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. 2025 Jul 2;15:22667. doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-07020-7

Electrical discharge machining by rapid tools prepared by micro stereo-lithography process with copper metallization

Anshuman Kumar Sahu 1,✉, Siba Sankar Mahapatra 2, André Martin 3, Andreas Schubert 3, Marco Leite 1,✉, Paulo Peças 1
PMCID: PMC12219863  PMID: 40593159

Abstract

Rapid tooling (RT) has evolved into an emerging area in the field of manufacturing for fabricating tools potentially reducing machining time and cost allowing higher levels of geometric freedom. In this work, the application of RT technique in electrical discharge machining (EDM) has been explored. RT tools fabricated by micro stereo-lithography (micro-SLA) are coated with thick copper coatings by electroless metallization and electroplating to be used during EDM to machine 304 L stainless steel work piece material. The performance of the RT tools is compared with massive copper tool results considering output performance measures like material removal rate, tool wear rate, surface roughness, and surface crack density. The machined work piece surfaces and tool surfaces are analyzed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). The proposed RT tools have shown a higher material removal rate than the conventionally used massive copper tool. In addition, micro-cracks formed on the machined surfaces using RT tools are comparatively less. Nevertheless, the RT tools have higher tool wear rate and higher surface roughness on the machined surfaces as compared to the massive copper tool.

Keywords: Electrical discharge machining, Micro stereo-lithography, Rapid tooling, Electroless coating, Electroplating

Subject terms: Energy science and technology, Mechanical engineering

Introduction

Electrical discharge machining (EDM) is an extensively used machining process to produce complex and intrinsic cavities in difficult-to-cut materials. EDM is a non-traditional machining process where thermal energy is used to remove material from the work piece surfaces. During machining, both work piece and tool (electrode) are submerged inside a dielectric medium. When a potential difference is applied on them, electric sparks are generated. The electric sparks generate a very high temperature (8,000–10,000 ºC) in the inter electrodes gaps causing melting and vaporization of tiny particles from the work piece surfaces leading to material removal1–5. In EDM, the material removal depends on the thermal properties of the work piece rather than strength and hardness4,5. Researchers have tried to improve the machining performance of EDM process considering different advancements in the machining process like use of different dielectric fluid6–8, use of composite tools9,10, mixing of powders in dielectric fluid6,11 and use of cryogenic treatment of tool and work piece12,13. The tool is the most essential element in the EDM process because the negative shape of it is replicated on the work piece surface. To produce complex shapes, first a similar complex shape tool is required to be produced and the negative shape of it is replicated on the work piece to produce the final product. The production of tools is a complex and time-consuming process through conventional route accounting for almost 50% of the total machining cost14–18. The fabrication of complex tools becomes difficult, and alternative fabrication methods have great potential to reduce the tooling costs and overall production costs15,16,19. Technological advancement in the field of rapid tooling (RT) reduces the complexity of fabrication of tools with reduced lead time and tooling cost. As RT allows for quick tool development leading to faster production cycles, RT technologies like stereo-lithography (SLA) and fused deposition modeling (FDM) are used to fabricate the shape of EDM tools by different researchers16,19–21.

The critical review of the various works related to application of RT in EDM indicates that the topography and morphology of the machined surfaces using the RT tools for EDM is less explored. Similarly, rapid prototyping (RP) processes like micro-SLA have been hardly explored for RT applications to produce EDM tools. Similarly, researchers have discussed metallization on plastics and polymers surfaces by different electroless coating routes and electroplating process. However, surface metallization applications in rapid tooling have not been fully explored in the literature. In this work, tools are fabricated by micro-SLA process from triethylene glycol diacrylate followed by copper coating on it by different chemical routes and electroplating process. Their applicability as tools during EDM is analyzed after metallization with a suitable thickness of copper in comparison to commonly used solid copper tool. The 304 L stainless steel is used in food processing equipment, kitchen appliances, automotive and aerospace parts, chemical containers, heat exchangers, nuts, bolts, and screws in marine environments. In this work, 304 L stainless steel is used as the work piece material during the EDM process to investigate the performance of RT tools.

Literature review

EDM is one of the most widely used non-traditional machining processes for machining difficult-to-machine materials like titanium alloys, inconel alloys, shape memory alloys, nimonic alloys, monel alloys, metal matrix composites, etc2,3,7,8,12,13,22,23. Researchers have been trying to improve the machining performance using green electrodes prepared by RT methods. Some of the articles related to use of RT tools are discussed as follows.

