Motivations to Start and Stop Using Sexual Networking Applications Among Adolescent Sexual Minority Men

Abstract

Introduction

Although adolescent sexual minority men (ASMM) use sexual networking applications (SNAs), little is known about their reasons to start and stop using these apps.

Methods

Between February and April 2018, 156 ASMM in the USA aged 15–17 completed an online survey and answered open-ended questions that elicited their reasons to start and stop using SNAs. We analyzed responses through an inductive thematic analysis.

Results

The most frequent reasons to use SNAs were to find users to date, and to establish friendships or socially connect with other users due to loneliness. Participants reported positive feelings using SNAs because they were connecting with other SMM. However, participants also reported negative sentiments after receiving unwanted sexually explicit messages. The most frequently cited reason to stop using SNAs was the feeling of only receiving messages for sex rather than for starting relationships or friendships.

Conclusions

ASMM have various reasons for initiating SNAs and perceived benefits and drawbacks. Although some ASMM may expect to, and are successful in, finding dating partners and friends on SNAs, many received unwanted sexually explicit messages that produced negative sentiments of SNAs.

Policy Implications

Creating online and offline spaces for ASMM to socially connect with other sexual minority adolescents is crucial. Youth-serving professionals should assess SNA use with ASMM clients and be prepared to provide education or counseling about their use and its potential sexual, social, and mental health implications. Sexuality education should include content on the usage, safety, and alternatives of SNAs to explore sexuality and social connectedness.

Introduction

In the United States (U.S.), studies suggest that 25 to 70% of adolescent sexual minority men (ASMM; gay, bisexual, queer, and other men who have sex with men) under 18 years old use sexual networking applications (SNAs; colloquially known as hookup apps) (Birnholtz et al., 2020; Macapagal et al., 2018, 2019; Suto et al., 2020). Studies examining ASMM use of hookup apps investigate the association between use and risky sexual behaviors, such as condomless anal sex with app-met partners or unawareness of app-met sex partners’ HIV status (Birnholtz et al., 2020; Macapagal et al., 2018, 2019, 2021). Although researching sexual risk is necessary given that ASMM account for 70% of new HIV infections among adolescents in the U.S. (CDC, 2019), only focusing on sexual risk limits our understanding of how SNAs influence other dimensions of sexual minority adolescent health and well-being. The subjective experiences of ASMM using SNAs, including their motivations to start and stop using these apps are not well understood.

Reasons for ASMM using hookup apps and their subjective experiences using these apps might be generalized from research on adult samples. It is well known that adult SMM use SNAs and the Internet for sexual identity development, sexual gratification, and social connectedness (Duncan et al., 2018; Goedel & Duncan, 2015; Grov et al., 2014; Holloway et al., 2014; Lorimer et al., 2016; Macapagal et al., 2016; Rice et al., 2012; Smiley et al., 2020). Albeit it appears the most frequent and consistent reason is for hooking up with other app users. Although ASMM may have similar motivations for starting SNAs, ASMM may tend to use the internet more for sexual identity development, social connectedness, and self-discovery, and less for seeking sexual partners given their developmental stage (DuBois et al., 2015; Harper et al., 2016; Mustanski et al., 2011; Pingel et al., 2013). Despite the legal risks that may exist for SNA-using ASMM (as these apps require users to be 18 years and older), SNAs may provide them a convenient and discreet way—and for some adolescents, possibly the only way—to explore their sexual identities and establish friendships, romantic partnerships, and sexual relationships with sexual minorities like themselves. There might be variability in the usage of and the motivation to use hookup apps among ASMM. If so, it is important for healthcare providers, parents, and youth workers to recognize adolescents’ reasons for using hookup apps to tailor conversations about sexual behavior and identity development, online safety, and other alternatives for creating social networks.

Like with other apps, ASMM may stop using hookup apps for a variety of reasons. Adult SMM’s motivations for deleting or discontinuing these apps seem to focus on negative experiences such as objectification and discrimination (Brubaker et al., 2016; Callander et al., 2016; Conner, 2019; Filice et al., 2019; Han & Choi, 2018; Robinson, 2015; Tran et al., 2020), although some discontinue because they found a partner (Macapagal et al., 2016). Brubaker et al. (2016) reported that adult SMM stopped using a popular SNA because they received an influx in messages that only referenced casual sex and discriminatory comments on their racial/ethnic identity, sexual orientation identity, body types, and other physical appearances. Little is known about ASMM’s motivations to stop using hookup apps. Awareness of adolescents’ experiences with SNAs, and particularly their reasons for discontinuing usage, can aid primary and mental healthcare providers, parents, sex educators, and other youth workers in providing resources for youth who discontinue because they experienced online harassment or discrimination. This may prevent adverse mental health outcomes, such as internalized stigma or body dysmorphic disorder (Filice et al., 2019; Tran et al., 2020).

