Abstract
As a type of simulation love game, otome games provide women players with an immersive and sweet romantic experience, which may have a subtle impact on their mate selection criteria. In order to explore the impact of game character identification on the mate selection criteria of women gamers, a survey was conducted with 351 women otome game players. The study found that there was a pairwise positive correlation between the game character identification, self-presence, character attachment, and mate selection criteria of women players. Furthermore, chain mediation model analysis revealed that game character identification indirectly affected mate selection criteria through the chain mediation of self-presence and character attachment, as well as the independent mediation of character attachment.
Keywords: Otome game, Game character identification, Character attachment, Self-presence, Mate selection criteria
Introduction
In contemporary society, the issue of marriage remains a significant topic of discussion, garnering considerable attention from both the state and the public. As women’s social status continues to rise, they increasingly refuse to be relegated to passive roles in marriage, romantic relationships, and social interactions. Consequently, women seek greater choice, agency, and voice. Under such circumstances, it is essential for women to cultivate a stronger sense of identity and respect [1], which may subsequently affect their mate selection criteria [2]. As high-quality men with different characteristics can be found as players’ love objects in the otome game, these criteria can be explored and expressed through gameplay.
The word “otome”, translated from Japanese, originally means “young girl”. “Otome game” can be literally interpreted as a game for girls. These are simulated love games primarily designed for women players, allowing them to engage with various male protagonists as heroines. Players cultivate relationships through narrative exploration and interaction, resulting in a sweet romantic experience. Some reports suggest that otome games, as a type of immersive romantic simulation, offer highly interactive and realistic experiences. Players often extend their virtual relationships into real life, treating in-game romance as genuine emotional connections and the characters as spiritual partners. This phenomenon has also led to a surge in offline fan activities [3]. Moreover, on certain Chinese social media platforms, some players report losing interest in real-life romance and did not believe that there were good men in reality after engaging with otome games [4], which may show that Otome games may enable more women to attain their ideal relationships, leading them to choose to remain single or adopt a more cautious approach in mate selection, setting stricter standards for their partners. Most previous studies related to otome games have mostly focused on the dissemination of otome games and their connections to feminism [1], mainly exploring their impact on women’s concepts of ideal love and relationship, motivations for playing games and consumptions [5–7]. However, from the perspective of real-life phenomena and previous research, this romantic emotion towards virtual characters seems to have an impact on daily relationships [8], but only one study has focused on it [4]. Therefore, this study aims to investigate whether and how otome games affect women gamers’ realistic mate selection criteria. Based on the impact of otome games on gamers’ mate selection criteria, we can better explore the multifaceted effects of games on players’ virtual reality.
The relationship between the game character identification and mate selection criteria
Game character identification refers to the temporary transformation of the player’s self-experience and the reduction of self-discrepancy while controlling a game character. Specifically, it describes players’ transient transformation of self-identity to align with the attributes of the character being manipulated [9]. During the game, the player directly controls the character, immersing themselves in the game environment from the character’s perspective. As the player navigates the game plot and experiences the character’s emotions, the relationship between the player and the game character deepens over time [10]. Mate selection criteria mainly refer to the standards set by individuals before choosing a mate and the expected level formed during the mate selection process, that is, the conditions and requirements for both men and women to choose a romantic partner [11]. Some socio-cultural evidence indirectly suggests that mate selection criteria are an acquired concept that changes with social background or environment [12], confirming Bandura’s social learning theory. As Buss et al. found, with the development of the times, the importance of mate selection criteria such as chastity has relatively decreased over the past few decades [13]. China, with its collectivist culture, places more emphasis on family continuity when choosing a spouse, while the West focuses on romantic love [14].
In otome games, the gameplay experience adopts a first-person perspective, allowing players to control the heroine’s behavior, attire, and responses during interactions with her love partner. This customization fosters a closer connection between the avatar and the player’s real self, effectively making the character an extension of the self [15], and enhancing game character identification as well [16]. Simultaneously, increased identification with a game character correlates with significant changes in players’ beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors in response to the character’s experiences [9, 17, 18]. For instance, individuals who identify with violent avatars in video games lead to increased hostility [19]. Conversely, those who identify with prosocial avatars tend to enhance prosocial behaviors [20]. Based on this, the enhancement of game character identification may increase the possibility of bringing virtual behavior as well as cognitive and emotional romantic experiences into the real world. Throughout the gameplay, players often experience a heightened standard of mate selection, establishing emotional connections with the playable characters on physical, mental, and cognitive levels. Consequently, players may develop similar high-standard expectations for their future partners. As a kind of romantic game, otome games bring players a variety of socially recognized high-standard male choices. Throughout the gameplay, players often experience a high standard of mate selection, establishing emotional connections with the playable characters physically, mentally, and cognitively. Consequently, they may develop similar high-standard expectations for the other half of the future. Therefore, our study proposes Hypothesis 1: Otome game characters identification positively predicts mate selection criteria.