Arthur et al.16 have prepared RT tools by copper electroplating on SLA parts for electrical discharge machining of hardened tool steel. It is found that the RT tools exhibit similar material removal rate (MRR) as compared to solid copper tools with a higher tool wear rate (TWR). Separation of the electro-formed shell from the SL master causes significant tool wear16. Equbal et al.17 have prepared RT tools through copper metallization on acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) substrate made by fused deposition modeling (FDM) process. The performance of the tools is studied during machining of mild steel work piece. It is observed that discharge current is the major parameter that influences the output responses such as MRR, TWR, surface roughness (Ra) and dimensional accuracy. Padhi et al.19 have prepared EDM tools by RT process to study the machining characteristics in comparison to conventional copper tool during machining of D2 steel. The RT tools prepared by metallization of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) prepared by FDM have shown similar machining performance with less tool wear as compared to solid copper tool. Reddy et al.21 have studied the machining performance of hollow RT tools prepared from ABS plastic through FDM process with electroless copper coating by using H2SO4 acidic baths machining. The hollow tools possess a fair amount of thickness after electroless copper coating for EDM application on stainless steel 304. The study reveals that current is the most significant parameter for MRR and TWR whereas voltage is the most significant parameter for Ra. The performance of RT tools is comparable with solid copper in terms of MRR, TWR and Ra. But the dimensional accuracy of the machined surface is severely affected. Arthur and Dickens24 have studied heat distribution during EDM when RT tools prepared by SLA process and electroplating of copper on the tools are used for semi-roughing and finishing operations. The study finds failure of RT tools occurs due to delamination, distortion, and thinning. Habib and Rahman25 have fabricated micro-EDM tools by localized electrochemical deposition (LECD) on solid copper surface. The study concludes that LECD micro-EDM tools are capable of producing micro holes with good dimensional accuracy on the work piece materials. Hsu et al.26 have fabricated RT tools made of gypsum powder electroplated with nickel followed by electroforming of copper. RT tool exhibits similar machining performance as solid copper tool but manufacturing time for RT tool can be substantially reduced.

Yarlagadda et al.27 have fabricated complex tools of RTV silicone by SLA followed by an electroforming process. During machining, it is observed that the tool gets worn out resulting complex shaped projections due to the lower thickness of copper coating layer. However, it is recommended that the tool can be used for semi-roughing to finishing process. Ding et al.28 have prepared RT tool using RP process, room temperature vulcanization (RTV) and electroforming. Dimensionally stable tools have been produced by combining stereolithography and electroless plating for roughing operation during the EDM process29. Ming et al.30 have developed macro and micro EDM tools by electroforming process using different acidic baths. The performance of the tools depends on the bath used for tool preparation. Shaikh and Ahuja31 have studied the performance of EDM tools produced by combining RP and composite coatings during machining of P20 mold steel work piece material. The study reveals that composite coatings enhance performance of the RT tools.

In addition, various researchers have investigated the copper and nickel metallization on polymer parts fabricated by RP processes using different chemical routes. Angel et al.32 have fabricated 3D parts made of PLA and electrically conductive carbon black filament by FDM process. The tools are copper electroplated on the conductive surfaces using baths containing sulfuric acid, copper sulfate, and water in a definite ratio. Li and Yang33 have coated copper on ABS plastics parts by electroless coating process. Aluminum and carbon paste is applied on ABS surface before using chemical routes for copper coating. The acidic electroless baths contain 15 wt% copper sulfate and 5 wt% of each sulfuric acid (H2SO4), phosphoric acid (H3PO4), nitric acid (HNO3), and acetic acid (CH3COOH). Similarly, researchers have also used electroless copper coating on ABS plastics parts printed through FDM using different chemical baths containing HF, H2SO4, H3PO4, HNO3, and CH3COOH with copper sulfate20,34–36. Bazzaoui et al.37 have nickel electroplated on ABS plastic parts. First polypyrrole (PPy) coating is applied on ABS plastic to prepare the surface for electroplating. Then, initially copper deposition and finally nickel electroplating is performed on ABS plastic surface. White et al.38 have attempted metallization on ABS parts printed by FDM process. It is suggested to treat the ABS samples with acetone vapor before metallizing through physical vapor deposition (PVD). Dixit et al.39 have applied aluminum paint paste and aluminum epoxy paste on the surfaces of the ABS parts made through FDM route before electroless copper coating using acidic solution of 12.5 wt% copper sulphate and 7.5 wt% of sulphuric acid. Luan et al.40 have demonstrated surface preparation of polymers fabricated by SLA process by chemical etching with chromium trioxide and sulfuric acid. The chemical etching is capable of significantly improving the hydrophilicity of the surface of SLA parts, which is beneficial for the subsequent pretreatment for metallization. Zhang et al.41 have used silver mirror reaction to develop silver films on ABS plastics surface. Then, copper coating is made on the silver films followed by double-nickel electroplating on the surface to enhance corrosion resistance.

