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. 2025 Feb 17;34(6):e70014. doi: 10.1111/jsr.70014

Predicting weekday and weekend sleep: Interactions between peers and mothers

Leanna M McWood 1, Stephen A Erath 2, Ben Hinnant 2, Mona El‐Sheikh 2,✉
PMCID: PMC12353124  NIHMSID: NIHMS2056722  PMID: 39961602

Summary

Adolescents often experience insufficient, inconsistent and poor‐quality sleep. Deviant peer affiliation may promote insufficient or inconsistent sleep schedules, and could be an important factor in understanding adolescents' sleep. Furthermore, parenting behaviours have been shown to impact sleep in youth. We examined relations between deviant peer affiliation and sleep in adolescents, and assessed the role of maternal management of peer relationships as a moderator of these associations. A sample of 131 adolescents (M age = 15.75 years, SD = 9.5 months; 70% white, 30% black; 54% female) reported their deviant peer affiliation, and mothers reported their directive and non‐directive management of peer relationships. Adolescents wore actigraphs for 1 week to assess sleep hours, efficiency, onset and latency, which were used to calculate weekend (Friday–Saturday) and weekday (Sunday–Thursday) sleep parameters. Using latent difference score models, results indicated that deviant peer affiliation was associated with shorter and less efficient sleep during the weekend. Moderation effects suggested that deviant peer affiliation related to fewer sleep hours, later sleep onset and longer sleep latency during the weekend for adolescents with higher levels of non‐directive maternal management. Furthermore, the greatest difference between weekend and weekday sleep onset was found for youth with both higher levels of deviant peer affiliation and higher levels of non‐directive maternal management of peer relationships. Results of this study provide evidence that deviant peer relationships may be particularly influential for weekend sleep, and that more active maternal management of peer relationships can protect against poor sleep.

Keywords: actigraphy, adolescence, deviant peer affiliation, sleep duration, sleep quality

1. INTRODUCTION

Sleep is critical for adolescent health and wellbeing (Bruce et al., 2017; Cespedes Feliciano et al., 2018; Shochat et al., 2014). However, sleep problems including short sleep duration, poor quality and inconsistency in sleep from night to night are highly prevalent among adolescents (Gariepy et al., 2020; Wheaton et al., 2018). There are also weekday–weekend differences in sleep, particularly during adolescence (Sun et al., 2019). Variation in nightly sleep, potentially arising from a mismatch between biological or personal preferences and social constraints like school, is known as social jetlag (Roenneberg et al., 2019; Wittmann et al., 2006). Sleep problems in adolescence are associated with negative developmental outcomes, including poorer academic and cognitive performance and worse mental health (Díaz‐Morales & Escribano, 2015; Shimizu et al., 2021). Thus, examining factors that may influence sleep duration, quality and weekday to weekend patterns can improve understanding of adolescent development and adaptation.

Deviant peer affiliation (DPA), defined as the frequency of time spent with peers who engage in deviant behaviours, has consistently been linked to higher levels of risky behaviours, such as alcohol use (Daspe et al., 2019), dating violence (Park & Kim, 2018), conduct problems (Reitz et al., 2006) and delinquency (De Kemp et al., 2006). One explanation for these effects is social contagion theory, which argues that behaviours spread through social networks such that more closely connected individuals in groups tend to have similar characteristics or behaviours as one another (Christakis & Fowler, 2013). Peer contagion more specifically focuses on how behaviours such as externalizing problems or health risk behaviours spread through peer or friend groups (Dishion & Tipsord, 2011). Adolescents who display deviant behaviours (e.g. fighting, truancy) may also violate norms or rules related to bedtimes and sleep, and such behaviours may spread through deviant peer groups. DPA may also increase the likelihood that adolescents spend time out of the home, particularly on weekends, thus interrupting sleep. Indeed, there is evidence that poor sleep also spreads through social groups, consistent with social contagion theory (Mednick et al., 2010). Thus, it is reasonable to expect that DPA would be linked to sleep.