This study sought to (1) describe patterns of use and discontinuation of SNAs among ASMM, as well as ASMM’s psychosocial contexts that may be related to SNA use, (2) describe motivations for use and discontinuation of SNAs, and (3) examine feelings and perspectives related to SNA use.

Methods

Recruitment and Data Collection

As part of a larger study about online partner seeking in ASMM (Macapagal et al., 2019), we recruited participants from social media and research participant registries from February to April 2018. Social media advertisements targeted adolescents aged 15–18 who listed interests relevant to sexual minority teens (e.g., pop culture figures, sexual minority-related organizations). The participant registries included the contact information of ASMM who participated in the research team’s previous studies. We emailed participant registries a message that included a description of the new study opportunity and a URL to the eligibility screener. Clicking on the advertisement or on the URL in the recruitment email directed the individual to an eligibility survey hosted on REDCap (Harris et al., 2009, 2019). Eligible individuals were assigned male at birth, identified as a sexual minority and/or endorsed attraction to male partners, lived in the U.S., and demonstrated English proficiency.

Following the screener, we emailed eligible individuals a URL to the study. Participants who confirmed consent were routed to the survey, which lasted approximately 45–60 min. Participants who completed the survey and whose data passed the study’s validation protocols (Grey et al., 2015) received a $30 electronic gift card. The university Institutional Review Board approved procedures with a waiver of parental permission to reduce sampling bias and risk of teens having to unwillingly disclose or be victimized by their parents/guardians for their sexual minority status (Mustanski, 2011).

For this study, we restricted the analytic sample to the 156 participants under 18 years old who responded to at least one open-ended question about motivations to use and discontinue SNAs. Zero (0.0%) answered only one question, 132 (84.6%) answered two questions, and 24 (15.4%) answered all three open-ended questions.

Measures

Sociodemographic Characteristics

Participants completed items assessing age, race and ethnicity, sexual orientation and gender identity, urban-suburban-rural residency, sexual orientation disclosure (i.e., “outness”) to parents/guardians, frequency of attending an LGBTQ program or group in the past year, and loneliness in the past week (Zhang et al., 2012).

SNA Characteristics, Perceptions, Motivations, and Discontinuation

Participants were asked closed-ended, investigator-created questions that assessed their age when they started using SNAs, who knew they use SNAs, their sexual activities with SNA-met sexual partners, and questions regarding their perceptions about expectations, safety, and risk of using SNAs. Participants answered open-ended questions regarding what SNAs they use and stopped using. Finally, participants answered three open-ended questions related to their motivations to use and discontinue SNAs: their reasons for first using SNAs, how they felt using SNAs, and their reasons for discontinuing SNAs. All open-ended questions were optional.

Data Analysis

Descriptive statistics for quantitative variables and chi-square analyses to compare SNA use experiences by participant characteristics were computed using SPSS 25 (IBM Corp, 2016). Two coders conducted the qualitative analyses of motivations to use and discontinue SNAs via an inductive thematic analysis (Miles et al., 2014). First, we read excerpts to gain familiarity with the data. Then, we performed three rounds of coding cycles: (1) open coding via emotional, process, and in vivo codes (Saldaña, 2015); (2) focused coding to elicit concise patterns; and finally (3) thematic coding to create core or summative categories. The first coder did all three rounds of coding, and the second coder collaborated with and finalized the final round. A third person tested interrater reliability of a random 20% of cases per question. With the reliability threshold being 0.80 (McHugh, 2012), interrater reliability revealed strong agreement (0.84–0.93). Coders resolved any discrepancies in coding via consensus.

Results

Demographic Characteristics

Participant characteristics are shown in Table 1. Regarding demographics, participants ranged from 15 to 17 years old (M = 16.4, SD = 0.7). Most were cisgender men (93.6%), gay (77.6%), and non-Hispanic White (59.6%). One third resided in the Midwest (33.3%) and in the South (32.7%). The plurality of participants resided in a suburban area (45.5%).

