Biomimetic nano dressing in wound healing: design strategies and application

Abstract

Biomimetic nano dressings have superior biological activity, biocompatibility, and stimuli-responsive properties compared with traditional wound dressings due to their biomimetic design integration and show great potential in wound management. This review summarizes the materials and techniques used to prepare current biomimetic nano dressings, focusing on biomimetic design strategies. Moreover, we explore the application of biomimetic nano dressings in treating wounds associated with infections, burns, diabetes, and postoperative skin cancer. This review provides new perspectives on the design of biomimetic nano dressings and highlights future research directions to further advance innovative wound treatment strategies.

Graphical Abstract

Graphical Abstract.

Highlights.

• This review highlights that biomimetic nano dressings have great potential in wound management.

• Biomimetic nano dressings have superior biological activity, biocompatibility, and stimuli-responsive properties compared with traditional wound dressings.

• Biomimetic nano dressings offer novel solutions for wound repair by mimicking the structure and function of natural extracellular matrix.

Background

The global prevalence of wounds, particularly chronic refractory wounds, such as pressure ulcers and diabetic ulcers, severely affects patients’ quality of life and imposes a significant socioeconomic burden [1–3]. Wound healing involves four stages: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling, which rely on the coordinated actions of various cells and growth factors. Disruption at any stage may result in delayed healing or progression to chronic wounds [4]. Current wound treatment strategies primarily include traditional dressings (such as gauze and hydrocolloid dressings), bioactive dressings (such as silver-containing and collagen dressings), growth factor therapies (such as epidermal growth factor and vascular endothelial growth factor [VEGF]), and stem cell therapies (such as mesenchymal stem cells [MSCs]) [5–7]. However, these strategies have several limitations. For example, traditional dressings have a single functionality and may cause wound dehydration and secondary injury. Bioactive dressings struggle to meet the multiple demands of complex wounds, growth factors, and stem cell therapies despite their potential to promote healing and often require loading onto other dressings. In addition, bioactive dressings are costly, complex, and have poor stability. Nanomaterials have been used to treat simple wounds because of their high specific surface area and antibacterial/anti-inflammatory properties; however, their insufficient biocompatibility and limited capacity to promote tissue regeneration hinder their efficacy in treating chronic refractory wounds [8].

Biomimetic nanomaterials have garnered significant attention in wound therapy as ideal candidates for next-generation dressings due to their unique bioactivity, excellent biocompatibility, and stimuli-responsive properties [9]. They inhibit infections, accelerate healing, and enable precision treatment by dynamically responding to the wound microenvironment (such as pH, temperature, and enzyme activity) [9]. Furthermore, biomimetic nano dressings open new avenues for innovative dressings and wound treatment strategies by mimicking the structures and functions of natural tissues. In this review, we aimed to summarize the fabrication methods, application domains, and future research directions of biomimetic nano dressings to provide novel insights for dressing design and development, as well as new strategies for wound therapy.

Review

Preparation materials and technologies

Biomimetic nano dressings typically comprise a matrix and incorporated components (Figure 1). The matrix is primarily formed by blending biodegradable and biocompatible natural polymers (such as chitosan and silk fibroin) with synthetic polymers (such as polyacetic acid and polylactic acid) that exhibit highly tunable physical and adhesive properties [10–13]. An ideal matrix for biomimetic nano dressings should mimic the structure and function of the extracellular matrix (ECM), provide mechanical support, and regulate cellular activities to promote wound healing [14]. Through biomimetic strategies, incorporated components endow the dressings with functionalities, such as antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, pro-angiogenic, and cell-proliferative effects. For example, toxin-mimicking agents developed by emulating bacterial competition mechanisms can confer antimicrobial properties to dressings [15], whereas bioinspired nanozymes may exert anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects [16]. In addition, introducing endogenous electric fields to mimic the physiological electrical signals in the skin can help regulate cellular activities and promote healing [17–20].

Figure 1.

Schematic of preparation materials and technologies for biomimetic nano dressings. Biomimetic nano dressings typically comprise a matrix and incorporated components. The matrix is primarily formed by blending natural polymers with synthetic polymers. Incorporated components consist of liposomes, metal nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, carbon-based nanomaterials, and composite nanoparticles. Key fabrication methods encompass electrospinning, self-assembly, lyophilization, polymerization, and crosslinking. These materials and technologies synergistically enable the fabrication of diverse biomimetic nano dressings, such as nanofibers, hydrogels, films/membranes, and multicomposites. Created with BioRender

Technologies for fabricating such biomimetic nano dressings include electrospinning, self-assembly, lyophilization, polymerisation, and crosslinking (Figure 1). Electrospinning enables the production of nanofibers (NFs) resembling the ECM [11, 21–24], whereas modified coaxial electrospinning allows the fabrication of multifunctional bioactive NFs that mimic cell-like core-shell structures [19, 25]. For example, in dressings designed for diabetic wound (DW) treatment, chitosan is first released from the shell layer to exert antimicrobial activity, followed by sustained release of copper from the core to promote vascularisation and synergistically enhance DW healing [25]. Inspired by the silkworm spinning processes, researchers have recently developed a microadhesion-guided spinning technology that achieves rapid, on-demand, and customisable NF fabrication [26]. Similarly, self-assembly techniques can be used to construct matrices such as ultrashort peptide self-assembled architectures that mimic natural fibers [27]. Freeze-drying creates hydrogel matrices with macroporous structures to better simulate the ECM and preserve the activity of bioactive components [28, 29]. Building on these techniques, polymerisation and crosslinking reactions significantly enhance dressing stability and mechanical properties and enrich by introducing functional groups. Notably, dynamic crosslinking strategies such as those employing curcumin- Fe (III) infinite coordination polymer nanomedicines with abundant dynamic crosslinking sites markedly improve the self-healing efficiency of dressings [30]. Furthermore, three-dimensional (3D) printing technology, as an emerging approach, holds significant potential for customising personalized dressings [10, 31].

Biomimetic strategies

Biomimetic design strategies and relying on high-quality materials and advanced fabrication techniques play a crucially important role in achieving the excellent biocompatibility and functionality of biomimetic nano dressings. Biomimetic nano dressings can better adapt to dynamic changes during the wound-healing process by mimicking natural structures and functions. Therefore, the following section explores how biomimetic design strategies further optimize nano dressings structurally and functionally to achieve ideal wound repair outcomes (Table 1).

Table 1.

