Table 2.

Examples of interactions among climate-induced drivers and other anthropogenic stressors in coastal ecosystems.

Non-climate driver	Interacting climate-induced drivers	Mechanism of impact	Ecosystems impacted	References
Runoff of fertilizers or organic matter	Warming, acidification, deoxygenation, sea-level rise	Nutrients released into the water column stimulate a pulse of primary production. When nutrients are depleted, secondary production consumes oxygen, leading to hypoxic or even anoxic, acidic conditions.	Estuaries, lagoons, deltas, shallow nearshore waters, including seagrass beds	Nelson and Zavaleta (2012); Brauko et al. (2020); DeCarlo et al. (2020); Wooldridge (2020); Dai et al. (2023)
Disturbance of organic-rich sediment	Warming, acidification, deoxygenation		Estuaries, lagoons, deltas, shallow nearshore waters, including seagrass beds	Simone et al. (2021); Zhu et al. (2021); Smeaton and Austin (2022)
Coastal infrastructure	Sea-level rise	The mass of infrastructure and the abstraction of groundwater can lead to subsidence of coastal land, aggravating the effects of sea-level rise.	Shorelines of estuaries, lagoons, deltas	Rossi and Toran (2019); Befus et al. (2020); Bosserelle et al. (2022)
		Infrastructure sets a hard limit to inland migration of coastal habitats in response to rising sea levels. This phenomenon is known as coastal squeeze.	Mangroves, saltmarshes, sandy beaches	Borchert et al. (2018); Lithgow et al. (2019)
Resource use	Warming	Fishing can impose additional sources of mortality on fish populations and benthic habitats, including seagrass beds. This can alter community structure and exacerbate the effects of ocean warming.	Estuaries, lagoons, nearshore waters	Brander (2007); Grech et al. (2012); Townhill et al. (2019)
	Warming, acidification, deoxygenation	By disturbing organic-rich sediment, some fishing methods, like bottom trawling, can exacerbate deoxygenation and acidification.	Estuaries, lagoons, deltas, shallow nearshore waters	De Leo et al. (2017); Bradshaw et al. (2021); Corell et al. (2023)
	Sea-level rise	Harvesting of trees for building material and fuel can make mangroves more susceptible to habitat transitions driven by sea-level rise.	Mangroves	Ward et al. (2016)
Impoundment of rivers	Sea-level rise	Reduction of freshwater input can accelerate upstream penetration of saline waters.	Estuaries	Herbert et al. (2015); Bricheno et al. (2021); Costa et al. (2023); Khondoker et al. (2023)
		Reduced supplies of terrigenous sediments can exacerbate coastal erosion.	Sandy beaches	Tuck et al. (2021); Gao et al. (2023)