Table 1.

Demographic Characteristics (N = 156)

	Number	Percent	M	SD
Age			16.4	0.7
15 years old	23	14.7
16 years old	46	29.5
17 years old	87	55.8
Race/ethnicity
Black or African American	6	3.8
Hispanic or Latinx	25	16.0
White	93	59.6
Multiracial	22	14.1
Other	10	6.4
Gender identity
Man	146	93.6
Genderqueer	4	2.6
Gender nonconforming	6	3.8
Sexual orientation
Gay	121	77.6
Bisexual	23	14.7
Pansexual	7	4.5
Queer	3	1.9
Questioning/unsure	2	1.3
Residence
In an urban or city area	41	26.3
In a suburban area next to a city	71	45.5
In a small town or rural area	44	28.2
Region
Northeast	24	15.4
Midwest	52	33.3
South	51	32.7
West	29	18.6
Past year attended an LGBTQ program or group
Never in the past 12 months	66	42.3
Once or a few times in the past 12 months	27	17.3
Once or a few times a month	18	11.5
Once or a few times a week	12	7.7
Every day or almost every day	2	1.3
I don’t know of a program or group for LGBTQ people	31	19.9
Past year used Internet/apps to talk to/connect with other LGBTQ people
Never in the past 12 months	1	0.6
Once or a few times in the past 12 months	23	14.7
Once or a few times a month	33	21.2
Once or a few times a week	31	19.9
Every day or almost every day	68	43.6
Past week felt lonely
Rarely or none of the time (less than 1 day)	21	13.5
Some or a little of the time (1–2 days)	40	25.6
Occasionally or a moderate amount of time (3–4 days)	46	29.5
Most or all of the time (5–7 days)	49	31.4

Regarding participants’ psychosocial context, 42.3% of participants never attended an LGBTQ program or group in the past 12 months and nearly 20% reported not knowing of any programs/groups for LGBTQ people. One third (31.4%) reported they felt lonely 5–7 days of the week, and 29.5% reported they felt lonely 3–4 days of the week. Two thirds of participants used the Internet or apps at least weekly to talk to or connect with other LGBTQ people (63.5%). Of the participants who never attended an LGBTQ program/event in the past year, 59.8% reported using the internet/apps to talk to other LGBTQ people at least on a weekly basis.

SNA Usage and Discontinuation Behaviors

Table 2 presents the SNA usage and discontinuation behaviors of participants. On average, participants were 15 years old (SD = 1.3) when they first started using SNAs. Participants mostly disclosed their SNA usage to their friends: offline LGBTQ friends (62.8%), online LGBTQ friends (56.4%), and straight friends (47.4%). They less frequently disclosed SNA usage to family members: nine disclosed to their mothers and three disclosed to their fathers. Open-ended responses indicated that by far, Grindr was the most used (74.6%) and discontinued (60.2%) app. Two other commonly used apps were Scruff (2.6%) and Tinder (1.9%). Two commonly listed apps that were discontinued were Hornet (14.3%) and Scruff (11.2%). Half of the participants had ever had sexual contact with app-users, with the most common sexual activities being oral (44.9%) and anal sex (40.4%).

Table 2.

SNA Usage and Discontinuation Behaviors (N = 156)

