-bearing structure of a fruiting body. The hymenophore in chanterelles contains lamellae, which are ribs under the cap. However, chanterelles have rudimentary lamellar structures, sometimes referred to as fake gills, as the hymenium continues uninterrupted over the gill edge, so they are little more than folds or veins (Gumińska & Wojewoda, 1985).

C. cibarius and topsoil samples (0–10 cm layer) from beneath the fruiting bodies were collected from distantly distributed forests across Poland. Each soil sample was taken directly from the substrate where the mushrooms grew. These selected locations were free from high industrialization with no history of soil degradation but were exposed to TENORM (Technologically Enhanced Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material) sources at different levels. All fruiting body samples were sliced (plastic or ceramic knife) and dried at 65 °C until they reached a constant weight. The dried fungal materials were ground into a fine powder using a porcelain mortar. The topsoil samples were cleared of visible organisms and dried at room temperature under clean conditions for several weeks, followed by further drying at 65 °C until a stable mass was achieved. After drying, the soil samples were graded through a plastic sieve (Falandysz et al., 2016).

The 137Cs and 40K activity measurements were carried out using a gamma-spectrometer on 20 g of dehydrated fungal material samples, further lyophilized for 72 h before measurement. The sample size for determining 210Po and 210Pb was ca. 4–5 g for mushrooms and 2 g for soil. Details of the analyses and the analytical quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC) criteria are provided in Supporting Information. Certain assumptions about data distribution were verified (Shapiro–Wilk test) to determine if parametric tests were applied. The uptake potential of elements by chanterelle was assessed through the calculation of bioconcentration factor (BCF) values and risk assessment for human health as the sum of all evaluated effective doses from all sources (internal and external) (Supporting Information).

A crucial aspect of analyzing chemical substances in biota is understanding their uptake from the surrounding environment, accumulation in tissues, and migration within the food web. For fungi, these parameters can be described using the bioconcentration factor (BCF) (Eq. 1) (Strumińska-Parulska et al., 2016):

BCF=Radionuclideactivityconcentrationinmushroom(Bq/kg)Radionuclideactivityconcentrationinsoil(Bq/kg) 1

As chanterelles’ BCFs for potassium and cesium were studied previously, only factors for 210Po and 210Pb were investigated in the present research (Drewnowska & Falandysz, 2015; Trappe et al., 2014).

The risk assessment for human health connected to ionizing radiation sources is phrased as the sum of all evaluated effective doses from all sources (internal and external). The total annual effective dose to any adult member of the public from food consumption is presented as a dose from a food mass consumption and calculated in the function of the product of the radioisotope conversion coefficient and its activity concentration in the foodstuff (Eq. 2). The ICRP recommended dose conversion coefficients for ingestion by adults are 0.013 μSv/Bq (137Cs), 0.0062 μSv/Bq (40K), 1.2 μSv·Bq−1 (210Po), and 0.69 μSv·Bq−1 (210Pb) (ICRP, 2007).

E=A·dc·m 2

where E is the effective dose, A is the activity concentration of radionuclide (Bq/kg dw), dc is the dose coefficient (conversion factor) (Sv/Bq) defined as the dose received from the unit of radioactivity intake, and m is the food product intake per unit period (kg).

Results and discussion

The results for 137Cs, 40K, 210Po, and 210Pb activity concentrations of golden chanterelles and 210Po and 210Pb in topsoil substrate are presented in Fig. 1 (and Supporting Information Tables S1 and S2). The obtained results varied significantly – the highest values of activity concentrations were determined for 40K, while the lowest were for 210Po and 210Pb. The H-test analysis indicated 137Cs activity concentrations were significantly lower than 40K but much higher than 210Po and 210Pb, with a p value of 1.71 × 10–16.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

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Log activity concentrations of 137Cs, 40K, 210Po, 210Pb in analyzed mushroom and topsoil