Biomimetic Design Strategies of nano dressings

Inspiration	Design strategies	Function	Ref.
Animal and plant structures	Design of adhesive dressings inspired by the catechol-group adhesion mechanism of mussel foot proteins	Adhesion, reduce infection and pain, promote healing, enhance drug delivery efficiency	[33–37, 40, 41, 71, 105, 114–117]
	Design of microneedle patches inspired by parasite hooks and mosquito mouthparts	Strong adhesion, painless intradermal drug delivery	[42, 79, 112, 113, 134]
	Design of hydrophobic surface dressings inspired by the multi-level micro-nano structure of lotus leaves	Waterproof, prevents bacterial adhesion	[45, 50]
	Mechanical reinforcement of dressings inspired by nacre’s brick-and-mortar structure or plant vascular bundles	Excellent mechanical properties	[46, 47]
Skin structure	Design of dressings inspired by the micropatterned structure of directionally aligned collagen fibers in the dermis	Regulate cellular activities within the wound, promote healing	[50]
	Design of bilayer dressings inspired by the structure of the dermis and epidermis	Protection, support, promote healing	[48–50]
Extracellular matrix	Design of dressings with high specific surface area, porous architecture, and dynamic remodeling properties inspired by the extracellular matrix	Regulate cellular activities within the wound, support, promote healing	[12, 25, 54–67]
Skin physiological functions	Design of dressings with skin-like elasticity through incorporation of biodegradable elastomers	Cushion mechanical stress	[68–72]
	Design of dressings with immune factors or structural designs inspired by the skin’s immune barrier function	Antimicrobial activity	[15, 29, 63, 69, 73, 74]
	Design of dressings inspired by the sensory function of skin with responsiveness to temperature, humidity, or pressure	Release medication, sending signals	[75–80, 95, 117]
	Design of self-pumping dressings inspired by the fluid regulation function of skin	Maintain an optimal moist environment within the wound, promote healing	[83–87]
Wound healing performance	Design of hemostatic dressings inspired by the coagulation cascade	Hemostasis	[89, 90]
	Design an anti-inflammatory drug delivery system within the dressings inspired by the inflammatory homing ability of macrophages	Anti-inflammatory	[91]
	Design of dressings with an electric field inspired by the physiological wound electrical signals	Regulate cellular activities within the wound, promote healing	[17–19, 92–94]
	Design thermoresponsive contracting dressings inspired by the actin contraction mechanisms	Promote wound closure	[95]
Biological stimulus responsiveness	Design pH-responsive dressings inspired by certain enzymes and cells in the body that function optimally at specific pH levels	Control drug release, precise treatment	[16, 28, 30, 38, 100, 105, 114]
	Design light-responsive dressings inspired by plant photosynthesis	Antioxidant, relieve wound hypoxia, PTT, PDT	[16, 101–103, 105, 114, 118, 133]
	Design glucose-responsive dressings inspired by the pancreatic β-cell mechanisms	Regulate blood glucose levels within the wound	[104–106]

PTT photothermal therapy, PDT photodynamic therapy

Structure-mimicking design strategies

Mimicking animal and plant structures

During the healing process, wound exudates create a moist environment that hinders dressing adhesion to wound tissues and increases the risk of infection. Conventional dressings lack effective adhesion-enhancing mechanisms. However, inspiration can be drawn from biomimetic nanomaterials to improve their adhesive performance through biomimetic adsorption and mechanical interlocking principles. For example, mimicking the catechol-group adhesion mechanism of mussel foot proteins enables the design of biomimetic nano dressings containing catechol-rich polymers (such as polydopamine (PDA) and tannic acid) or grafted catecholamine groups [32–36]. Compared to traditional adhesive materials, these designs increase shear adhesion strength from 3.9 ± 1.2 kPa to 6.5 ± 0.9 kPa [33], demonstrating broad applicability in exudative wounds, such as surgical wounds, burns, and diabetic ulcer injuries. These methods work for most moist wounds; however, their adhesive strength remains insufficient for highly exudative wounds, such as deep burns, infected wounds, and acute radiation dermatitis. Hence, studies have introduced lysine residues or zwitterionic moieties to enhance wet adhesion in high-exudate environments [37–41], achieving an adhesion strength of 69 kPa on porcine skin in experimental models [37]. In addition, mechanical interlocking strategies inspired by parasite hook structures can improve adhesion. For example, to mimic the ascarid cuticle structure, a biphasic microneedle (MN) patch with an expandable outer shell and rigid core was designed to achieve robust adhesion to the smooth skin at the wound edges [42]. In the future, the physical structure of biomimetic nano dressings can be further optimized. Designing porous or micro/nanoarchitectures enhances the contact area with wound tissues, thereby improving adhesive performance. In addition, drawing inspiration from the adhesion structures of octopuses and starfish in humid environments and incorporating smart materials (such as temperature-, pH-, or hydration-responsive components), researchers could develop environmentally responsive biomimetic adhesion systems. These systems would exhibit strong adhesion and dynamically adjust the adhesion strength in real-time based on wound exudate levels and humidity. Furthermore, leveraging the reversible adhesion mechanism of nematodes and echinoderms, achieved through the dual-gland secretion of proteins (Mlig-ap1 and Mlig-ap2) [43], could enable the design of bioinspired reversible adhesive nano dressings to minimize secondary injury during dressing changes.

Furthermore, excessive wound exudate can cause tissue maceration and increase infection risks. Mimicking biological interfaces from plants and animals enables the design of biomimetic nano dressings with integrated antimicrobial and exudate-absorption capabilities. The hydrophobic structures of plant leaves, insect cuticles, and fish skin can be emulated to develop biomimetic nano dressings that prevent bacterial adhesion and reduce infection risks (Figure 2a) [44, 45]. Conversely, emulating honeycomb-like porous hydrophilic structures (such as moss leaves, cactus spines, and tree-frog toe pads) facilitates the design of biomimetic nano dressings that can absorb exudates while maintaining optimal wound moisture. However, the superior absorption capacity of these dressings may lead to the loss of bioactive components (such as growth factors and cytokines) in the exudate. Therefore, future designs should incorporate sustained-release materials loaded with growth factors. For example, inspired by the humidity-responsive mechanism of pinecone scales, researchers may develop intelligent drug-loaded nanofiber release systems that simultaneously absorb exudates and trigger the controlled release of platelet-derived growth factor, fibroblast growth factor (FGF), and other therapeutic agents.

Figure 2.