Several types of peer relationships have been studied as predictors of adolescent sleep. In a meta‐analysis, peer victimization was concurrently related to sleep problems (van Geel et al., 2016). In another systematic review and meta‐analysis, negative peer relationships (e.g. peer victimization, social problems with peers) were longitudinally related to poor sleep quality (De Lise et al., 2023). Additionally, positive peer relationships have also been found to be reciprocally related to sleep over time (Tu & Cai, 2020). However, few studies have considered DPA as a predictor of sleep among adolescents. In a few exceptions, DPA was associated with subjective sleep problems in a sample of Chinese adolescents (Bao et al., 2020) and emerging adults (Barclay et al., 2012); however, null effects have also been reported (Mrug et al., 2012). Contributing to this scant literature, we examined relations between DPA and multiple sleep variables derived from actigraphy. In addition, given that adolescents are more likely to spend time with peers outside of school on weekends (Biddle et al., 2009) and the observed general weekday–weekend differences in adolescent sleep (Gracia et al., 2020), we also examined relations between DPA across weeknights (Monday–Thursday) versus weekends (Friday, Saturday).

Adolescence is a developmental period characterized by increased autonomy (Zimmer‐Gembeck & Collins, 2006), although parents continue to play an important role (Barber et al., 2005). Indeed, peers are salient sources of influence during adolescence (Prinstein, 2017), but parents continue to exert influence beyond peer relationships (Kuhn et al., 2014; Tu et al., 2014). Parents may also shape peer relationships (Ladd & Pettit, 2002). Directive maternal management of peer relationships occurs when parents provide input about preferred behaviours or attributes of their child's friends. Non‐directive maternal management of peer relationships involves giving adolescents freedom to choose their own friendships (Mounts, 2000, 2002). Whereas mothers who talk with their child about the behaviours they prefer to see from their child's friends (directive management) may also tend to restrict their child's friendship choices and activities (low non‐directive management), the same parents may instead ultimately encourage their child to make their own choices about friendships (high non‐directive management). Thus, we examined the possible distinct contributions of directive and non‐directive management of peer relationships.

The role of parents in shaping adolescent behaviours and relationships is well established (Smetana & Rote, 2019). For example, parental monitoring, knowledge, mediation and management of peer relationships have all been found to relate to a variety of risky behaviours, such as substance use, risky sexual behaviours and delinquency (Augenstein et al., 2016; Lippold et al., 2014; Ryan et al., 2015; Sasson & Mesch, 2014). Parental directive management of peer relationships predicted adolescents' higher friendship quality and positive peer affiliations as well as lower peer rejection and DPA (Tilton‐Weaver et al., 2013; Tu et al., 2014, 2017). Further, parents have also been found to influence adolescent sleep (Khor et al., 2021; Meijer et al., 2016). Parental monitoring of peers, for example, has been linked with earlier bedtimes, better sleep quality and less sleepiness (Meijer et al., 2016). Although direct relations between DPA and behaviour problems are established, these associations vary among youth (Daspe et al., 2019; Hinnant et al., 2016). Contributing to the literature in novel ways, we examined maternal management of peer relationships as a moderator of the link between DPA and adolescents' sleep.

1.1. The present study

The first aim of the present study was to examine differences between weekend and weekday sleep duration (hr) and quality (efficiency, onset and latency) as a function of DPA. The second aim was to examine directive and non‐directive maternal management of peer relationships as moderators of these associations. We hypothesized that DPA would be associated with shorter, poorer quality and less consistent sleep, especially during the weekend compared with weekdays. We posited that higher levels of directive maternal management would ameliorate the association between DPA and sleep problems, while higher levels of non‐directive management would strengthen this link.