	Number	Percent	M	SD
How old when started using SNAs			14.9	1.3
10 years old or younger	1	0.6
11 years old	2	1.3
12 years old	2	1.3
13 years old	13	8.3
14 years old	37	23.7
15 years old	46	29.5
16 years old	39	25.0
17 years old	12	7.7
Do not want to answer	4	2.6
People who know I use SNAs (check all that apply)
LGBTQ friends you know offline/in person	98	62.8
LGBTQ friends you know online	88	56.4
Straight friends	74	47.4
Nobody knows I use these apps	29	18.6
Romantic partner, boyfriend, or girlfriend	18	11.5
Sister	13	8.3
Brother	12	7.7
Mom	9	5.8
Dad	3	1.9
Other people not listed know I use these apps	8	5.1
I don’t know	5	3.2
Do not want to answer	1	0.6
Ever had sexual contact with SNA-met partners
I do not want to answer	1	0.6
I don’t know	1	0.6
No	76	48.7
Yes	78	50.0
Sexual contact with SNA-met partners (check all that apply)
Hand job	52	33.3
Oral sex	70	44.9
Anal sex	63	40.4
Threesome/group sex	9	5.8
Sexting/trading pictures	60	38.5
Other	3	1.9
Do not want to answer	1	0.6
Enjoyment using SNAs
Extremely	8	5.1
Very	17	10.9
Moderately	58	37.2
Slightly	47	30.1
Not at all	22	14.1
Do not want to answer	4	2.6
SNAs helpful when looking for potential partners
Extremely	15	9.6
Very	19	12.2
Moderately	33	21.2
Slightly	34	21.8
Not at all	51	32.7
Do not want to answer	4	2.6
Did SNA experiences differ from expectations (n = 72)
No	34	47.2
Yes	34	47.2
Do not want to answer	4	5.6
How safe feel using SNAs
Very safe	14	9
Somewhat safe	45	28.8
Neither safe nor unsafe	54	34.6
Somewhat unsafe	29	18.6
Very unsafe	11	7.1
Do not want to answer	3	1.9
SNA risk-benefit
Do not want to answer	3	1.9
The risks of using apps or websites for guys who like guys to meet male partners outweigh its benefits	50	32.1
The benefits of using apps or websites for guys who like guys to meet male partners outweigh its risks	31	19.9
The risks and benefits of using apps or websites for guys who like guys to meet male partners are about the same	72	46.2

One third did not at all enjoy using hookup apps (30.1%). One third indicated hookup apps were helpful when looking for potential partners (32.7%). Participants were evenly split on whether SNAs met (47.2%) or did not meet their expectations (47.2%). ASMM felt overall safe using SNAs, with 37.8% reporting they were very or somewhat safe, and 34.6% were neutral. Participants were asked their opinion of the risk and benefit ratio of using SNAs, and 46.2% reported the risks and benefits of using SNAs are the same, while 32.1% indicated the risks of using SNAs outweighed the benefits of using these apps.

Motivations to First Use SNAs

Participants (n = 156) reported multiple reasons for initiating the use of SNAs. The most frequently cited motivation to start using SNAs was to find users to date or be in a serious relationship with (n = 47, 30.1%). As a participant stated, they are on hookup apps “so I could find a boyfriend.” One-quarter of ASMM initially started using SNAs to have sex or hook up with users (27.6%). Some teens reported that their pool of sexual partners was limited at their schools and communities, and they perceived the internet expanded their network. A teen exemplified, “I felt like there weren’t many gay guys at my school, so I looked to the internet to find guys for sex.” Finally, ASMM noted they were lonely (n = 34, 21.8%) and wanted to connect with sexual minority adolescents and adults like themselves (n = 33, 21.2%). A teen referenced they were “lonely and wanted to belong,” while another teen noted apps were a way to “connect with other guys who identified the same way as me.” Overall, participants reported they started using SNAs for relational, sexual, and social development needs.

Feelings Using SNAs

In response to a question about how they felt using SNAs, 93 (59.6%) described exclusively negative feelings, 38 (24.4%) described exclusively positive feelings, and 25 (16.0%) described both positive and negative feelings. Twenty-eight teens (17.9%) provided generic negative sentiments (e.g., “Frustrated” or “I don’t like them”), but most specified the sources of their dissatisfaction. The most frequently cited concern regarded feeling sexualized or objectified (n = 38, 24.4%), commonly noting other app users only wanted sex than a romantic relationship. For example, an ASMM felt “gross because almost everyone [on SNAs are there] only for sex or nudes and not for a legit relationship.” Teens commented that they commonly received these sexualized messages from “older” or “creepy men.” For example, one participant felt “weird because it is just a bunch of older men trying to get with me.” Eleven teens (7.1%) indicated they received discriminatory messages from users that stigmatized participants based on their race/ethnicity, body type, and other physical appearances. A participant disclosed they “feel depressed… people would block [you] or call you words like fat, be really racist, or body shame.” Another teen referenced they were “annoyed and disappointed” at racist and “‘no fat, no fems’ dynamics” they saw on the hookup apps. Some teens (n = 9, 5.8%) perceived apps to be a waste of time and specified meeting people in-person is a better way to find partners where one would be less likely to experience sexual objectification and racial and weight-based discrimination.