Schematic of biomimetic design strategies for nano dressings. (a) Design a hydrophobic antibacterial dressing inspired by the multilevel micro-nano structure of lotus leaf surfaces. (b) Design a bilayer dressing with protective, supportive, and reparative functions inspired by the structure of the dermis and epidermis. (c) Design a thermoresponsive contracting dressing inspired by the actin cable-driven wound closure mechanism to promote wound closure. (d) Design an electric field-containing dressing inspired by the physiological electrical signals of wounds to regulate cellular activities within the wound. Created with BioRender

Following the achievement of reliable wound adhesion and exudate management, the dynamic mechanical compatibility between dressings and human tissues has emerged as a new research challenge. Traditional dressings often cause secondary injuries during wound repair in high-mobility areas (such as joints, neck, hands, and feet) due to insufficient mechanical properties. Therefore, the mechanical adaptability of dressings can be significantly enhanced by mimicking the microstructural architectures of natural biomaterials. For example, biomaterials constructed with nacre-inspired ‘brick-and-mortar’ layered structures endow dressings with superior tensile strength [46], while plant vascular bundle-inspired nanofiber hydrogels exhibit anisotropic mechanical properties [47]. Exceptional mechanical features in nature, such as the energy-dissipation mechanisms of spider silk and the multi-level channel structures of bamboo, remain underexploited. These biological prototypes provide critical references for optimising the mechanical performance of next-generation bioinspired nano dressings.

Mimicking skin structure

Biomimetic nano dressings can be designed to mimic skin structures, creating barrier systems and regenerative microenvironments for full-thickness wound repair to address the complex needs of wound healing, including lost barrier function, microbial infections, and tissue regeneration. The primary challenge in skin wounds is the loss of barrier function, which leads to dehydration, pathogen invasion, and secondary injury. Biomimetic nano dressings restore barrier function through epidermal-mimicking designs. For example, nanoporous membranes or NFs simulate the dense structure of the epidermis to form physical barriers that prevent moisture evaporation and microbial penetration [48, 49]. Studies indicate that such epidermal-mimicking layers effectively block pathogens and balance breathability and barrier performance by regulating pore sizes, providing an optimal healing environment. In the dermal layer, aligned collagen fibers play critical roles in guiding cell migration, proliferation, and differentiation [50]. However, disordered cell arrangements at wound sites often delay healing. Biomimetic nano dressings that mimic the oriented collagen fiber structure of the dermis can guide directional cell alignment and promote cellular polarisation and functional expression, thereby accelerating healing [50]. Furthermore, bilayer dressings mimicking epidermal and dermal structures adapt better to skin wounds (Figure 2b). The upper layer uses nanoporous membranes or NFs to simulate epidermal barrier functions (preventing infection and moisture loss), while the lower layer employs sponges or hydrogels to mimic the supportive and reparative functions of the dermal layer (maintaining hydration and mechanical support) [48–50]. In vivo studies have demonstrated that such Janus nanofiber membranes enable complete epidermal regeneration in deep second-degree burn wounds in rats within 15 days, with re-epithelialisation rates significantly surpassing those of the control groups [50]. However, existing bilayer dressings often exhibit weak interfacial bonding, which limits their clinical application. To overcome this limitation, a low-pressure filtration-assisted method has been proposed, where negative pressure forces hydrogel precursors to infiltrate NF pores, forming ‘rivet-like’ anchoring structures [51]. Scanning electron microscopy analysis reveals that this method achieves an average hydrogel precursor infiltration depth of 21 μm, representing a 133% improvement over traditional coating methods (9 μm) [51]. This mechanical interlocking design enhanced the interfacial bonding strength of skin-mimicking bilayer dressings, laying the foundation for clinical use. Future designs could also draw on mussel adhesion principles using dopamine self-polymerisation to form strong chemical bonds at the interface, further stabilising bilayer dressings.

Notably, wound healing is a dynamic process, and real-time monitoring of the wound status (such as temperature, pH, and glucose levels) is critical for optimising therapeutic strategies. However, current research on intelligent monitoring dressings remains largely confined to single-matrix systems that do not meet the requirements of full-thickness skin repair [30, 52, 53]. Future advancements could integrate biosensors into skin-mimicking nano dressings to enable real-time feedback and precision therapy by tracking microenvironmental changes. For example, flexible sensors embedded in the upper layer of biomimetic nano dressings can monitor wound temperature, pH, and inflammatory biomarkers, whereas responsive drug delivery systems loaded into the lower hydrogel layer can dynamically adjust drug release rates based on the monitoring results. Such intelligent biomimetic nano dressings are promising to improve detection accuracy and therapeutic efficacy in wound management.

Mimicking the extracellular matrix

During wound healing, the ECM provides physical support for cells and promotes tissue regeneration by regulating cellular behaviors such as adhesion, migration, proliferation, and differentiation. ECM destruction and functional loss in chronic wounds often lead to delayed healing. Biomimetic nano dressings offer novel solutions for wound repair by mimicking the structure and function of natural ECM. The core of the ECM-mimicking nano dressing design lies in replicating the high specific surface area, porous architecture, and dynamic remodeling properties of native ECM. NFs, hydrogels, and decellularized ECM have emerged as prominent candidates for ECM-mimicking dressings due to their structural and functional similarities to natural ECM. NFs can simulate the fibrous structure and porosity of the ECM through strategies such as multicomponent spinning systems and surface functionalisation, thereby promoting wound cell adhesion, migration, and proliferation [11, 25, 54–57]. For example, adding ionic salts to electrospinning solutions produces thinner and more uniform NFs, but their limited thickness and potential cytotoxicity to damaged skin remain challenging [58]. To address these issues, researchers have developed carbon dioxide expansion technology [59] and microfluidic 3D printing technology [60], which precisely control of NF pore size and porosity, offering new pathways for fabricating bioinspired hierarchically porous NF dressings. In addition to NFs, hydrogels are widely used in ECM-mimicking dressing designs due to their high water content and ECM-like mechanical properties [61–63]. Introducing integrin-binding domains and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) substrates into hydrogels can replicate the dynamic remodeling characteristics of the ECM [62]. Cell-secreted MMPs degrade hydrogel networks, thereby increasing their specific surface area and porosity to facilitate cell migration and tissue regeneration [62]. Strategies that employ decellularized ECM directly to construct biomimetic nano dressings are gaining attention. Decellularized ECM derived from natural tissues retains the complex architecture and bioactive molecules of native ECM, triggering the release of VEGF and insulin-like growth factors to promote vascularisation and tissue regeneration [64, 65]. Compared to synthetic materials, decellularized ECM circumvents issues such as high costs and low bioactivity of exogenous growth factors, demonstrating significant clinical potential. In the future, biomimetic nano dressings—with self-hearing and self-adaptive capabilities—can be created by combining synthetic ECM-mimicking materials with living cells. For example, coating NFs with MSC membranes could enhance dressing bioactivity through membrane protein-mediated cell-ECM interactions.

Material selection is a crucial preparation strategy to better mimic ECM. Collagen is widely used in ECM-mimicking dressings due to its structural similarity to natural ECM [66], but its high cost hampers clinical application. Hence, identifying low-cost alternatives has become a research priority to alleviate patient financial burdens. For example, soy protein offers advantages in low cost and sustainability, but also contains bioactive peptides analogous to ECM proteins, which promote wound cell activities [67]. In addition, phytoestrogens in soy protein accelerate healing through endoplasmic reticulum-mediated signaling pathways, demonstrating their significant potential as ECM-mimicking materials [54]. Future research should focus on developing ECM-inspired materials with low cost, low toxicity, and superior biocompatibility.