The critical review of recent works in the related field of RT in EDM indicates that few studies have been directed to study the topography and morphology of the machined surfaces when RT tools are used for EDM. Similarly, RP processes like micro-SLA have not been fully explored for RT applications to produce EDM tools.

Fabrication of EDM tool electrode by RP process

In this work, the performance of RT tools is investigated during the EDM process and compared with conventionally used massive copper tool. For the EDM application, the RT tools are fabricated by micro-SLA process. The present work consists of the generation of CAD model for the required electrodes, conversion of CAD model to RP compatible STL files, fabrication of the electrode by micro-SLA and metallization of the micro-SLA parts by electroless coating followed by electroplating. The different processes involved in the fabrication of RT tools are shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

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Procedure of fabrication of RT tool.

Preparation of electrode by micro-SLA

Cylindrical electrodes of 15 mm in diameter and 30 mm in length are prepared in CAD by SolidWorks and converted into STL files. The electrode prototypes are fabricated by a micro-SLA machine (model: ProJet 1200 micro-SLA 3D printer, 3D Systems, USA). The material used for the RT tool fabrication is triethylene glycol diacrylate (marketed as VisiJet® FTX Gray and provided by 3D Systems, USA). Then, aluminum paste is applied on the surface of the micro-SLA parts. It is difficult to perform metallic coating on plastic or polymer parts fabricated by RP processes. Hence, to form an intermediate layer for ease of copper coating aluminum paste is applied on the micro-SLA parts. The aluminum paste is composed of aluminum powder, enamel, carbon powder and distilled water in the ratio of 40:36:3:21. After that, the prototypes are dried in a furnace at 600C for 1 h. The dried prototypes are scoured with sandpaper of 320 grit size followed by washing properly in distilled water. Then, the micro-SLA parts are ready for metallization.

Metallization of micro-SLA parts

For the initial metallization of the micro-SLA parts by electroless process, three acidic baths are used such as HF, H2SO4 and H3PO4. Three different electroless baths are prepared by considering 15 wt% of CuSO4.5H2O and 5 wt% of each from the three acids HF, H2SO4 and H3PO4. The micro-SLA parts are dipped inside the acidic baths for 1 h and after that the parts are again dried in a furnace at 600C for 1 h. The electroless copper coated parts are used for the thick copper coating on it by the electroplating process. The electroplating process is applied for 24 h to make a thick (500–800 μm) copper layer on the micro-SLA parts. These copper-coated micro-SLA parts are used as electrodes during the EDM process. The procedure of the fabrication process is shown in Fig. 1. The tools at different stages are shown in Fig. 2. The surfaces of the tools are examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and corresponding elemental analysis is performed by energy dispersion X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) as shown in Fig. 3. The EDX of the surfaces of the RP tools revealed the presence of coated copper elements with a very small percentage of aluminum elements. This aluminum is presented on tool surfaces because aluminum paste is applied on the micro-SLA parts before electroless metallization. Similarly, elements of carbon and oxygen are also present on the RP tool surfaces. The SEM images of the coated layer on the RP tool surfaces are shown in Fig. 4. The coated layer thickness is measured by taking the SEM images showing the coated layer thickness with the help of ImageJ application. The RP tool prepared by using HF bath has shown the thickest copper coated layer with an average thickness of 598.057 μm followed by tool surface prepared by using H2SO4 and H3PO4 baths with a copper coated layer thickness of 570.388 μm and 505.843 μm, respectively.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

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Tools at different stages (a) CAD model, (b) after Al paste applied, (c) after electroless Cu deposition, (d) after electroplating Cu deposition.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

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SEM and EDX of micro-SLA tool surfaces after electroplating and after electroless copper deposition (a) by using HF, (b) by using H2SO4, (c) by using H3PO4.