137Cs activity concentrations in C. cibarius

137Cs is an anthropogenic contaminant in the environment due to global atmospheric fallout. The results for 137Cs activity concentrations of golden chanterelles are presented in Fig. 2 (and Table S1). The highest 137Cs activity concentrations were observed in chanterelles from Ciechocinek (1647 ± 12 Bq∙kg−1 dw), and the lowest were measured in samples from Tuszynki (118 ± 2 Bq∙kg−1 dw). The content in fruit bodies in the research strictly depended on the sampling location radioactive pollution and was found at a similar level to that in other Polish species studied (Cocchi et al., 2017; Falandysz et al., 2016, 2022). Previous studies on 137Cs showed its BCF in chanterelles was calculated at 0.1–8.5 (Trappe et al., 2014).

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

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Interpolation map for 137Cs activity concentrations in chanterelle

40K activity concentrations in C. cibarius

40K is a naturally occurring potassium radioactive isotope, and mycelia easily absorb monovalent biologically essential ions such as K+ from the soil. The results of 40K activity concentrations in chanterelles are presented in Fig. 3 (and Table S1), and its highest activity concentrations were observed in chanterelles collected in the mountain area, namely Zakopane (1895 ± 79 Bq∙kg−1 dw), while the lowest was measured in samples from north-eastern Poland, the Augustów Forest (1316 ± 40 Bq∙kg−1 dw). The accumulation of 40K is related to the potassium essential biological function in mushrooms. The content in fruit bodies in the research is similar to those found in other Polish mushroom species studied (Cocchi et al., 2017; Falandysz et al., 2016). Previous studies on stable K showed that its BCF in chanterelles was calculated at 210–1200 (Drewnowska & Falandysz, 2015).

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

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Interpolation map for 40K activity concentrations in chanterelle

210Po and 210Pb activity concentrations in C. cibarius and topsoil

210Po and lead 210Pb are by-products of 238U decay and can be considered together. The results for 210Po and 210Pb activity concentrations of golden chanterelles are presented in Figs. 4 and 5 (and Table S2). The highest 210Po and 210Pb activity concentrations were observed in chanterelles from Włoszczowa (8.57 ± 0.50 and 6.14 ± 0.40 Bq∙kg−1 dw, respectively).

Fig. 4.

Fig. 4

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Interpolation map for 210Po activity concentrations in chanterelle

Fig. 5.

Fig. 5

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Interpolation map of 210Pb activity concentrations in chanterelle

In contrast, the lowest concentrations of analyzed radionuclides were measured in samples from Porażyn (2.23 ± 0.12 Bq∙kg−1 dw for 210Po) and Włocławek (1.50 ± 0.11 Bq∙kg−1 dw for 210Pb). The U-test (Mann–Whitney) analysis indicated that the activity concentrations between 210Po and 210Pb in mushroom samples did not vary significantly, with a p-value of 0.81. In the case of the topsoil samples, the activity concentrations of 210Po and 210Pb were significantly different; the Kruskal–Wallis H-test yielded a p-value of 0.01 for 210Po and 0.03 for 210Pb (Fig. 1; Table S2). The highest activity concentrations determined in forest topsoil were at Borucino, reaching 83.0 ± 3.8 Bq∙kg−1 dw and 46.1 ± 1.0 Bq∙kg−1 dw, for 210Po and 210Pb, respectively. The lowest levels were recorded in forest topsoil from Tuszynki (11.4 ± 0.9 Bq∙kg−1 dw for 210Po) and Dziemiany (7.74 ± 0.40 Bq∙kg−1 dw for 210Pb). Similarly to the mushrooms, the U-test analysis indicated that the activity concentrations between 210Po and 210Pb in topsoil did not vary significantly, with a p-value of 0.73. The activity concentrations of 210Po and 210Pb measured in the analyzed mushrooms were generally consistent with findings from other studies conducted on mushrooms collected in Poland (Strumińska-Parulska 2017; Strumińska-Parulska et al., 2016b; Strumińska-Parulska et al., 2017; 2021a; Szymańska et al., 2018, 2019).