Function-mimicking design strategies

Mimicking skin physiological functions

The human skin, with its barrier, sensory, and regulatory functions, is an ideal model for designing biomimetic nano dressings. Nano dressings can provide better wound protection and support and accelerate the healing process by mimicking these skin functions.

The primary goal of wound healing is to prevent secondary damage and infection. Biomimetic nano dressings can provide robust protection against wounds by mimicking the mechanical and immune barriers of the natural skin. Skin-like elasticity can be imparted to buffer against mechanical stress and mitigate trauma-induced damage by incorporating biodegradable elastomers (such as poly(citrate) and polyurethane (PU)) into dressing designs [68–72]. Further incorporation of mechanosensitive ion channel proteins may be possible in the future to provide dressings with skin-like stress-sensing and mechanical barrier-strengthening capabilities. Concurrently, introducing immune factors (such as lysozymes and antimicrobial peptides) or specific structural designs can endow nano dressings with immune barrier functions akin to those of the skin [15, 29, 63, 69, 73, 74]. For instance, amyloid-derived toxin-mimicking agents self-assemble into β-sheet-structured hydrogels with intrinsic antimicrobial activity [15]. Experimental results demonstrate antibacterial efficiencies of 99.59 ± 0.03% and 99.96 ± 0.02% against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, respectively [15]. Future strategies could mimic the neutrophil ‘suicidal attack’ mechanism to enhance immune barrier functionality. For example, nanoparticles loaded with reactive oxygen species (ROS) burst agents and surface-modified with CD11b antibodies can directionally bind neutrophils upon bacterial detection, triggering localized ROS release to amplify bactericidal effects.

Environmental parameters, such as pressure, temperature, and humidity variations during wound healing, have garnered increasing attention because real-time monitoring of these changes is critical for optimising the healing process. In recent years, biomimetic nano dressings have demonstrated significant potential in accelerating wound repair by mimicking the sensory functions of the skin. These dressings can detect pressure, temperature, and humidity fluctuations around wounds and provide adaptive feedback through mechanisms such as signal transmission or therapeutic agent release [75–80]. For example, functionally advanced designs, such as wireless smart dressings with closed-loop sensing and stimulus-responsive circuits, can monitor wound conditions through integrated temperature/humidity sensors and enable smartphone-controlled drug release, significantly enhancing therapeutic outcomes [80]. Notably, integrating wireless-powered tactile sensing systems has endowed biomimetic nano dressings with human skin-like tactile perception. This groundbreaking advancement may offer novel solutions for treating sensory deficits in patients with mild-to-moderate burns. In material innovation, applying ionogels has opened new frontiers for developing biomimetic nano dressings. Ionogels surpass traditional electronic systems with superior biocompatibility and sensitivity by replicating cutaneous sensory mechanisms through iontronic sensing technology [81]. Furthermore, future integration of triboelectric nanogenerators could harness mechanical movements at wound sites for self-powered operation, effectively addressing the energy sustainability challenges of conventional smart dressings and providing innovative solutions for powering biomimetic nano dressings [82].

Maintaining an optimal moist environment is critical for wound healing. Inspired by the trans-scale fluid regulatory mechanisms of skin appendages, Janus heterogeneous-structured dressings with surface-free energy gradients achieve directional exudate drainage through hydrophobic-hydrophilic interfaces, preventing fluid accumulation-induced healing delays while retaining essential moisture [83–85]. However, in highly exudative wounds, saturation of the hydrophilic layer limits sustained drainage capacity. To address this, researchers have coated Janus dressing surfaces with light-responsive gold nanorods, enabling near-infrared (NIR)–regulated in situ exudate evaporation (experimental data show evaporation rates up to five times those of commercial sponges), thereby dynamically maintaining the unsaturated state of the hydrophilic outer layer [86]. Further integration of biomimetic porous microarrays enhances the lateral exudate diffusion for continuous drainage. The challenge of drug transport within such dressings warrants exploration. Composite dressings with bidirectional drainage capabilities effectively overcome current Janus dressing limitations. For example, multifunctional dressings comprising modified Janus membranes and bioactive and superabsorbent layers achieve controlled bidirectional fluid transport via arrayed microporous hydrophobic PU layers [87]. Unidirectional bulk fluid transfer to the superabsorbent layer is coupled with limited reverse flow [87]. This allows silicate ions from the bioactive layer to return to the wound bed and promote angiogenesis and healing [87]. In addition, microfluidic devices mimicking plant vascular systems offer novel design pathways, establishing unidirectional flow channels through simulated transpiration and enabling intelligent reverse transport of growth factors in exudates via size exclusion effects [88]. Further incorporation of humidity-responsive mechanisms inspired by plant stomata could endow microfluidic systems with smart switching functions for precise dynamic exudate management (Figure 3). Future innovations may leverage enzymatic catalysis mimicking the tricarboxylic acid cycle to develop dressings that convert lactate in the exudate into pro-angiogenic pyruvate, thereby offering new biochemical regulation strategies for wound therapy.

Figure 3.

Schematic of a wound exudate-managing dressing inspired by the vascular system of plants. Inspired by the tensile force of transpiration, directional drainage of wound exudate is achieved through microfluidic channels by applying pressure within the dressing. Inspired by the humidity-responsive behavior of plant stomata, a humidity sensor is incorporated into the dressing to enable pressure application in response to wound humidity levels. Incorporate a membrane layer to allow growth factors and enzymes in the exudate to flow back to the wound. Created with BioRender

Mimicking wound healing performance

Wound healing is a highly coordinated and intricate biological process involving synergistic interactions among diverse cells, growth factors, and signaling pathways. Chronic wounds face impaired healing due to pathological factors, such as infection, ischemia, and metabolic dysregulation. Biomimetic nano dressings offer innovative solutions to overcome therapeutic bottlenecks in chronic wound management by emulating key biological mechanisms inherent to the wound repair process.