Fig. 4.

Fig. 4

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Copper coated layer on tool surface prepared by using different chemical baths (a) HF, (b) H2SO4, (c) H3PO4.

Experimentation by EDM

The experiment is performed on a die sinking EDM machine (model: ELECTRA EMS 5535, India) by using EDM 30 oil as dielectric fluid. To study the performance of these RT tools during EDM process, 304 L stainless steel (size: 60 × 60 × 5 mm3) is used as work piece. The chemical composition and properties of 304 L stainless steel are presented in Tables 1 and 2 respectively. During the EDM process only the electric current was varied to study the performance of RT tools which is one of the most influential parameters in the EDM process15,19,42. The current was set to 2 A, 4 A and 6 A, while other parameters were taken as constant, such as voltage 10 V, pulse-on-time 50 µs, duty cycle 50%, spark gap 50 μm, flushing pressure 0.2 MPa, polarity straight (tool connected to negative and work piece connected positive terminals) and machining time 5 min. The process parameters are shown in Table 3. The performance of these RT tools is analyzed by considering the performance measures like MRR, TWR, average surface roughness (Ra), and surface crack density (SCD).

Table 1.

Chemical composition of 304 L stainless steel.

Element Ni Cr Mn Si C Fe
wt% 8–12 18–20 0–2 0–1 0.00-0.03 Balance
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Table 2.

Properties of 304 L stainless steel.

Properties Value
Density 8000 kg/m3
Melting point 1673–1723 K
Ultimate tensile strength 564 MPa
Modulus of elasticity 193–200 GPa
Specific heat capacity 500 J/(kg K)
Thermal conductivity 16.2 W/(m K)
Electrical resistivity 7.2 × 10− 7 Ωm
Vickers hardness 159 VHN
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Table 3.

Process parameters.

Parameters Process variables
Tools Cu, RT prepared by using HF, RT prepared by using H2SO4, RT prepared by using H3PO4
Current (A) 2, 4 and 6
Voltage (V) 10
Pulse-on-time (µs) 50
Duty cycle (%) 50
Spark gap (µm) 50
Flushing pressure (MPa) 0.2
Polarity straight
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MRR and TWR are calculated as the weight of material removal from the work piece and tool surface for the specified machining time. Ra of the machined surface is measured by a surface roughness tester (model: Surftest SJ 210, Mitutoyo, Japan). SCD is measured by taking SEM images of the machined surface by SEM machine (model: Jeol JSM-6480LV, Japan). SCD is the ratio of total crack lengths present on the SEM image of the machined surface to the area of the SEM image. The length of each crack present on the machined surfaces is measured by PDF X’Change Viewer software. Similarly, the EDX analysis of the machined surface is carried out by SEM machine (model: Jeol JSM-6480LV, Japan) equipped with Oxford Instruments elemental analysis.

Result and discussion

The RT tools are manufactured by micro-SLA process and are used for the machining of 304 L stainless steel by EDM process. The effect of RT tools at different values of current on EDM performance is discussed as follows.

The MRR of the single RT tools is shown in Fig. 5. It can be deduced that RT tools prepared by HF and H2SO4 baths have shown higher MRR compared with commonly used copper (Cu) tool. However, the RT tool prepared by H3PO4 bath has exhibited higher MRR at 4 A current. But, at other settings of current, the MRR is similar to that of Cu tool. During the process of electroplating the copper particles deposited on the surface of the RT tools are of irregular shape with very fine grain structures ranging from 10 to 60 μm for RT tools prepared by HF and H2SO4 baths, and 20 to 100 μm the RT tool prepared by H3PO4 bath as shown in Fig. 3. Hence, the spark energy generated by these RT tools are more that results in higher MRR. The RT tool prepared by copper coating with HF bath followed by copper electroplating have shown higher MRR followed by RT tool prepared by H2SO4, H3PO4 baths respectively and Cu tool have shown lowest MRR among all. For all the tools MRR increases with increase in current due to generation of higher spark energy at higher value of current7,8,42.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 5

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MRR vs. current.