2. METHODS

2.1. Participants

Youth were drawn from a larger longitudinal study of development in children and adolescents (Family Stress and Youth Development: Bioregulatory Effects Project, masked for peer review). The first wave of the sample included 251 children, recruited in 2005 from elementary schools in the southeastern USA. Families were recruited via newsletters sent home. Exclusion criteria included diagnoses of developmental delay, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, a chronic illness, or a diagnosed sleep disorder based on mothers' reports. To be eligible for participation, parents needed to have been living together for a minimum of 2 years (per goals of the larger study). During the fourth wave of data (collected in 2012–2013), an additional 53 families were recruited using the same procedures in the same school districts as the original sample to enhance power and replace participants lost to attrition. The fourth wave of data collection is the only wave included in the present study.

This analytic sample included only adolescents who had data for both nights of weekend sleep (n = 131, 70% white, 30% black; 54% female, 46% male; M age = 15.76 years, SD = 9.5 months, age range = 14.17–17.83 years). Adolescents were in 7th–11th grade. Compared with youth who participated at this time point who had weekend sleep data, those without such data slept fewer minutes during the week (t 218 = −1.73, p = 0.04) and had later sleep onsets during the week (t 175.87 = 2.61, p = 0.005), but did not differ on any other study variables or demographics. According to the US Census Bureau standards, 11.5% of participants were living in poverty, 27.7% were low income, 53.9% were middle class and 6.9% were affluent.

2.2. Procedure

All study procedures were approved by the institutional review board at the university, and only relevant procedures are described. Both parental consent and adolescent assent were collected. Sleep was assessed over 7 nights, after which adolescents and parents completed questionnaires either during a laboratory visit or at home.

2.3. Measures

2.3.1. Sleep

Sleep was assessed with Motionlogger Octagonal Basic actigraphs (Ambulatory Monitoring, Ardsley, NY), which measures movement in 1‐min epochs using zero‐crossing mode in the ACTme software (Action, W2, 2002). Sadeh's scoring algorithm (Sadeh et al., 1994) was used to determine whether adolescents were asleep or awake, and an experienced coder manually identified sleep onset and offset based on data from the actigraphs. All sleep data were collected during the school year excluding holiday breaks. Adolescents were instructed to put the actigraph on their non‐dominant wrist while getting into bed for the night. When participants attempted to fall asleep, they were also told to push a button on the actigraph. High schools started at approximately 07:30 hours in the region.

Sleep onset was identified as the first of three consecutive minutes that the software scored as asleep. This value represented the number of minutes past the previous midnight, and we divided it by 60 to derive hours for analyses. Sleep offset (i.e. wake time) was the last minute of the last five consecutive minutes identified as sleep. Sleep minutes was calculated as the minutes between sleep onset and offset and then divided by 60 to obtain sleep onset in hours. Sleep efficiency was calculated as the percentage of minutes asleep between onset and offset. Sleep latency was the number of minutes between the attempt to fall asleep (i.e. the button press) and sleep onset. Along with wearing the actigraph, adolescents completed a nightly sleep diary to corroborate sleep times and obtain information about medication use. Lack of corroboration (> 30 min difference between onset or offset) ranged from 1 to 4 adolescent reports per night across nights. To be included in analyses, adolescents were required to have 5 nights of actigraphy data, including valid data for 3 nights during the weekdays (i.e. from Sunday to Thursday nights) and both weekend nights (i.e. Friday and Saturday nights). Reasons for missing data included errors in the actigraphs, medication use for acute illnesses, forgetting to wear the actigraph, and > 30 min discrepancy between the actigraph and the sleep diary.

2.3.2. Maternal management of peer relationships

Mothers completed two subscales from the Parental Management of Peer Relationships Scale (Mounts, 2002), using a four‐point scale (1 = strongly disagree to 4 = strongly agree). The non‐directive subscale included four items including “I tell my child that who he/she has as friends is his/her personal choice”; “I think that who my child has for friends is his/her own business”; “I don't interfere with my child's friendships”; and “I do not concern myself with my child's friendships”. The scale showed somewhat low internal consistency (α = 0.60).