Rapid hemostasis during the initial phase of wound repair is critical for infection prevention and healing initiation. Biomimetic nano dressings promote platelet and blood cell adhesion/aggregation by mimicking the coagulation cascade [89, 90]. For example, chitosan-based dressings emulate fibrinogen and collagen functions to effectively control hemorrhage, with experimental results demonstrating significantly shorter hemostasis time (118 ± 17 s) and reduced blood loss (201 ± 54 mg) compared to sterile gauze controls [90]. The spatiotemporal regulation of the inflammatory microenvironment plays a decisive role in tissue repair. Biomimetic nano dressings achieve precise inflammatory modulation through targeted delivery to the injury site. For example, bionic single-atom nanozymes, inspired by their macrophage-homing capabilities, enable site-specific anti-inflammatory drug release to remodel the inflammatory microenvironment of the wound [91]. During the proliferative phase, cellular adhesion, migration, and proliferation are essential for repair. Biomimetic nano dressings incorporate conductive materials (such as carbon nanomaterials and metal nanoparticles) to replicate endogenous electric fields that mimic physiological wound electrical signals and activate voltage-gated calcium channels to accelerate cell migration (Figure 2c) [17–20, 92, 93]. Further integration of biomimetic electrical stimulation with light-responsive strategies enables remote, precise, and noninvasive electrotherapy to accelerate healing [94]. Wound closure is the ultimate objective of the remodeling phase. Biomimetic mechanical dressings based on actin contraction mechanisms transcend the traditional passive coverage by applying tensile forces to promote closure. For example, dressings designed with thermoresponsive materials generate contractile strains upon body temperature activation, which have been experimentally shown to increase closure rates by ~45% (Figure 2d) [95]. Current research is shifting from single-functional dressings to phase-responsive intelligent systems. In the future, developing biomimetic nano dressings capable of simultaneously simulating multi-stage repair mechanisms, combined with intelligent design strategies, will provide more efficient solutions for treating complex wounds. For example, designing a biomimetic nano dressing that activates hemostatic functions under high-shear blood flow conditions and triggers anti-inflammatory drug release upon localized tissue acidification could achieve functional transitions between the hemostatic and anti-inflammatory phases, thereby promoting wound healing across multiple stages.

Furthermore, autologous blood components, such as platelet-derived exosomes and platelet-rich fibrin, have demonstrated regenerative potential in wound therapy [49, 96–98]. In addition, study has revealed that the HGFA-HGF-MET signaling pathway, activated by blood-derived thrombin, Factor XII (FXII), or prekallikrein, plays dual roles in thrombus formation and wound repair [99]. Based on these findings, the development of customisable autologous blood-derived fibrin dressings that mimic the reparative effects of growth factors and other bioactive molecules entrapped within fibrin matrices may emerge as a promising therapeutic strategy for enhancing wound repair.

Mimicking biological stimulus responsiveness

The dynamic nature of wound healing demands dressings that adapt to stage-specific microenvironmental characteristics, such as pH, hypoxia, and metabolic states. Conventional dressings lack responsive capabilities to precisely regulate therapeutic strategies, while biomimetic nano dressings designed based on the body’s stimulus–response mechanisms offer a new paradigm for on-demand treatment.

Based on the pH-dependent activity of certain enzymes and cells in living organisms, pH-responsive dressings dynamically release drugs or modulate nanozyme activity depending on wound pH variations (acidic during inflammation, neutral in proliferation) [16, 28, 30, 100]. For example, such dressings can selectively release anti-inflammatory agents during late inflammation, preserving early inflammatory defense mechanisms while preventing delayed healing from excessive inflammation, thereby achieving spatiotemporally optimized therapeutic effects [30]. In addition, incorporating microalgae (such as Chlamydomonas reinhardtii) into dressing designs—inspired by plant photosynthesis—enables light-driven Hydrogen or Oxygen generation to ameliorate hypoxic microenvironments [101, 102]. Concurrently, light-responsive dressings leveraging plant phototropism principles achieve NIR-controlled drug release and synergize photothermal therapy (PTT) and photodynamic therapy (PDT), demonstrating marked efficacy in treating drug-resistant infections and postoperative skin cancer wounds [16, 103]. Furthermore, glucose-responsive nano dressings mimicking pancreatic β-cell mechanisms precisely regulate the release of therapeutic agents (such as insulin and metformin) according to wound glucose levels, and this is particularly advantageous for managing DW [104–106]. The complexity of wound microenvironments necessitates dressings with multisignal coordinated responsiveness. Future integration of pH-, light-, and glucose-responsive mechanisms into multifunctional biomimetic nano dressings will enable spatiotemporal precision in wound therapy, maximising efficacy while minimising adverse effects.

Others

Chronic wound management faces several challenges, including poor drug targeting, inadequate penetration, and insufficient dynamic regulation. Biomimetic nano dressings transcend conventional delivery paradigms by emulating sophisticated natural designs, enabling the construction of intelligent drug-loaded therapeutic systems with stimuli-responsive behavior, precision delivery, and functional synergy (Figure 4).

Figure 4.

Schematic of the biomimetic drug delivery system in nano dressings. (a) Nanofibers drug delivery system designed to mimic the extracellular matrix structure. (b) Nanovesicles drug delivery system designed to mimic synaptic signal transmission. (c) Microneedles drug delivery system inspired by the design of mosquito mouthparts. (d) Mussel-based drug delivery system inspired by the adhesion mechanism of mussels. (e) Self-propelled drug delivery system inspired by microalgae. Created with BioRender

First, NFs mimicking ECM structures exhibit advantages, such as high drug-loading capacity, controllable release, and enhanced drug stability (Figure 4a) [19, 23, 25, 84, 107, 108]. Future designs may incorporate enzyme-sensitive crosslinkers to enable the dynamic degradation of the fibrous network in response to wound MMP-9 concentrations, achieving ‘intelligent on-demand drug release’. Second, inspired by neuronal synaptic signaling mechanisms, nanovesicle delivery systems have been developed to significantly improve targeting and biocompatibility through membrane hybridization (Figure 4b) [91, 109, 110]. For example, platelet membrane protein-coated nanovesicles can target cancer, bacterial infections, and damaged vasculature, whereas neutrophil or macrophage membrane-hybridized vesicles enable precise drug delivery to inflammatory sites [111]. Furthermore, MNs that mimic the hierarchical puncture structure of mosquito mouthparts can painlessly penetrate the stratum corneum and reach the dermis (Figure 4c) [79, 112]. When combined with photothermal nanoparticles (such as natural melanin nanoparticles), they achieve integrated ‘puncture-phototherapy-drug release’ therapy for postoperative skin cancer wounds [113]. Another breakthrough involves optimising drug delivery efficiency through mussel-inspired adhesion (Figure 4d). Introducing catechol groups into dressings enhances drug adhesion, enabling sustained-release performance while reducing biotoxicity [41, 71, 105, 114–117]. The photothermal conversion properties of PDA can be further utilized for light-responsive drug release systems or combined with PTT to enhance antibacterial effects [105, 114]. Recent advancements leverage microalgal flagellar motility to develop self-propelled microrobots that can penetrate thrombi without external energy input, improving drug distribution uniformity and penetration efficiency while oxygenating wounds via photosynthesis (Figure 4e) [102]. Future innovations may mimic sunflower phototropism by designing dressings embedded with photosensitive liquid crystal polymers that adjust drug release directions based on incident light angles, enabling differentiated treatment between deep wound beds and edges, such as high-concentration antimicrobial delivery at wound peripheries and sustained release of pro-healing factors at central regions.