Studies have shown that lamellae mushrooms such as chanterelles may contain higher activity concentrations of 210Po and 210Pb than tubular mushrooms, but a broader study is recommended. However, the activities of 210Po and 210Pb measured in this study are similar (e.g. Norway) or significantly lower compared to those found in other parts of Europe (e.g. Finland, Spain) (Guillén et al., 2009, 2017; Gwynn et al., 2013; Salminen-Paatero & Paatero, 2021; Turtiainen et al., 2013; Vaaramaa et al., 2009). Guillén and Baeza (2014) noted that the distribution patterns of 210Po and 210Pb among mushroom species vary, suggesting a species-dependent accumulation process. These studies underscore the significant influence of local conditions such as natural radioactivity, atmospheric deposition, and geological factors and their impact on the accumulation dynamics across genera (Gwynn et al., 2013; Szymańska & Strumińska-Parulska, 2020; Wichterey & Sawallisch, 2002).

In the study, 210Po and 210Pb accumulation intensity in chanterelles was estimated for the very first time. The BCF values provided information about the fungus’s potential to accumulate in the fruiting body chemical elements absorbed from the colonized substrate. Examined chanterelles showed lower dry-weight amounts of accumulated 210Po and 210Pb than their content in the corresponding topsoil, and the BCF values ranged from 0.03 to 0.38 for 210Po and from 0.05 to 0.41 for 210Pb (Supporting Information Table S2). The lowest BCF values were derived for materials from Borucino, while the highest values were observed in the Borki forests. All calculated BCF values were below one, indicating the species’ limited capacity to bioconcentrate these nuclides. Further calculations showed a negative correlation between 210Po and 210Pb activity concentrations in chanterelle fruit bodies and topsoil substrate. In the case of 210Po, the correlation coefficient was r = -0.65, and the determination coefficient R2 = 0.67, while 210Pb represented the correlation coefficient r = -0.72 and the determination coefficient R2 = 0.64. 210Po and 210Pb in soil are less mobile and bound by the “hardly exchangeable fraction” in soil organic matter (SOM), unlike 137Cs, which show an increase in soil mobility for exchangeable and dissolved organic matter-bound forms (Salminen-Paatero & Paatero, 2021). Conversely, 137Cs shows significant interspecific differences between macrofungi regarding their capacity to accumulate this nuclide (Falandysz et al., 2022; Gabriel et al., 2023; Zalewska et al., 2016). The studies confirmed that chanterelle bioaccumulative potential is relatively low according to 210Po and 210Pb (Strumińska-Parulska et al., 2017; Strumińska-Parulska and Falandysz, 2020).

Multivariate analysis

A multivariate analysis explored similarities in 137Cs, 40K, 210Po, and 210Pb activity concentrations in chanterelles and topsoil substrates. A principal component analysis (PCA) was carried out to demonstrate any possible spatial variations in the nuclide activity concentrations between the sampling sites (Fig. 6). The analysis was based on the correlation matrix, and a fiducial significance level of p < 0.05 was chosen. The PCA data revealed that 61.19% of information regarding the radionuclides’ compositional variability for locations could be described by two varifactors (eigenvalues at 1.95 and 1.72). The first varifactor (PC1) represented 32.49% of the total variance and is loaded on the positively correlated variables, describing 137Cs, 210Po, and 210Pb in mushrooms. Despite potential differences in 210Po and 210Pb concentrations between fungal collections, their accumulation patterns are similar, forming a single cluster. Also, artificial 137Cs present in the soil due to atmospheric fallout lay in the PC1. The second varifactor (PC2) was loaded primarily by correlated 40K in fungi and 210Po and 210Pb in topsoil, explaining 28.70% of the total variance. The PCA showed that 210Po in the soil substrate was related to 210Pb in the topsoil. Similarly, natural primordial 40K presence depends on the geological background. Some unknown environmental conditions (probable intense human activities) resulted in much higher 210Po and 210Pb activity concentrations at Borucino sampling site, leading to different spatial variations. This suggests that the mechanisms or factors influencing the uptake and accumulation of 210Po and 210Pb in the species are comparable, resulting in similar BCF values.