The directive subscale included 18 items such as “I help my child think of ways to meet new kids”; “I let my child know who I want to be their friends”; “I encourage my child to invite kids I like over to the house”; and “I talk to my child about the pros and cons of hanging around with certain people”. The scale showed good internal consistency (α = 0.81).

2.3.3. Deviant peer affiliation

Adolescents reported the frequency of their DPA using the well‐validated Community Action for Successful Youth (CASY; Metzler et al., 1998) scale, which includes four items asking “How many times did you get together with friends who” (e.g. “fight a lot?” and “get in trouble a lot”). Items were assessed using a seven‐point scale (1 = never to 7 = more than 7 times). The scale demonstrated good internal consistency (α = 0.84).

2.3.4. Covariates

We included gender as a covariate due to evidence that there may be gender differences in sleep (Olds et al., 2010). We included age as a covariate due to meta‐analytic evidence of delayed sleep as adolescents age (Gradisar et al., 2011; Olds et al., 2010). Race and socioeconomic status (SES) were also considered as covariates due to evidence of racial and socioeconomic disparities in sleep (Giddens et al., 2022).

2.4. Plan of analysis

Distributions of all study variables and skewness statistics were examined. Outliers were identified as values greater than 3 SD from the mean and were winsorized to the value equal to 3 SD from the mean (Cousineau & Chartier, 2010). As shown in Table 1, Black participants evidenced fewer weekend and weekday sleep hours as well as later weekday sleep onsets, but did not differ on any other study variables. Boys had higher DPA scores than girls, fewer weekday and weekend sleep hours, lower weekday and weekend sleep efficiency, and longer weekday sleep latency, but did not differ on other study variables.

TABLE 1.

Results of independent samples t‐tests for racial and gender demographic differences in study variables.

Race
Variables M (SD)White M (SD)Black t (df)
DPA 6.28 (4.00) 5.83 (3.84) 0.57 (119)
Non‐directive MMPR 2.30 (0.43) 2.16 (0.51) 1.55 (108)
Directive MMPR 2.73 (0.28) 2.64 (0.39) 1.45 (108)
Weekend sleep hours 7.57 (1.21) 7.17 (1.06) 1.82 (129)*
Weekday sleep hours 6.75 (0.86) 6.44 (1.11) 1.69 (126)*
Weekend sleep efficiency 91.10 (6.26) 90.99 (6.43) 0.09 (129)
Weekday sleep efficiency 91.46 (5.85) 89.97 (8.21) 1.16 (126)
Weekend sleep onset 23:48 (74.23) 23:54 (72.11) −0.42 (129)
Weekday sleep onset 22:31 (51.04) 22:53 (53.42) −2.28 (126)*
Weekend sleep latency 8.70 (7.22) 10.94 (8.76) −1.41 (60.92)
Weekday sleep latency 10.71 (6.87) 9.99 (6.52) 0.55 (126)
Gender
Variables M (SD)Female M (SD)Male t (df)
DPA 5.28 (2.59) 7.15 (4.92) −2.56 (80.44)**
Non‐directive MMPR 2.25 (0.48) 2.27 (0.44) −0.28 (108)
Directive MMPR 2.73 (0.36) 2.68 (0.26) 0.78 (108)
Weekend sleep hours 7.71 (1.10) 7.14 (1.20) 2.87 (129)**
Weekday sleep hours 6.79 (0.99) 6.50 (0.87) 1.70 (126)*
Weekend sleep efficiency 91.97 (6.31) 90.00 (6.14) 1.80 (129)*
Weekday sleep efficiency 91.92 (7.22) 89.93 (5.74) 1.70 (126)*
Weekend sleep onset 23:43 (74.33) 23:57 (72.15) −1.06 (129)
Weekday sleep onset 22:31 (52.96) 22:44 (51.63) −1.46 (126)
Weekend sleep latency 9.18 (7.94) 9.58 (7.56) −0.30 (129)
Weekday sleep latency 9.29 (5.31) 11.95 (7.96) −2.17 (96.02)*
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Note: Sleep onset was measured as the number of minutes since midnight the previous night and then converted to bedtimes. Latency was measured in minutes. The Levene's test for equality of variances was significant for weekend sleep latency for the race t‐tests and for DPA and weekday sleep latency for gender t‐tests.