Biomimetic nano dressings in wounds

The biocompatibility, antimicrobial efficacy, and adhesive properties of biomimetic nano dressings have been enhanced significantly through optimized material selection, fabrication techniques, and biomimetic design strategies. These advancements have enabled remarkable repair and regenerative outcomes in wound healing, particularly when managing complex wounds, such as infected wounds, burn injuries, diabetic ulcers, and postoperative wounds following skin cancer excision. This section explores the specific applications of biomimetic nano dressings in these challenging wound types.

Infected wounds

Bacterial infections are a common impediment to wound healing, and traditional antibiotics are often ineffective in treating complex infections due to drug resistance and microbiome disruption [16, 33, 118–120]. Biomimetic nano dressings offer innovative solutions for precise antimicrobial therapy by emulating natural antibacterial mechanisms and dynamic response strategies. For example, piezoelectric-active dressings developed based on mechanochemical conversion principles generate electrical energy under mechanical stimuli, catalysing the transformation of oxygen and water in wounds into ROS and achieving sterilisation rates of 84.11% and 94.85% against S. aureus and Escherichia coli [78]. Inspired by multivalent carbohydrate-lectin interactions during bacterial infections, researchers have designed mannose ligand-conjugated glycopeptide hydrogels capable of selectively targeting and eliminating E. coli [74]. Engineered nanoparticles, designed based on the neutrophil bactericidal mechanism, effectively target and eliminate deep-tissue infections [121]. Biomimetic nano dressings can synergize diverse antibacterial dynamic therapies, such as PTT, PDT, and chemodynamic therapy, achieving high-efficiency bactericidal activity while suppressing bacterial biofilm formation [33, 114, 118]. In addition, from a toxin-neutralisation perspective, studies have incorporated dandelion-derived extracellular vesicle-like nanoparticles into dressings to specifically bind S. aureus exotoxins, exerting antitoxic effects while minimising harm to beneficial microbiota [119]. Furthermore, nanozymes with multiple natural enzymatic activities (such as peroxidase, catalase (CAT), and glutathione oxidase) have been developed to enhance the efficacy of ROS-mediated sterilisation. Coupled with cuproptosis mechanisms, these innovations provide groundbreaking solutions for multidrug-resistant infections [122–125]. Future biomimetic antimicrobial dressings should prioritize precision targeting, energy self-sufficiency, and ecological balance to construct intelligent ‘recognition-eradication-repair’ integrated systems. For example, dressings capable of distinguishing pathogens from commensal bacteria could eliminate infections while preserving microbiome homeostasis, thereby enabling safer and more efficient management of infected wounds.

Burn wounds

Burn wounds are complex and characterized by dysregulated inflammation, high infection risk, exudate accumulation, and neural damage [126–129]. Thus, they demand dressings with dynamic responsiveness and multifunctional synergy. Conventional dressings, limited by single-function designs, cannot address multistage therapeutic needs, whereas bioinspired strategies offer novel solutions by emulating skin repair mechanisms. Dysregulated inflammatory responses and ROS are key factors that delay burn wound healing, necessitating precise modulation of the oxidative stress microenvironment. Hence, researchers have developed multidimensional anti-inflammatory dressings composed of sulfated alginates (Algs) and Prussian blue nanoparticles (PBNPs) [128]. Experimental results demonstrate that this dressing achieves 98% healing in murine deep burn wounds by Day 21, significantly outperforming saline-treated controls (62%) [128]. Alg mimics the ECM and sequester wound chemokines to inhibit inflammatory cell infiltration, thereby mitigating inflammation. Concurrently, PBNPs mimic peroxidase activity to rapidly scavenge ROS and accelerate healing [128]. Regarding infection control, biomimetic nano dressings reduce bacterial adhesion via hydrophobic or zwitterionic surfaces while utilising core-shell NFs for controlled antimicrobial release [45, 50, 108, 130]. In addition, a bilayer dressing combining anti-infective and anti-inflammatory functions achieved 96.2% wound closure in a rat burn model 14 days after application [131]. The inner hydrogel layer releases ROS via hyaluronidase-triggered PDT for bacterial eradication, whereas the outer layer suppresses inflammation and promotes regeneration by scavenging excess ROS [131]. Hydrophilic dressings address excessive exudates by mimicking the loose architecture of the dermis to efficiently absorb exudate, preventing wound overwetting [50]. For –post-burn nerve damage, a light-responsive electroactive dressing promotes neural regeneration and functional recovery in damaged nerve endings through remote photon control while stimulating fibroblast proliferation [129]. Future research should focus on constructing bioinspired neural guidance scaffolds using NFs to simulate neuronal growth microenvironments, potentially advancing neuroregenerative nano dressings. Notably, current bioinspired designs inadequately address early-stage burn needs, such as edema reduction and pain relief. Future multicomponent biomimetic dressings that integrate exudate management, chemotherapy, and low-energy laser treatments could provide stage-adaptive care and offer comprehensive and efficient solutions for burn wound therapy [30].

Diabetic wounds

Current dressings have limited therapeutic effects in DWs because hyperglycemia, oxidative stress, infection, and impaired angiogenesis coexist in the DW microenvironment [28, 104, 105, 132, 133]. Therefore, developing new biomimetic nano dressings that can synergistically regulate multiple factors and accelerate DW healing is a current research focus. Stimuli-responsive dressings release insulin, metformin, or glucose oxidase in a glucose-dependent manner to mitigate wound hyperglycemia, reducing local glucose concentrations [104, 105, 134–136]. Innovatively, a glucose-fueled patch catalyses glucose oxidation to generate electricity and hydrogen peroxide while electrostatically attracting negatively charged bacteria to electrode surfaces for targeted sterilisation [137]. In diabetic murine models, this patch promoted the formation of mature skin tissue with new hair follicles (HFs) within 10 days [137]. In regulating oxidative stress in wounds, in addition to the use of natural antioxidants (such as curcumin, asiaticoside, and resveratrol nanoparticles), biomimetic enzymes are considered an effective tool [96, 132, 138]. By mimicking mitochondrial antioxidant mechanisms, researchers developed zirconium-based metal–organic frameworks co-loaded with superoxide dismutase and CAT, creating a ‘detection-scavenging-decomposition’ ROS elimination cascade (> 95% clearance) that inhibits macrophage mitochondrial oxidative stress-mediated cGAS-STING pathway activation, thereby attenuating inflammation [139]. To address the susceptibility of DWs to infection, biomimetic nano dressings enhance antibacterial efficacy by integrating components such as antibiotics, antimicrobial peptides, cationic polymers, metal nanoparticles (such as copper, iron, and zinc), and photothermal agents (PTAs) [15, 21, 117, 133, 136, 140]. Of these, copper, iron, and zinc nanoparticles exhibit broad-spectrum bactericidal activity while promoting angiogenesis [105, 135, 136, 141]. Dressings can improve wound perfusion by incorporating nitric oxide donors like L-arginine and S-nitrosoglutathione to induce vasodilation or utilize PTAs to enhance local microcirculation through photothermal effects [104, 133, 142]. In addition, functionalized bioactive glasses (BGs) demonstrates multifunctional synergy. For example, manganese dioxide deposited via redox reactions on PDA-modified mesoporous BGs yielded composite dressings with concurrent antimicrobial, antioxidant, and pro-angiogenic properties, achieving a wound healing rate of 92.85% in rat DW models after 14 days of application [28]. However, the absence of distinct phase boundaries in DW healing, coupled with varying therapeutic demands across stages, imposes higher requirements for the intelligent responsiveness of multifunctional dressings. Biomimetic designs address this by mimicking biological stimuli-responsive mechanisms (such as pH, enzyme, or ROS sensitivity) to construct ‘sense-and-feedback’ drug-controlled release systems, enabling real-time monitoring and precise intervention. For instance, nanocarriers capable of autonomously switching from antibacterial to pro-repair functions as inflammation subsides could overcome current therapeutic limitations, offering comprehensive solutions for full-cycle DW management.