Fig. 6.

Fig. 6

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PCA based on the activity concentrations of 137Cs, 40K, 210Po, 210Pb in analyzed mushroom and topsoil

Health implications for human consumption

Annual effective radiation doses

Effective dose is a mathematical construct, not a physical, measurable quantity. It corresponds to the stochastic health risk (effect) to the whole body (as the probability of cancer induction or genetic effects) of low levels of ionizing radiation. For public exposure, the ICRP recommends the limit to be expressed as an effective dose of 1 mSv annually (ICRP, 2007).

In this study, the annual effective doses were calculated to assess the potential radiotoxicity of the chanterelles based on previously determined 137Cs, 40K, 210Po, and 210Pb activity concentrations. Based on the determined 210Po and 210Pb activity concentrations, the typical meal containing 100 g of fresh chanterelles would provide 1.18–16.5 Bq of 137Cs, 13.2–18.9 Bq of 40K, 0.022–0.086 Bq of 210Po and 0.011–0.061 Bq of 210Pb and give 132–477 nSv in total. An average mushroom consumer in Poland ingests about 5 kg of fresh mushrooms annually, wild-growing and cultivated (Šišák, 1996). Assuming the consumer uses only golden chanterelle, the ingestion may result in an annual effective dose of 0.77–10.7 μSv from 137Cs, 4.08–5.87 μSv from 40K, 1.34 to 5.14 μSv from 210Po decay and 0.78 to 2.12 μSv from 210Pb; thus 6.97–23.4 μSv.year−1 altogether (Tables S1 and S4 ; Fig. 7).

Fig. 7.

Fig. 7

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Annual effective dose from 137Cs, 40K, 210Po, 210Pb ingested with analyzed mushrooms

The total annual effective dose from natural radiation in Poland, which includes 222Rn, reaches 2.5 mSv (Polski Atom, 2025); however, considering food products, 210Po and 210Pb, together with radium and potassium, deliver the highest natural dose to living organisms from the natural radiation sources, while 137Cs is still important anthropogenic pollutant (Bem, 2005). The studies showed that the calculated annual effective radiation doses from chanterelle mushrooms appeared significantly lower when compared to other species of mushrooms (Strumińska-Parulska et al., 2017; 2020a; 2020b; 2021a; 2022) and some other food products or diet supplements consumed in Poland (Moniakowska et al., 2024; Moniakowska & Strumińska-Parulska, 2024; Olszewski et al., 2019; Strumińska-Parulska, 2015, 2016a, 2016b, 2017; Zhang et al., 2023;). However, the analyzed activity concentrations of 210Po and 210Pb were similar to those found in mushrooms of the genus Leccinum (Strumińska-Parulska, 2016b; Szymańska et al., 2018, 2019).