Eleven ASMM provided generic positive emotions (e.g., “Good” or “It’s helpful”), and 27 additional participants elaborated on their reason for their positive sentiments. Twelve teens (7.7%) noted they were connecting with and being supported by sexual minority men like themselves while using SNAs, as one participant commented they “feel more connected to the GBQ [gay, bisexual, and queer] community” after using these apps. Participants said they felt hopeful because they found men to date (n = 8, 5.1%) and have sex with (n = 7, 4.5%). Eight ASMM (5.1%) listed they felt affirmed because they received compliments and attention from app users, such as one participant who reported feeling “Validated—I actually receive compliments I couldn’t in-person because I don’t know enough people that are gay my age.” Overall, participants noted having mixed feelings when using SNAs, though sentiments were mostly negative.

We compared the demographic characteristics of those who reported exclusively negative feelings and those who reported exclusively positive feelings while using SNAs via a chi-square test of independence. ASMM who ever had sexual contact with an app-met partner reported more positive feelings (68.4%) than negative feelings (47.8%). ASMM who never had sexual contact with an app-met partner reported more negative feelings (52.2%) than positive feelings (31.6%) (χ² (1, N = 130) = 4.590, p = 0.032). Teens who extremely, very, or moderately enjoyed using these apps reported more positive feelings than negative feelings (86.8% and 40.9%, respectively). Teens who slightly or not at all enjoyed using SNAs reported more negative feelings of using these apps than positive feelings (59.1 and 13.2%, respectively) (χ² (1, N = 131) = 22.977, p = ≤ .001). Participants who reported that SNAs were extremely, very, or moderately helpful when looking for potential partners reported more positive (81.6%) than negative feelings (31.5%). ASMM who reported that SNAs were slightly or not at all helpful when looking for potential partners reported more negative feelings than positive feelings (68.5% and 18.4%, respectively) (χ² (1, N = 130) = 27.114, p = ≤ .001). Feelings about SNA use did not significantly differ by age, race/ethnicity, sexual orientation, urbanity, whether experiences differed from their expectations, and whether they discontinued using the SNAs.

Motivations to Discontinue SNAs

Participants (n = 98) reported multiple reasons for discontinuing SNAs. For participants whose motivation to use apps was to date, they stopped using once they entered a relationship (n = 19, 19.4%) or felt they were only receiving messages for sex from users rather than for romantic relationships (n = 29, 29.6%). A teen noted, “Most of the guys weren’t interested in an actual relationship like I wanted but just wanted sex.” Some ASMM stopped using apps because they received discriminatory and objectified messages from users (n = 4, 4.1%) that stigmatized the participant based on their race, body type, and expression, as a Hispanic teen described, “A lot of guys were racist and even homophobic like, ‘No fems.’ Many found my ethnicity as a turnoff.” While one-third of ASMM described discontinuation reasons related to negative interactions with other users (n = 31, 31.6%), teens also stopped using apps because SNAs were incompatible with their locale (n = 15, 15.3%). Specifically, there were no app users or not enough users nearby, there were not attractive app users in their locale, and the users they were interested in lived far away. For example, a participant stopped using because “there weren’t enough guys in my area on the app.” Overall, participants generally stopped using hookup apps when they entered a relationship or started dating someone. Another reason to stop using apps was because of the perception that users sent them messages to have sex rather than messages to date.

Discussion

Prior research (Macapagal et al., 2018, 2019, 2021) has found that many ASMM utilize SNAs; however, research has not examined ASMM’s motivations to start and stop using SNAs. To date, studies have largely assessed adult SMM’s reasons to use hook up apps via closed-ended questions (Duncan et al., 2018; Goedel & Duncan, 2015; Grov et al., 2014; Holloway et al., 2014; Lorimer et al., 2016; Macapagal et al., 2018; Rice et al., 2012). In addition, no study to our knowledge investigated why ASMM stopped using hookup apps. This paper sought to extend these lines of inquiry and add nuance to our understanding of ASMM’s SNA experiences by qualitatively exploring their motivations to start and stop using SNAs and feelings about SNA use.

Participants commonly cited romantic motivations for using SNAs, such as finding users to date and enter into serious romantic relationships with, followed closely by finding partners for sex and hookups. This finding is similar to other studies that noted SMM use the internet to find casual sex partners and romantic partners (Duncan et al., 2018; Goedel & Duncan, 2015; Grov et al., 2014; Holloway et al., 2014; Macapagal et al., 2016, 2018; Rice et al., 2012; Smiley et al., 2020). The most common motivator to stop using these apps was because participants were in a relationship, and participants who reported that SNAs were helpful in finding potential partners reported more positive than negative feelings. These findings highlight a benefit of ASMM using SNAs, specifically that hookup apps may provide a discreet and convenient way for ASMM to identify potential partners and develop their romantic relationships. ASMM may use hookup apps to meet their romantic needs because their pool of sexual minority peers and places to meet them offline are limited (e.g., cannot attend LGBTQ bars or spaces intended for adults) (DuBois et al., 2015; Mustanski et al., 2011).