Postoperative skin cancer wounds

Postoperative skin cancer wounds often face healing challenges due to incomplete tumor removal, bacterial infections, and full-thickness skin defects, and require advanced functionalities from dressings [113, 114, 143–145]. Developing multifunctional biomimetic dressings that integrate antitumor, antibacterial, and tissue-regenerative capacities is pivotal to addressing these issues. Current biomimetic dressings effectively suppress tumor recurrence and eradicate bacteria by combining PTT, PDT, chemotherapeutic agents, or tumor starvation strategies [114, 144]. Researchers have used natural melanin nanoparticles derived from cuttlefish ink, modified with biodegradable amorphous silica shells via biomimetic mineralisation [113]. These dressings eliminate tumor cells and bacteria through PTT and release orthosilicate anion to accelerate healing, achieving dual antitumor and regenerative functionality [113]. In addition, from a tumor microenvironment modulation perspective, a nanocomposite hydrogel dressing was designed through the self-assembly of lonidamine, JQ1, and Chlorin e6 conjugated with sericin [145]. This dressing ameliorates the acidic wound microenvironment, inhibits programmed cell death ligand 1 overexpression, and enhances antitumor immunity [145]. Experimental results demonstrate a tumor volume reduction of 0.89 cm³ in murine cutaneous melanoma models after 16 days of treatment compared to controls [145]. Despite progress in antitumor efficacy and promoting healing promotion, existing dressings lack designs for in situ monitoring of residual cancer cells in postoperative wounds. Future research could leverage the antigen–antibody specificity observed in biological systems by incorporating fluorescent probes targeting tumor-specific membrane proteins or biomarkers into dressings, enabling real-time surveillance of residual malignant cells.

Outlook and future challenges

Compared with traditional nano dressings, biomimetic nano dressings have achieved a double breakthrough in biocompatibility and functionality through bionic design. Traditional nano dressings (such as those containing zinc oxide and silica nanoparticles) have antibacterial properties but may cause skin inflammation or long-term toxicity and are easily cleared by the immune system [146, 147]. Biomimetic nano dressings significantly enhance biocompatibility with human tissues by employing bionic masking techniques, such as cell membrane modification and biomimetic phospholipid bilayers, or using natural bionic components, like NFs and biomimetic collagen scaffolds [104, 111, 142, 148]. Structurally, while traditional nano dressings focus on physico-chemical optimisation, biomimetic dressings mimic ECM by tuning nanofiber diameter and alignment, promoting fibroblast migration and ECM reconstruction [149]. In particular, the biomimetic skin bilayer gradient design, with a hydrophobic antibacterial epidermal layer and a hydrophilic pro-healing dermal layer, enables the dynamic balance of wound exudate and the temporal coordination of infection control [48]. Moreover, traditional dressings cannot meet the dynamic treatment needs of complex wounds. Biomimetic nano dressings enable microenvironment-specific therapeutic strategies for wound healing by imitating the stimulus responsiveness of biological systems (such as pH/ROS/light/enzyme/temperature-triggered release systems) [16, 150]. However, existing stimuli-responsive designs remain confined to single-signal triggers (such as pH-only responses) and fail to replicate the complexity of biological homeostasis. Future research should develop biomimetic adaptive feedback systems—for example, integrating multiple wound metabolite sensors with flexible bioelectronic interfaces to create closed-loop ‘sense-feedback-treat’ tri-functional dressings. Such intelligent systems can dynamically modulate drug release or therapeutic activation via metabolite concentration gradients, thereby achieving multimodal synergistic therapy.

Biomimetic strategies have significantly improved the biocompatibility of nano dressings; however, their long-term biosafety requires further investigation. The biosafety challenges of biomimetic nano dressings mainly lie in the immunogenicity of natural components, accumulation and toxicity of degradation products, and cross-species compatibility [151]. Future research could explore several directions to address these challenges. First, immune-tolerant elements (such as cluster of differentiation 47 signaling molecules) can be incorporated into biomimetic nano dressings to reduce non-specific macrophage phagocytosis and lower the risk of inflammation. Second, enzyme-responsive crosslinkers, such as MMP-sensitive hydrogels, could be used to synchronize dressing degradation with wound healing, preventing abnormal accumulation of degradation products. Current biosafety evaluations of biomimetic nano dressings primarily rely on in vitro cytotoxicity tests and short-term observations in small animal models (such as 28-day wound histopathological analyses) [129, 149, 150]. However, long-term in vivo toxicity studies remain underexplored due to prolonged experimental cycles, high costs, and challenges in maintaining animal model viability. With advancements in technology, organ-on-a-chip and artificial intelligence (AI) prediction models offer new solutions for this problem. These technologies can simulate in vivo kinetics and toxicity accumulation of biomimetic nano dressings. When combined with animal experiments, they can fill the gap in long-term in-vivo toxicity studies of these dressings. In addition, developing multi-scale evaluation frameworks represents a critical future direction. Comprehensive safety databases encompassing acute exposure, subchronic accumulation, and transgenerational effects can be established by integrating in vitro high-throughput screening, long-term toxicity tracking in large animal models (such as 6 months porcine model studies), and population-level epidemiological data. Such frameworks would provide robust, clinically translatable evidence for biosafety evaluations of biomimetic nano dressings.