Cancer risk

Alpha or beta radiation causes different effects on the body. Ingested or inhaled 210Po and 210Pb can damage cells, lead to their death, or affect cell division, resulting in tumor formation. Thus, the following purpose of the research was to estimate the cancer risk due to lifetime exposure to 210Po and 210Pb ingested with analyzed chanterelle. The results of calculated cancer risk, the so-called’ cancer morbidity’ (the probability of cancer), and ‘cancer mortality’ (the probability of death due to cancer) from 210Po and 210Pb were calculated using the determined levels of 210Po and 210Pb present in the examined mushrooms and presented in Table S2 (Supporting Information). The cancer risk was evaluated for adults’ life mean consumption, namely 50 years. The mortality conversion factors used for the evaluation were 6.88 × 10–10 Bq−1 for 137Cs, 5.89 × 10–10 Bq−1 for 40K, 4.44 × 10–8 Bq−1 for 210Po, and 2.31 × 10–8 Bq−1 for 210Pb, while the morbidity coefficients were 1.0 × 10–9 Bq−1 for 137Cs, 9.26.10–10 Bq−1 for 40K, 6.09 × 10–8 Bq−1 for 210Po, and 3.18 × 10–8 Bq−1 for 210Pb (EPA, 1999). Considering an adult person who eats 5 kg of fresh golden chanterelle annually for 50 years, the risk of cancer-related morbidity and mortality due to 137Cs and 40K was estimated and ranged from 10–5 to 10–9. The calculated risk factors related to cancer from 137Cs were from 0.11 × 10–5 to 1.50 × 10–5 for morbidity, while the mortality was from 4.82 × 10–9 to 6.72 × 10–8. The cancer risk from 40K ranged from 1.11 × 10–5 to 1.60 × 10–5 for morbidity, while mortality was from 2.19 × 10–8 to 3.16 × 10–8 (Supporting Information Table S3). According to 210Po and 210Pb, the risk of cancer-related morbidity and mortality ranged from 10–6 to 10–7. The calculated risk factors related to cancer from 210Po ranged from 1.24 × 10–6 to 4.76 × 10–6 for morbidity, while the mortality was from 0.90 × 10–6 to 3.47 × 10–6. The cancer risk from 210Pb ranged from 0.66 × 10–6 to 1.78 × 10–6 for morbidity, while mortality was from 0.48 × 10–6 to 1.29 × 10–6 (Supporting Information Table S4). Based on the calculations, analyzed chanterelle consumption poses a similar risk in the case of 137Cs and 210Po, but overall, the hazard is low and should not increase the potential cancer risk.

Potential contamination and radiotoxicity to consumers

Many wild mushrooms (e.g., Xerocomus badius, Suillus bovinus, Suillus luteus, Thelephora penicillate, Russula cyanoxantha) effectively bioaccumulate toxic elements from the environment, both stable and radioactive. The research on chanterelle (C. cibarius) and the calculated BCFs exposed its weak bioconcentration capacity. Afterward, the negative correlation coefficient between activity concentrations in fruit bodies and topsoil substrate indicated ineffective bioaccumulation mechanisms. The calculated determination coefficients allowed us to suppose that the chanterelle growing on soil substrate richer in 210Po and 210Pb may still be safe for consumption. However, further studies on other radioactive elements, natural and anthropogenic, other than 210Po and 210Pb, 137Cs and 40K, are needed in nuclear risk assessment and emergency response systems affected by fallout from nuclear events or much higher anthropogenic releases, which may impact chanterelle’s capacity to accumulate them.

Conclusion

This study reveals that chanterelle mushrooms (C. cibarius) collected across Poland accumulate varying levels of both natural and anthropogenic radionuclides, including 13⁷Cs, 4⁰K, 21⁰Po, and 21⁰Pb. While the activity concentrations of these radionuclides differed by location, the species demonstrated a low bioconcentration potential for 21⁰Po and 21⁰Pb. This variation could be attributed to differences in environmental factors such as soil composition, local geology, atmospheric deposition, and human activities, all of which can influence the levels of radionuclides in different areas. The estimated effective radiation doses and associated lifetime cancer risks for consumers were low, suggesting minimal radiological health concerns from chanterelle consumption. As mushrooms accumulate chemical elements at different levels, ongoing surveillance and extended studies on additional radionuclides are recommended to support informed food safety assessments and public health protection.

Supplementary Information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary file1 (DOCX 99 KB) (98.6KB, docx)

Author contributions

Each named author has substantially contributed to the underlying research. D. S.-P.: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Supervision, Project administration, Resources, Writing—original draft preparation, Writing—review & editing. A. M.: Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Resources, Writing—original draft preparation. K. S.: Investigation. J. F.: Mushrooms and topsoil samples collection and processing, Conceptualization, Writing—review & editing.

Funding

The authors thank the University of Gdańsk (BMN 539-T030-B143-24) and the Ministry of Education and Science of Poland (DS/531-T030-D841-24) for the financial support.

Data availability

Data available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethical approval

This article contains no studies with animals or human participants.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publish

Not applicable.

Footnotes

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Contributor Information

Dagmara Strumińska-Parulska, Email: dagmara.struminska@ug.edu.pl.

Jerzy Falandysz, Email: jerzy.falandysz@umed.lodz.pl.

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