Similar to prior research on adults (Brubaker et al., 2016; Callander et al., 2016; Conner, 2019; Filice et al., 2019; Han & Choi, 2018; Robinson, 2015; Tran et al., 2020), the most commonly cited reason for discontinuing hookup apps was user interactions that were focused exclusively on sex rather than romantic or social relationships. While some teens may be successful in finding romantic partners and making connections with the SMM community, due to the explicitly sexual nature of these SNAs, it is likely that they also may receive unwanted sexually explicit messages from other app users. Although a common motivator for some ASMM to use SNAs was to have sex, they might not expect or be unprepared for such direct and explicit sexual messaging from other app users, especially if they are older men. Although some teens might feel comfortable receiving direct and explicit sex messages, others may feel sexually objectified, and others may feel that receiving such messages may be an acceptable price to pay for access to the community, friends, and romantic partners on SNAs that they may otherwise have difficulty finding as an adolescent.

Like prior research with adults (Brubaker et al., 2016; Tran et al., 2020), participants reported to stop using SNAs because they felt they only received discriminatory messages from users based on their race/ethnicity, body type, and other physical appearances. Given that body image dissatisfaction and eating disorders are associated with hookup app usage among adult SMM (Filice et al., 2019; Tran et al., 2020), SNA-using ASMM may also be at risk for these adverse mental health outcomes. How racist, fatphobic, and femmephobic interactions on SNAs impact ASMM’s internalized stigma, mental health, and development requires investigation.

There are various reasons for ASMM to start and stop using SNAs, and there might be both benefits and drawbacks to SNA initiation. Because of this variability in motivations and experiences, professionals who work with teens (e.g., primary care providers, therapists, sex educators) should understand the nuances of these motivations and experiences that could later facilitate tailored discussions (e.g., provide HIV/STI risk counseling for teens whose primary motivation is to find sexual partners, provide counseling to teens who experienced discrimination on SNAs). Youth-serving professionals should have an open and non-judgmental discussion with their adolescent patients, clients, or students to (1) inquire about their expectations and reasons for using SNAs, (2) validate their reasons for wanting to use SNAs, (3) address the potential benefits and risks of hookup apps, (4) present teen-friendly alternatives that can achieve similar goals of sexual and social identity development, and (5) provide harm-reduction counseling for teens who want to or will continue to use SNAs.

To support these youth-professional conversations, collegiate and professional education programs (e.g., undergraduate sexuality education courses, medical school, continuing education credit programs) could include content about adolescent SNA use and training in how to approach conversations about SNAs with adolescents. In addition, school-based sexuality education policies should include SNA content into the curricula. Hookup app content might be integrated into current lessons about the impact of media on one’s sexuality-related thoughts, feelings, and behaviors (Sexuality Information & Education Council of the United States, 2004).

It was unsurprising that participants were motivated to use SNAs to talk with other SMM. After all, 42.3% reported they never attended an LGBTQ program/group in the past year and 19.9% did not know of any such program, 60.9% reported they were lonely 3–7 days of the week, and 63.5% reported they used the Internet or apps at least weekly to connect with other LGBTQ people. Participants and ASMM at large are often socially isolated (Steinke et al., 2017). This social isolation is a common antecedent for why ASMM use the Internet (DuBois et al., 2015; Harper et al., 2016; Pingel et al., 2013) and why adult SMM use SNAs to find other SMM for friendship (Duncan et al., 2018; Goedel & Duncan, 2015; Grov et al., 2014; Holloway et al., 2014; Lorimer et al., 2016; Rice et al., 2012; Smiley et al., 2020). Participants reported that their SNA use did make them feel less lonely because they were connecting with and feeling supported by the SMM community. Hookup apps may provide ASMM a discreet and convenient way to make social connections with other SMM adolescents and adults, especially because they may feel isolated in schools. A recent report (Kosciw et al., 2020) showed 6 in 10 LGBTQ adolescents have Gender and Sexuality Alliances (GSAs) at their schools, meaning 40% do not have access to such groups at school. To address social isolation among LGBTQ adolescents, healthcare providers, parents, and youth service professionals can advocate for community centers, LGBTQ community centers, youth centers, and schools to host social programs that are developmentally appropriate for LGBTQ teens.