Notably, current research on biomimetic nano dressings remains predominantly focused on optimising basic functionalities such as antimicrobial performance and wound closure rates, whereas biomimetic strategies for HF regeneration and neurosensory functional restoration following full-thickness skin injuries are still in their infancy. Particularly, the permanent disruption of the substrate-mesenchymal signal axis in in full-thickness skin defects caused by deep burns induces irreversible loss of HF and depletes the epidermal neural crest stem cell niche, ultimately triggering intractable sensory dysfunction syndromes. Recent advances inspired by ‘plant developmental biology’ offer novel approaches for HF regeneration. A biomimetic artificial HF-seeding hydrogel microsphere system was shown to activate the Phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B pathway, inducing fibroblast reprogramming into dermal papilla cells (DPCs) to promote HF regeneration [152]. Future studies could extend this biomimetic paradigm by integrating exosome technology—loading DPC-secreted exosomes into dressings to enhance fibroblast-to-DPC reprogramming—and incorporating spatiotemporally controlled release systems for growth factors (such as Wingless-related integration site, Bone morphogenetic protein, FGF) to precisely regulate DPC activity and their interactions with HF stem cells. In the realm of neurosensory functional recovery, current biomimetic nano dressings predominantly rely on bioelectric stimulation, which exhibits a singular mechanistic approach and lacks cell microenvironment specificity. Sensory abnormalities in wounds (such as pruritus, pain, and hypoesthesia) are closely associated with imbalanced regeneration of epidermal nerve endings and dysregulated neuroimmune crosstalk. In the future, neural interface biomimetic nano dressing can be developed to address these issues. These dressings may guide the directional regeneration of sensory nerve axons by mimicking the structure of the Schwann cell basement membrane. Additionally, they may incorporate neural regulatory modules, including substance P antagonists to inhibit neurogenic inflammation, interleukin-31 monoclonal antibodies, and transient receptor potential vanilloid 1/voltage-gated sodium channel 1.8 modulators, to restore the homeostasis of pain conduction.

Biomimetic nano dressings are advancing from laboratory research to industrialisation. This transition marks technological maturity and underscores their potential to address multidimensional challenges in clinical applications. For example, Integra® (an acellular bovine dermal matrix) and Matriderm® (a collagen-elastin composite scaffold), which mimic the ECM mechanical and biological properties, have achieved significant success in treating burns and chronic ulcers [153]. In addition, StrataGraft®, a bilayered skin substitute co-cultured with keratinocytes and dermal fibroblasts to simulate native skin architecture, has received approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for deep partial-thickness burn treatment [154]. These successful cases provide valuable experience and confidence for the clinical translation of biomimetic nano dressings. Furthermore, functional innovations in biomimetic nano dressings continue to expand their clinical application scenarios. For instance, a biomimetic hydrogel dressing integrating marine-derived ultraviolet (UV) protectant (P334) and recombinant human type XVII collagen—which combines UV shielding with ECM-mimetic properties—has secured a national invention patent [155]. This technology is expected to be developed into portable sprays or wearable patches within 3 years. It holds promise for repairing UV-exposed wounds in areas such as the face and limbs. Furthermore, biomimetic nano dressing designed to mimic the hygromorphic behavior of pinecones can autonomously adapt to irregular wound contours, enabling rapid and precise coverage to reduce pain and secondary trauma caused by traditional dressing changes [156]. If translated clinically, this technology could significantly improve the efficiency of managing large-area burns and complex extremity wounds. However, the clinical translation of biomimetic nano dressings still presents several challenges. First, the complex design of multi-level structural biomimicry and extraction processes of natural active components yield high costs for scaled production. Second, the immunogenicity and batch variability of biologically derived materials (such as collagen) may pose clinical safety risks. To address these challenges, future research and development should focus on leveraging advanced technologies such as 3D printing and microfluidic chips to achieve scalable production, reduce costs, and accelerate the development of fully synthetic biomimetic materials such as genetically engineered recombinant polypeptides or artificially designed biomimetic polymers to eliminate biological risks and enhance product consistency. Concurrently, integrating 3D printing, the Internet of Things, and AI with biomimetic nano dressings can enable intelligent wound management systems. By analysing data collected from dressing feedback using machine learning algorithms, researchers can obtain more precise clinical insights to drive the clinical translation of biomimetic nano dressing.

Conclusions

In summary, biomimetic nano dressing has immense potential for wound repair. This review systematically outlines the materials and fabrication techniques commonly employed in developing biomimetic nano dressings while introducing innovative design strategies from structural and functional biomimicry perspectives. Building on these design principles, we discussed the potential application of various biomimetic nano dressings in addressing clinical challenges associated with infected wounds, burn injuries, DW, and postoperative skin cancer wounds. These advancements have expanded treatment options for diverse wound types. Meanwhile, we have proposed novel recommendations to offer fresh perspectives for the future design of biomimetic nano dressings based on the gaps identified in this review.

Abbreviations

VEGF, Vascular endothelial growth factor; MSCs, Mesenchymal stem cells; ECM, Extracellular matrix; NFs, Nanofibers; DW, Diabetic wound; PDA, Polydopamine; MN, Microneedle; FGF, Fibroblast growth factor; MMP, Matrix metalloproteinase; PU, Polyurethane; ROS, Reactive oxygen species; NIR, Near-infrared; PTT, Photothermal therapy; PDT, Photodynamic therapy; E. coli, Escherichia coli; CAT, Catalase; Algs, Sulfated alginates; PBNPs, Prussian blue nanoparticles; HFs, Hair follicles; PTAs, Photothermal agents; BGs, Bioactive glasses; AI, Artificial intelligence; DPCs, Dermal papilla cells; UV, Ultraviolet

Author contributions

Menglei Wang (Conceptualization [equal], Funding acquisition [equal], Methodology [equal], Supervision [equal], Writing—original draft [equal], Writing—review & editing [equal]), Haiqing Li (Conceptualization [equal], Investigation [equal], Software [equal], Visualization [equal], Writing—original draft [equal], Writing—review & editing [equal]), Yawen Luo (Methodology [equal], Resources [equal], Software [equal], Writing—review & editing [equal]), Jiawen Chen (Methodology [equal], Writing—review & editing [equal]), Ziyi Tang (Methodology [equal], Writing—review & editing [equal]), Yu Wei (Writing—review & editing [equal]), Qianwen Yang (Writing—review & editing [equal]), Wantong Xiao (Writing—review & editing [equal]), Wanchun You (Writing—review & editing [equal]), Meixing Feng (Writing—review & editing [equal]), Jing Shen (Writing—review & editing [equal]), Li Li (Conceptualization [equal], Funding acquisition [equal], Methodology [equal], Supervision [equal], Writing—review & editing [equal]).

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Not Applicable.

Consent for publication

Not Applicable.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

Funding

This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (82203897); Natural Science Foundation of Guangdong Province (2023A1515010204); Natural Science Foundation of Guangdong Province (2024A1515012872).

Data availability

Not Applicable.