Abbreviations: DPA, deviant peer affiliation; MMPR, maternal management of peer relationships.

*

p < 0.05.

**

p < 0.01.

Analyses were conducted in MPlus version 8.1 (Muthen & Muthen, 1998–2017) using full information maximum likelihood estimation. Separate analyses were conducted for each sleep variable (i.e. sleep hours, sleep efficiency, sleep onset and sleep latency). Latent difference score models were used for all analyses. Latent difference score models are often utilized to examine dynamic processes aimed at understanding how variables change over time (Ferrer & McArdle, 2010). In this study, latent difference models were used to first estimate inter‐individual differences in intra‐individual change in weekend to weekday sleep (i.e. unconditional models), and then to examine whether variables of interest predicted the inter‐individual differences in intra‐individual change in weekend to weekday sleep (i.e. conditional models). DPA, both scales of maternal management of peers, and covariates were grand mean centred to facilitate interpretation of model parameters. Significant associations were plotted at +1 and −1 SD from the mean of DPA and non‐directive maternal management of peer relationships.

3. RESULTS

3.1. Preliminary findings

Descriptive statistics are presented in Table 2, and Pearson's bivariate correlations for all study variables are included in Table 3. There were few correlations with demographic variables. DPA was correlated with fewer weekend sleep hours and lower weekend sleep efficiency, but was uncorrelated with maternal management of peer relationships and all other sleep variables. Directive and non‐directive maternal management of peer relationships were not correlated with any variables.

TABLE 2.

Descriptive statistics for all study variables.

Variables M (SD) Winsorized
SES 2.41 (1.22) 2
Age in years 15.76 (0.78) 0
DPA 6.12 (3.94) 7
Non‐directive MMPR 2.26 (0.46) 0
Directive MMPR 2.71 (0.31) 2
Weekend hours 7.45 (1.18) 1
Weekday hours 6.66 (0.95) 1
Weekend efficiency 91.07 (6.29) 2
Weekday efficiency 91.02 (6.64) 4
Weekend onset 23:50 (73.38) 1
Weekday onset 22:38 (52.60) 2
Weekend latency 9.37 (7.73) 2
Weekday latency 10.50 (6.75) 6
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Note: Mean and SD are presented for winsorized variables. Sleep hours were measured as minutes asleep and then converted to hours. Sleep onset was measured as the number of minutes since midnight the previous night and then converted to bedtimes. Latency was measured in minutes.

Abbreviations: Directive, directive maternal management of peer relationships; DPA, deviant peer affiliation; MMPR, maternal management of peer relationships; Non‐directive, non‐directive maternal management of peer relationships; SES, socioeconomic status indexed by income to needs ratio.

TABLE 3.

Correlations among all study variables.

Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
1 Gender –
2 Race −0.13 –
3 SES 0.00 −0.20* –
4 Age 0.15 −0.09 −0.03 –
5 DPA 0.24** −0.05 −0.15 0.03 –
6 Non‐directive 0.03 −0.15 0.14 0.06 −0.07 –
7 Directive −0.08 −0.14 0.04 −0.12 0.06 −0.09 –
8 Weekend hours −0.25** −0.16 0.07 −0.04 −0.24** −0.03 −0.07 –
9 Weekday hours −0.15 −0.15 0.22* −0.09 −0.14 −0.18 0.15 0.35** –
10 Weekend efficiency −0.16 −0.01 0.04 0.05 −0.22* 0.03 0.11 0.39** 0.38** –
11 Weekday efficiency −0.15 −0.10 0.09 0.04 −0.13 −0.03 0.10 0.43** 0.53** 0.70** –
12 Weekend onset 0.09 0.04 −0.10 0.11 0.08 0.15 0.01 −0.43** −0.30** 0.04 −0.08 –
13 Weekday onset 0.13 0.20* −0.15 0.13 0.10 0.09 −0.09 −0.09 −0.58** 0.07 0.02 0.49** –
14 Weekend latency 0.03 0.13 −0.03 0.04 0.12 −0.01 −0.08 −0.23** −0.22* −0.27** −0.25** 0.01 0.09 –
15 Weekday latency 0.20* −0.05 0.01 0.08 0.13 −0.02 −0.17 −0.13 −0.23** −0.26** −0.25** 0.13 0.11 0.40**
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Note: Age is reported in years. 0 = Male; 1 = Female; 0 = White; 1 = Black.

Abbreviations: Directive, directive maternal management of peer relationships; DPA, deviant peer affiliation; Non‐directive, non‐directive maternal management of peer relationships; SES, socioeconomic status indexed by income to needs ratio.

*

p < 0.05.

**

p < 0.01.

3.2. Unconditional latent difference score models

The unconditional models had zero degrees of freedom and thus did not have interpretable fit statistics. As shown in Table 4, there were significant mean decreases in weekend to weekday sleep hours and onset, but not in sleep efficiency or latency. Adolescents had fewer minutes of sleep on weekdays and went to bed earlier than on weekends. Further, the change in sleep hours, efficiency, onset and latency from weekends to weekdays all showed significant inter‐individual variance that might be accounted for in conditional models.

TABLE 4.

Unconditional model results of weekend to weekday sleep hours, efficiency, onset and latency.

Model Mean Variances
Weekend to weekday sleep hours −0.79 (0.11)*** 1.51 (0.19)***
Weekend to weekday sleep efficiency −0.04 (0.44) 25.05 (3.14)***
Weekend to weekday sleep onset −1.21 (0.10)*** −1.20 (0.15)***
Weekend to weekday sleep latency 1.11 (0.70) 63.90 (7.94)***
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***

p < 0.001.

3.3. Conditional latent difference score models

Both the intercepts (weekend sleep variables) and slopes (latent difference scores of weekend to weekday sleep variables) were regressed on the predictors.

3.3.1. Sleep hours

All model results are presented in Table 5. DPA was associated with fewer weekend sleep hours, which was subsumed by a significant interaction between DPA and non‐directive maternal management of peer relationships. As displayed in Figure 1, youth with less non‐directive peer management had longer sleep regardless of their peer affiliations (B = 0.02, p = 0.72). In contrast, DPA was negatively associated with weekend sleep hours at higher levels of non‐directive maternal management (B = −0.13, p = 0.004), indicating that youth with greater non‐directive peer management and higher DPA had the fewest sleep hours on weekends.

TABLE 5.

Regression model results of the association between DPA, directive and non‐directive maternal management of peer relationships predicting the latent difference score between weekend to weekday sleep hours and sleep efficiency.