The effect of RT tools on TWR is shown in Fig. 6. The TWR on the RT tool prepared by HF bath is the highest among all followed by RP tool prepared by H2SO4 bath. Whereas RT tool prepared by H3PO4 bath has shown a similar trend of TWR as compared to that of the copper tool, but the TWR of RT tool prepared by H3PO4 bath is higher than that of the copper tool at higher a value of current (4 A and 6 A). For all the tools TWR increases with an increase in current due to the generation of higher spark energy at a higher value of current.

Fig. 6.

Fig. 6

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TWR vs. current.

The Ra of the machined surfaces using different tools is shown in Fig. 7. All the RT tools have shown higher Ra value as compared to the Cu tool. During the process of electroplating, the copper particles deposited on the surface of the RT tools are of irregular shape with very fine grain structures. Hence, the spark energy generated by these RT tools are more that results in higher MRR and subsequently higher value of Ra observed on the machined surfaces using RT tools. The RT tool prepared by copper coating with HF bath have shown higher value of Ra on the machined surfaces followed by copper coating of RT tool prepared by H2SO4, H3PO4 baths respectively and Cu tool have shown lowest Ra among all. For all the tools Ra increases with increase in current due to generation of higher spark energy at higher value of current that increases MRR with higher value of crater depth on the machined surfaces.

Fig. 7.

Fig. 7

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Ra vs. current.

The SCD on the machined surfaces using different tools are shown in Fig. 8. Using the Cu tool, the SCD on the machined surface is more as compared to the SCD on the machined surfaces by the use of RT tools. With the use of solid copper tool, the residual stress generated on the machined surface due to sudden heating and cooling during the sparking process is more compared to the use of RT tools. Hence, the SCD on the machined surface is more as compared to the RT tools. The SCD on the machined surfaces increases with an increase in current for all four tools. This is due to the increase in spark energy with an increase in current7,8,13,42. The surface cracks formed on the machined surfaces by using different tools are shown in Fig. 9. The EDX of the machined surface by different tools are shown in Fig. 10. From the EDX analysis it is found that the tool element copper from the tool surface was transferred to the machined surfaces during the sparking process and is present on the machined surfaces.

Fig. 8.

Fig. 8

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SCD vs. current.

Fig. 9.

Fig. 9

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Cracks on the machined surfaces by using different tools.

Fig. 10.

Fig. 10

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EDX of the machined surfaces machined by different tools at current 2 A (a) HF tool, (b) H2SO4 tool, (c) H3PO4 tool, (d) Cu tool.

Similarly, carbon and oxygen are present on the machined surfaces. Carbon comes from the dissociation of the hydrocarbon type dielectric fluid (EDM 30) during the sparking process and is deposited on the machined surfaces. Oxygen comes from the environment or oxygen present in the dielectric fluid in soluble form. Due to the presence of carbon and oxygen on the machined surfaces, metal oxides and metal carbides may be formed on the machined surface which increases the microhardness of the machined surface with the formation of recast layer or white layer7,8. The carbon might be residue from dielectric fluid.

The SEM images of the RT tools and corresponding EDX of the tool surfaces before machining are shown in Fig. 3. Similarly, the SEM images of the RT tools, Cu tool and corresponding EDX of the tool surfaces after machining are shown in Fig. 11. From the EDX analysis of the tool surfaces, it is found that the workpiece elements like iron (Fe), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), silicon (Si), manganese (Mn), etc. are present on the tool surfaces. These elements are transferred from the workpiece surface to the tool surfaces during the sparking process and adhere to the surfaces of the tools. Again, an increased percentage of carbon (C) and oxygen (O) are present on the tool surfaces. Carbon comes from the dissociation of the hydrocarbon type dielectric fluid during the sparking process and is deposited on the tool surfaces during machining. Similarly, oxygen comes from the environment or oxygen present in the dielectric fluid in soluble form.

Fig. 11.

Fig. 11

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SEM and EDX of micro-SLA tool surfaces after machining at current 2 A (a) HF tool, (b) H2SO4 tool, (c) H3PO4 tool, (d) Cu tool.