The mediating role of self-presence
Self-presence is the psychological perception of experiencing the virtual self as the real self in both sensory and non-sensory ways [21]. When individuals feel present with their avatars, they achieve a sense of self-presence [22], realizing the true meaning of “immersion”. In most Chinese otome games, the characters controlled by players have few distinct preferences. For example, when conversing with playable characters, if they ask the protagonist what flavor of hotpot they want, the player’s screen will display multiple options. In the continuous development of games, there have also been some otome games that can provide facial recognition services for the characters they control before the plot begins. With the increasing development of artificial intelligence technology, it even supports importing player photos and creating exclusive models for players through AI. In the cognitive process of virtual character avatars, the greater the individuals’ sense of similarity and identification with the avatar, the easier it becomes to overlook the virtual nature of the game character [23]. So players are more likely to substitute the game character into their own experiences, resulting in a heightened sense of self-presence.
Previous research has found that positive feedback from the opposite sex can influence an individual’s mate choice expectations [24]. Additionally, a study in China discovered that women undergraduates’ experiences of rejection from the opposite sex negatively predicted their mate selection criteria [25]. When a woman player’s sense of self-presence is high, she perceives herself as integrated with the protagonists in the game. At this time, she regards the interaction with the male protagonists in the game as real experiences, and experiences more positive mate selection feedback from the opposite sex, ultimately improving their mate selection standards. In summary, the study proposes Hypothesis 2: Self-presence mediates the relationship between game character identification and mate selection criteria.
The mediating role of character attachment
Based on theories of parasocial interaction, Lewis, Weber & Bowman [26] found that long-term engagement with interactive video games fosters an emotional connection between the player and an avatar that is fully functional and under the player’s control, referring to it as character attachment. This connection is not a parasocial interaction, but an imaginary sensory connection, with the prerequisite being the game character identification [26]. The research of Ganesh et al. also shows that the degree of emotional engagement generated in the interaction between players and characters is similar to that when they interact with close others [27]. When we first came into contact with a game, the first thing we saw was the avatar character we controlled. Players carried out almost all activities through the character they initially selected, and through all the stories of their role experience and non player character in the game, so role attachment is an important part of the psychological impact of online games on players.
Furthermore, several studies indicate that the degree of game customization is positively related to character attachment, and there is also a correlation between game customization and character identification. On the one hand, a higher degree of game customization leads to a more personalized game character constructed by the player [28], which reduces the distinction between the game character and the self, thereby enhancing the player’s game character identification. On the other hand, the higher the degree of identification with the role of the media, the greater the individual’s emotions, attitudes, and behaviors will change with the experience of the character [17], fostering a deeper connection with the character and increasing emotional investment. During the game, some players don’t hesitate to spend a lot of time to build their own game characters and spend a lot of money to improve their own game characters. For example, in the Light and Night, players can buy clothes for the character controlled by the player or change their makeup accessories. This player-character connection may shape individuals’ expectations for future relationships and guide their real-life interpersonal interactions based on these expectations and this influence can have an influential role in the formation of future marital views [29]. Therefore, the study proposes Hypothesis 3: Character attachment mediates the relationship between game character identification and mate selection criteria.
The chain mediating role of self-presence and character attachment
Although there are no clear studies on the relationship between self-presence and character attachment, some studies have found that self-presence in virtual environments can induce positive psychological and emotional responses in individuals [30]. Character attachment is one of the psycho-emotional manifestations of a game character, and the degree of emotional engagement generated in this player-role interaction resembles that of interactions with close others [27]. Therefore, a higher sense of self-presence of the player may be easier to form an emotional connection with the game character. In general, when otome game players identify with the avatar of the character they control, they will integrate this character into their sense of self, engage more immersively in the game, and enhance their self-presence, which is also more conducive to the emotional connection between the individual and the avatar of the game character they control, thereby improving the standard of mate selection in reality. Thus, this study proposes Hypothesis 4: Self-presence and character attachment play a chain mediating role between game character identification and mate selection criteria.