Weekend sleep hours Latent difference score in weekend to weekday sleep hours Weekend sleep efficiency Latent difference score in weekend to weekday sleep efficiency
Variables B (SE) β B (SE) β B (SE) β B (SE) β
Race −0.52 (0.22) −0.20* 0.24 (0.24) 0.09 −0.35 (1.20) 0.00 −1.61 (0.99) −0.15
Gender −0.53 (0.20) −0.22** 0.32 (0.22) 0.13 −1.59 (1.12) −0.11 0.03 (0.90) 0.00
SES 0.01 (0.08) 0.01 0.15 (0.09) 0.15 0.02 (0.45) 0.01 0.36 (0.37) 0.09
Age −0.06 (0.13) −0.04 −0.02 (0.14) −0.01 0.64 (0.70) 0.08 −0.23 (0.58) −0.04
DPA −0.06 (0.03) −0.20* 0.03 (0.03) 0.11 −0.30 (0.15) −0.19* 0.11 (0.12) 0.09
Non‐directive MMPR −0.26 (0.23) −0.10 −0.23 (0.27) −0.09 0.53 (1.30) 0.04 −1.43 (1.06) −0.13
Directive MMPR −0.54 (0.33) −0.15 0.86 (0.38) 0.22* 2.27 (1.87) 0.11 −0.57 (1.53) −0.04
DPA × NMMPR −0.16 (0.08) −0.21* 0.11 (0.10) 0.13 0.06 (0.49) 0.01 −0.38 (0.38) −0.11
DPA × DMMPR −0.17 (0.13) −0.13 0.10 (0.15) 0.07 −0.73 (0.79) −0.11 0.55 (0.61) 0.10
R 2 18.1% 12.5% 9.3% 9.2%
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Note: Age is reported in years. On weekends, participants slept 7.45 hr on average with 91.02 average sleep efficiency.

Abbreviations: D, directive; DPA, deviant peer affiliation; MMPR, maternal management of peer relationships; N, non‐directive; SES, socioeconomic status indexed by income to needs ratio.

*

p < 0.05.

**

p < 0.01.

FIGURE 1.

FIGURE 1

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Non‐directive maternal management of peer relationships moderates the association between DPA and weekend sleep hours. This figure demonstrates the association between DPA and weekend sleep hours at +1 SD (high) and −1 SD (low) levels of non‐directive maternal management of peer relationships. Participants obtained an average of 7 hr and 27 min on weekend nights. DPA, deviant peer affiliation; MMPR, maternal management of peer relationships.

Deviant peer affiliation was not associated with the latent difference score between weekend and weekday sleep. Directive management of peer relationships predicted the latent difference score between weekend and weekday sleep (Figure 2). The positive regression coefficient indicates that as directive maternal peer management increases, the change between weekend and weekday sleep becomes less extreme. That is, there was a stronger negative slope between weekend and weekday sleep for youth with lower levels of directive maternal peer management (B = −1.053, p < 0.001) compared with those with higher levels (B = −0.52, p = 0.001). All adolescents obtained similarly fewer hours of sleep on weekdays.

FIGURE 2.

FIGURE 2

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Association between directive maternal management of peer relationships and the latent difference score between weekend to weekday sleep hours. This figure demonstrates the association between directive maternal management of peer relationships and the latent difference score of weekend to weekday sleep hours at +1 SD (high) and −1 SD (low) levels of directive maternal management of peer relationships. On average participants sleep approximately 0.79 hr less between weekends and weekdays. MMPR, maternal management of peer relationships.

3.3.2. Sleep efficiency

Full model results are presented in Table 5. DPA was associated with lower weekend sleep efficiency.

Deviant peer affiliation was not associated with the latent difference score between weekend and weekday sleep efficiency. No other associations were significant.

3.3.3. Sleep onset

Full model results are presented in Table 6. DPA and directive maternal management of peer relationships were unrelated to weekend sleep onset. Non‐directive management of peer relationships was related to a later sleep onset, which was subsumed by a significant DPA by non‐directive maternal management interaction. As shown in Figure 3, DPA was related to later weekend bedtime for youth with higher levels of non‐directive maternal management of peer relationships (B = 0.12, p < 0.001), and was related to earlier bedtime for youth with lower levels of non‐directive management (B = −0.07, p = 0.014).

TABLE 6.

Regression model results of the association between DPA, directive and non‐directive maternal management of peer relationships predicting the latent difference score between weekend to weekday sleep onset and sleep latency.