If ASMM have limited access to offline, LGBTQ-affirming spaces, then online interventions that increase social connectedness may be a viable option. However, most digital health interventions for ASMM focus on reducing HIV risk behaviors (Garcia et al., 2020; Gilbey et al., 2020). Therefore, research and interventions must prioritize social connectedness among sexual minority adolescents. Distinc.tt was a social networking app for LGBTQ people aged 13 years old and older; however, it was no longer available as of 2015. Since then, few official online spaces for LGBTQ youth exist. Online social spaces that do exist are often for adults. For example, Taimi is a new dating, chatting, and social networking app for LGBTQ people, but their terms of service is for users over 18 years old (Taimi, 2021). In fact, many LGBTQ-tailored apps are hookup apps. Our findings highlight that ASMM may use hookup apps to establish social connections with the SMM community (whether users be adults or adolescents). However, SNAs should not be the only online space for ASMM to meet other teens like them. The TrevorSpace (The Trevor Project, 2021) and QChat-Space (Q Chat Space, 2021) are two well-known, reputable, nationwide online social and support spaces that youth-and LGBTQ-serving professionals may recommend LGBTQ adolescent clients to use if they feel lonely and wish to socially connect with other LGBTQ teens.

Although youth-serving professionals can advocate for SNA companies to implement more rigorous age verification procedures (Suto et al., 2020), the issue of loneliness and social disconnectedness among ASMM remains. Adolescent LGBTQ-serving mental health providers, researchers, and professionals could collaborate with web/app developers to collaboratively create a social networking and social support app for LGBTQ teens to explore their identities, connect with other LGBTQ teens, and advance in their social development and social identity needs. Age and identity verification may be required to ensure that app users are interacting with other adolescents. LGBTQ teens could upload multiple forms of identification, such as a state- or government-issued ID card, school ID card, driver’s license, social media account usernames, or a facial recognition photo. However, given LGBTQ adolescents’ commonly have concerns about privacy and unwanted or inadvertent identity disclosure, such spaces may need to balance this desire with confirming identity.

Limitations

As with any study, there are several limitations. First, we used a limited number of open-ended items to elicit participants’ subjective experiences that were part of a larger study, thus limiting the breadth and depth of our data. However, these analyses provided us an opportunity to explore ASMM’s motivations to start and stop using SNAs, which was previously unknown. Second, our findings cannot be generalized nor speak to causality. Despite this, our findings with adolescents are concurrent with findings from studies that sample adults. Third, most of our sample were Non-Hispanic White ASMM. We know adult SMM of color encounter sexual racism on hookup apps (Callander et al., 2016; Conner, 2019; Han & Choi, 2018; Robinson, 2015), and we might expect to see a higher proportion of this theme for ASMM of color than White ASMM. How sexual racism on hookup apps affects the mental health of ASMM of color needs future investigation. Our findings open the door to future work that focuses more directly on the subjective experiences of diverse ASMM who use SNAs.

Conclusions

To our knowledge, this is the first published study to examine ASMM’s perspectives on reasons to start and stop using SNAs. ASMM will continue to use online spaces, including hookup apps, to explore their sexual identities and find casual sex partners, romantic partners, and friends. SNAs have the potential to offer both positive and negative experiences for ASMM. Although ASMM may have expected to find serious dating partners, sex partners, and friends on SNAs, they may also receive unwanted sexually explicit and discriminatory comments from app users along the way. While research on ASMM’s online partner seeking is still in its beginning and tends to focus on HIV risk (Birnholtz et al., 2020; Macapagal et al., 2018, 2019, 2021), this work sheds light on important implications for other psychosocial health outcomes, such as romantic relationship development or social connectedness. To facilitate ASMM’s social development, research should investigate the feasibility and acceptability of ASMM using an app to socially connect with other teens, as well as assess functions that users might find desirable. As our sample consisted of sexual minority men aged 15–18 years old, future work should shed light on SNA use experiences among younger ASMM, sexual minority adolescent girls, and transgender and gender diverse adolescents who may have different experiences using online spaces to meet partners and connect with others. Such information would inform education and interventions aimed at supporting LGBTQ adolescents’ mental health, wellbeing, and relationship development.