Summary

In this work, the RT tools have been successfully fabricated by micro-SLA process followed by copper metallization by three chemical routes like surface preparation by HF, H2SO4 and H3PO4 baths. To make thick copper coating on the RT tool to be used as electrode during EDM operation electroplating has been performed on it. All the three RT tools have shown higher MRR as compared to conventionally used massive copper tool. However, earlier work by Equbal et al.17, it was reported that the MRR by use of metalized FDM tool was less as compared to the MRR by the use of conventional massive copper tool. In this work, the TWR by the use of RP tools was higher compared to conventional massive copper tool. Similar work is also reported by literature, where the TWR by use of metalized FDM electrode was higher to that of conventional copper electrode17. Likewise, the Ra of the machined surfaces by the RP electrodes is more as compared to that by the use of conventional massive cooper tools. Similar results were also reported in literature where Ra of the machined surfaces by the use of copper coated FDM electrode is more as compared to Ra of the machined surface by the conventionally used copper electrode15,17,19. In this work, the surface cracks formed on the machined surfaces inform of SCD is analyzed and the elemental composition changes on the machined surface after machining have been analyzed. The SCD on the machined surfaces by the use of massive cooper tool is more as compared to that by the use of RT tools. The EDX analysis of the tool surfaces revealed transferred of electrode elements like copper onto machined surfaces during the sparking process with presence of carbon and oxygen elements on the machined surfaces. Similarly, the workpiece elements were also transferred on the electrode surfaces during machining. Here, only one process parameter that is current was varied during machining to study the performance of RT tools. However, the influence of other machining parameters like voltage, duty cycle, pulse-on-time, pulse-off-time, etc. on the EDM performance can be investigated.

Conclusions

In this work, rapid tools with electroless copper coating by using different chemical baths followed by electroplating were successfully used during the electrical discharge machining of 304 L stainless steel work piece material. The RP tools were prepared by micro-SLA process and were electroless copper coated with different chemical baths like HF, H2SO4 and H3PO4 followed by electroplating. The performance of these RT tools has been investigated in comparison with solid massive copper tool with varying currents during the machining process. Here, all the RT tools have shown better results as compared to the copper tool if MRR is considered. The RT tool prepared by HF bath has shown the highest MRR. Similarly, the TWR and Ra are more by the use of all RP tools as compared to the copper tool and TWR and Ra are highest by the use of RT tool prepared by HF bath. However, SCD on the machined surface by the use of a copper tool is higher as compared to SCD on the machined surfaces by the use of different RT tools. The EDX of the machined surfaces revealed the presence of tool elements like copper on the machined surfaces with a higher percentage of carbon and oxygen. Similarly, the EDX of the tool surfaces after machining has shown the presence of workpiece elements like iron, chromium, nickel, silicon, manganese, etc. with higher percentages of carbon and oxygen. The tool elements transferred onto the work piece surfaces during machining. Similarly, the work piece elements transferred onto the tool surfaces during machining. Carbon comes from the dissociation of the hydrocarbon type dielectric fluid during the sparking process and is deposited on the tool and work piece surfaces during machining. Similarly, oxygen comes from the environment or oxygen present in the dielectric fluid in soluble form.

The process of research and learning in the applications of RT is a growing area in the field of manufacturing. This research further can be extended by taking a wide variety of workpiece materials with varying process parameters during the EDM process. Similarly, tools prepared by other RP processes like fused deposition modeling, selective laser sintering, direct metal laser sintering, wire arc additive manufacturing, etc. can also be investigated for potential use in rapid tooling.

Acknowledgements

Anshuman Kumar Sahu, Marco Leite, and Paulo Peças acknowledge Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) for its financial support via the project LAETA Base Funding (DOI: https://doi.org/10.54499/UIDB/50022/2020). This work has been supported by the European Union under the Next Generation EU, through a grant of the Portuguese Republic’s Recovery and Resilience Plan (PRR) Partnership Agreement, within the scope of the project PRODUTECH R3 – “Agenda Mobilizadora da Fileira das Tecnologias de Produção para a Reindustrialização”.

Author contributions

A.K.S.: Performed the experiment, wrote the main manuscript; S.S.M., A.M., A.S., M.L., P.P.: reviewed and edited the manuscript, M.L., P.P.: Project funding.

Data availability

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

Declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Footnotes

Publisher’s note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Contributor Information

Anshuman Kumar Sahu, Email: anshuman.sahu@tecnico.ulisboa.pt.

Marco Leite, Email: marcoleite@tecnico.ulisboa.pt.

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