Method
Participants
In this study, an online survey hosted on the Wenjuanxing platform, which provides functions equivalent to Qualtrics, was distributed on Chinese online social platforms (e.g., Weibo Super Topic, Douban Group) and around the university using a random sampling method. Data collection occurred between February 28, 2024 and March 21, 2024. A total of 394 questionnaires were collected. After excluding the questionnaires that exceeded the average response time by more than three standard deviations (398 s) and those that didn’t pass the validity check, 356 valid questionnaires were collected and sorted. The effective recovery rate of the questionnaire was 90.36%. The questionnaire was administered anonymously, and demographic variables were not mandatory to protect participant privacy. Therefore, participants chose not to provide additional demographic information other than gender. And all participants in this study reported they are women.
Measures
Game character identification
We used the Game Character Identification Scale revised by Lin [31], which includes 5 items such as “I almost had the feeling of actually being the character.” The scale is scored on a 7-point Likert scale, and a higher score indicates a higher degree of identification (Cronbach’s α = 0.86).
Self-presence
We adapted the self-presence dimension from the Presence Scale of Wang & Bai [30] to contain 5 items. According to the research content, we replaced “virtual tour” with “otome game” in the items, such as “I feel immersive in the process of experiencing otome game”. The scale is scored on a 7-point Likert scale (Cronbach’s α = 0.81).
Character attachment
Participants’ character attachment was measured using a 17-item scale developed by Lewis, Weber & Bowman [26] and revised by Wei et al. [32]. This scale encompasses four dimensions: Identification/Friendship (e.g., “I consider my character a friend of mine”), Suspension of Disbelief (e.g., “I direct my attention to possible errors or contradictions in the game”), Control (e.g., “I control my character”), and Responsibility (e.g., “I make decisions with my character’s best interests in mind”). Each item is assessed on a 7-point Likert scale, with higher scores indicating higher levels of character attachment (Cronbach’s α = 0.89).
Mate selection criteria
This study referred to the research of Zhang et al. [20] and revised Kenrick et al.’s Mate Selection Criteria Scale [33]. There were 11 indicators applicable to both men and women (e.g., “college degree” and “sense of humor”), as well as 5 indicators specific to women (e.g., “great ambitions” and “intelligence”). Since the default players were women, men-specific indicators were excluded during the study. So 16 indicators were retained. The item was anchored on a 10-point scale (1 = not important to 10 = very important). Higher scores show more stringent criteria for selecting a spouse (Cronbach’s α = 0.92).
Results
Common method bias test
Because our data were obtained from self-report scales, we used Harman’s single-factor method to conduct a statistical test for potential common method bias. The results showed that the contribution rate of the variance of the first common factor was 25.89%, which was lower than the critical threshold of 50%. This suggests that there was no serious common method bias in this study [34].
Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis
Correlation analysis revealed a significant positive correlation among game character identification, self-presence, character attachment and mate selection criteria, as illustrated in Table 1.
Table 1.
Descriptive statistics and correlations among variables
| Variable | M | SD | 1 | 2 | 3 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 Game character identification | 14.54 | 4.63 | 1 | ||
| 2 Self-presence | 21.73 | 5.67 | 0.68** | 1 | |
| 3 Character attachment | 73.30 | 18.74 | 0.51** | 0.59** | 1 |
| 4 Mate selection criteria | 116.94 | 22.06 | 0.24** | 0.21** | 0.32** |
N = 356
**p < 0.01
Mediation analysis
Using the Process v4.0 program in IBM SPSS Statistics 21, the 95% confidence interval of the mediation effect was estimated by repeatedly sampling 5000 bootstrap samples. Regression path analysis was conducted using game character identification as the independent variable, mate selection criteria as the dependent variable, and self-presence and character attachment as the mediating variables. The results are shown in Fig. 1 and Table 2. Except for the path coefficients of game character identification (β = −0.04, t = −0.49, p = 0.623) and self-presence (β = 0.12, t = 1.69, p = 0.093), all other path coefficients reached a statistically significant level. Game character identification had a significant positive effect on self-presence (β = 0.68, t = 17.38, p < 0.001) and character attachment (β = 0.45, t = 7.82, p < 0.001). Self-presence had a significant positive effect on character attachment (β = 0.21, t = 3.61, p < 0.001). Character attachment significantly and positively predicted mate selection criteria (β = 0.28, t = 4.38, p < 0.001). These results suggest that game character identification only indirectly affects mate selection criteria through the chain mediation of self-presence and character attachment, as well as the independent mediation of character attachment.
Fig. 1.
Chain mediation between self-presence and character attachment in the effect of game character Identification on mate selection criteria
Table 2.
Mediation model testing
| Regression equation | Overall fit index | Significance of regression coefficients | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Outcome variable | Effect variable | R | R2 | F | t | β |
| Self-presence | Game character identification | 0.68 | 0.46 | 302.09*** | 17.38*** | 0.68 |
| Character attachment | Game character identification | 0.61 | 0.37 | 104.22*** | 7.82*** | 0.45 |
| Self-presence | 3.61*** | 0.21 | ||||
| Mate selection criteria | Game character identification | 0.33 | 0.11 | 14.25*** | −0.49 | −0.04 |
| Self-presence | 1.69 | 0.12 | ||||
| Character attachment | 4.38*** | 0.28 | ||||
N = 356
***p < 0.001
In terms of percent of variance explained in models, the R2s in the F-test were 0.46 (self-presence as the outcome variable), 0.37 (character attachment as the outcome variable), and 0.11 (mate selection criteria as the outcome variable), which indicated that the model could effectively explain the variation of mate selection criteria.
The results of the mediation effect test are given in Table 3. Among the total indirect effects produced by self-presence and character attachment, the Bootstrap 95% confidence intervals did not include 0, indicating that these two variables played a mediating role between game character identification and mate selection criteria. Then we conducted further indirect effect analysis. It is found that the single mediating effect of self-presence was not significant (b = 0.38, 95%CI [−0.04, 0.81]). However, the second indirect pathway, the single mediating effect of character attachment was significant (b = 0.60, 95%CI [0.29, 0.95]). And the chain mediating effect of self-presence and character attachment was significant (b = 0.19, 95%CI [0.07, 0.34]).
Table 3.
Direct, indirect and total effects
| Effect | BootSE | 95%CI | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Total indirect effects | 1.16 | 0.29 | [0.61, 1.75] |
| Game character identification → self-presence → mate selection criteria | 0.38 | 0.22 | [−0.04, 0.81] |
| Game character identification → character attachment → mate selection criteria | 0.60 | 0.17 | [0.29, 0.95] |
| Game character identification → self-presence → character attachment → mate selection criteria | 0.19 | 0.07 | [0.07, 0.34] |
| Total effect | 0.99 | 0.25 | [0.50, 1.47] |
| Game character identification → mate selection criteria | −0.17 | 0.35 | [−0.87, 0.52] |
Discussion
The relationship between the game character identification and mate selection criteria
The results of this study found a significant positive correlation between otome gamers’ game character identification and mate selection criteria. However, there was no significant predictive effect between these two variables. Previous studies have drawn varying conclusions about the impact of otome games on perceptions of love and marriage. Some researchers believe that manipulating the avatar of the self and the game hero to establish a virtual intimate relationship can fulfill women players’ yearning of romantic relationships [35]. Conversely, other researchers argue that women who have immersed themselves in otome games for a extended period have a stronger game character identification and a deeper parasocial relationship with the virtual male protagonist, which may lead to unrealistic expectations regarding marriage and love [36], and reduce desire for real-life romantic relationships [4]. In addition, excessive immersion in this emotional utopia may fall into the trap of “love-is-all” [37]. Although the two orientations are different, they can show to a certain extent that there is a correlation between the otome game character identification and the mate selection criteria. However, from the perspective of correlation coefficient, this correlation is weak.
At the same time, the insignificant predictive effect of the two variables also challenges the previous criticism of otome games. Although numerous studies have demonstrated that game content can directly impact players’ performance in reality, such as violent games increasing cognitive, emotional, and behavioral aggression [38], this effect can persist for a long time [39]. But such strong and direct impacts have not yet been observed in otome games, where the positive influence of otome game character identification on mate selection criteria is indirectly achieved through other factors.
The mediating role of self-presence and character attachment
The results showed that the influence of game character identification on mate selection criteria is realized through two indirect paths. One path was the mediating effect of character attachment, while the other was a chain mediation path of self-presence and character attachment.
From the perspective of the first indirect path, high game character identification leaded to higher character attachment, thereby improving the individual’s mate selection criteria in reality. This finding is consistent with the previous research. Hsu [40] proposed that there is a positive correlation between the player’s perceived similarity to the character and the character’s preferences. Moreover, women gamers with high game character identification scores tend to have stronger attachment to their characters and are also influenced by their behaviors [5]. These individuals are more invested in the game, more connected to it, and generally more immersed in the game world, making them more likely to bring those emotions to life.
In terms of the second indirect path, high game character identification prompted individuals to become more immersed and vicarious in their game character avatars, thus creating emotions with their manipulated characters, which in turn had an impact on real life. On the one hand, using characters with a higher degree of identification can drastically reduce the sense of separation between the virtual and the real world. Research has shown that characters with a higher degree of customization are more likely to elicit a sense of identification with the avatar [17]. Individuals project their own identities onto the avatar, therefore leading to a greater level of game immersion and a higher level of sense of presence in gameplay [41]. On the other hand, individuals with a strong sense of character identification will better understand the character’s story. The more players comprehend the character’s experience, the more immersed they will be. In the process of substituting the character, the experience of actively participating in the game provides players with high self-presence scores with an environment to establish a “single” relationship with the character, so that players have more emotional attachment to the avatar [22]. The result extends theory of self-presence [21], indicating that self-presence not only affects cognitive immersion [9], but also indirectly shapes people’s behavioral attitudes and preferences in the real world through emotional ties. This provides a new theoretical path for future research on the relationship between virtual experience and real decision-making, such as exploring the role of other chain mediators like empathy.
Practical implications
The result shows that players’ self-presence and character attachment are the key mechanisms that affect their real mate selection criteria. Therefore, game developers could improve the emotional input of players by enhancing the sense of narrative immersion (such as branch plot and close to real life) and role depth shaping (such as background story, interactive dialogue). Considering the mediating role of character attachment, developers could integrate more personalized and customized role functions, and design more emotionally resonant character traits to meet the psychological needs of different groups of players, while avoiding the realistic mate selection gap caused by over idealization.
The study by Wu et al. found that the deeper individuals immerse themselves in otome games, the less willing they may be to engage in real-life romantic relationships [4]. In recent years, the declining marriage willingness among young Chinese women has become a crisis of concern to the authorities [4, 42]. The findings of this study suggest that while otome games do not directly affect marriage rates, they may subtly influence young women’s mate selection criteria. Currently, mainstream otome games in China are designed to enhance player identification by featuring heroines with largely indistinct personalities, catering to players of diverse preferences. There are two main female character’ s images created in these games. The first one is a weak, delicate, and highly dependent on male characters protagonist, embodies a traditional feminine image. And the other represents a stereotypical modern woman, they are independent and courageous, yet vulnerable in romantic interactions. Consequently, the romantic relationships depicted in these games are, in essence, unequal dynamics masked by benevolent sexism [43]. Long-term identification with such character avatars may adversely affect women players’ personal development and lead to unrealistic mate selection criteria. Promoting media literacy education helps players distinguish between virtual and real-life relationships. Cultivating critical thinking is also essential to enable players to analyze game narratives, understand the constructed nature of character relationships, and minimize the negative impact of potential biases on real-life attitudes.
Limitations and future directions
Several limitations must be considered when interpreting the results of the present study. First of all, due to the influence of the current popular otome games in China, most participants in this study are from the players in four major domestic otome games: Light and Night, Mr Love: Queen’s Choice, For All Time, and Tears of Themis. This results in a relatively homogeneous subject group. Secondly, this study currently only focuses on Chinese women. Within the cultural context of the Chinese relational self, the individual’s mate selection criteria are influenced by important others, such as family members. Simultaneously, under the influence of traditional marriage and love concepts like “well-matched in social status”, individuals may adjust their mate selection criteria in reality by estimating the “value” and “match” of themselves and their families. However, the Western culture represented by Europe and the United States, where individuals pay more attention to romantic love when choosing a mate, is different from China [14]. So future research can explore the differences from a cross-cultural perspective. Finally, the cross-sectional questionnaire method used in this study cannot explain the causal relationship between variables. Resent studies on the impact of video games on people’s behavior have found that long-term playing violent video games seems to be weakly associated with adolescent aggression from the results of longitudinal researches [44]. Therefore, it is unclear whether the impact of long-term playing the otome game on people is consistent with the cross-sectional result and longitudinal studies can be conducted to observe long-term changes in mate selection criteria over time in future research.
Conclusions
To sum up, findings in this study showed that there was a significant positive correlation between otome game character identification and mate selection criteria. Moreover, game character identification influenced mate selection criteria positively, through the mediation of character attachment and the chain mediation of self-presence and character attachment.
Authors’ contributions
Q.P., Y.C., J.L., and B.X. conceived and designed the experiments; Q.P., Y.C., and H.F. performed the experiments, analyzed the data, and prepared the figures and tables; Q.P. and Y.C worte the main manuscript text; H.F. revised and polished the manuscript. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript.
Funding
No funding.
Data availability
The data generated by the survey research during and analyzed during the current study are available in the Open Science Framework (https://osf.io/8gkbu/?view_only=32f882baa640454487feac06f39cf96b).
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the College of Teachers, Hubei University, China. And the survey informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study before the survey.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Footnotes
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Qinxue Pei and Yufan Chen contributed equally to this work.
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Associated Data
This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.
Data Availability Statement
The data generated by the survey research during and analyzed during the current study are available in the Open Science Framework (https://osf.io/8gkbu/?view_only=32f882baa640454487feac06f39cf96b).