Weekend sleep onset Latent difference score in weekend to weekday sleep onset Weekend sleep latency Latent difference score in weekend to weekday sleep latency
Variables B (SE) β B (SE) β B (SE) β B (SE) β
Race 0.11 (0.24) 0.04 0.30 (0.22) 0.12 1.94 (1.52) 0.12 −2.87 (1.59) −0.16
Gender 0.15 (0.22) 0.06 0.04 (0.20) 0.02 −0.08 (1.37) −0.01 2.09 (1.45) 0.13
SES −0.10 (0.09) −0.10 0.02 (0.08) 0.02 0.13 (0.56) 0.02 0.03 (0.60) 0.00
Age 0.16 (0.14) 0.10 −0.04 (0.13) −0.03 0.54 (0.87) 0.05 −0.24 (0.92) −0.02
DPA 0.03 (0.03) 0.08 −0.01 (0.03) −0.03 0.29 (0.18) 0.15 −0.12 (0.19) −0.06
Non‐directive MMPR 0.62 (0.26) 0.23* −0.34 (0.23) −0.14 1.13 (1.69) −0.05 −0.92 (1.63) −0.05
Directive MMPR 0.24 (0.37) 0.06 −0.32 (0.33) −0.09 −1.29 (2.43) 0.07 −1.66 (2.34) −0.07
DPA × NMMPR 0.21 (0.09) 0.26* −0.18 (0.08) −0.25* 1.37 (0.59) 0.27* −0.43 (0.58) −0.08
DPA × DMMPR 0.21 (0.15) 0.16 −0.13 (0.14) −0.11 0.65 (0.98) 0.08 −0.05 (0.93) −0.01
R 2 10.7% 6.9% 9.3% 5.7%
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Note: Age is reported in years. On weekends, participants had an average bedtime of 23:50 hours and took an average of 9.37 min to fall asleep (latency).

Abbreviations: D, directive; DPA, deviant peer affiliation; MMPR, maternal management of peer relationships; N, non‐directive; SES, socioeconomic status indexed by income to needs ratio.

*

p < 0.05.

FIGURE 3.

FIGURE 3

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Non‐directive maternal management of peer relationships moderates the association between DPA and weekend sleep onset. This figure demonstrates the association between DPA and weekend sleep onset at +1 SD (high) and −1 SD (low) levels of non‐directive maternal management of peer relationships. Sleep onset is reported as the number of hours past the previous midnight, thus 23.5 = 23:30 hours. Participants had an average bedtime of 23:50 hours on weekends (sleep onset = 23.83). DPA, deviant peer affiliation; MMPR, maternal management of peer relationships.

Although there were no main effects predicting the latent difference score from weekend to weekday sleep, there was a significant interaction between DPA and non‐directive peer management. As shown in Figure 4, there was negative change in weekend to weekday sleep onset such that adolescents went to bed later on weekends regardless of DPA and non‐directive peer management. However, this change was greatest for adolescents with higher levels of DPA and non‐directive peer management (B = −1.73, p < 0.001). Specifically, during weekends, adolescent with higher levels of DPA went to bed approximately 80 min later when they experienced higher levels of non‐directive peer management, compared with those with lower levels of non‐directive peer management (B = −0.77, p = 0.001).

FIGURE 4.

FIGURE 4

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Association between DPA and directive maternal management of peer relationships and the latent difference score between weekend to weekday sleep onset. This figure demonstrates the interaction between DPA and non‐directive maternal management of peer relationships as a predictor of the latent difference score of weekend to weekday sleep onset at +1 SD (high) and −1 SD (low) levels of DPA, and +1 SD (high) and −1 SD (low) levels of non‐directive maternal management of peer relationships. On average, participants have sleep onset approximately 1.21 hr earlier between weekends and weekdays. DPA, deviant peer relationships; MMPR, maternal management of peer relationships.

3.3.4. Sleep latency

Full model results are presented in Table 6. DPA and maternal management of peer relationships were not related to weekend sleep latency. However, there was a significant DPA by non‐directive management of peer relationship interaction as shown in Figure 5. DPA was associated with a longer weekend sleep latency for youth with higher non‐directive maternal management of peer relationships (B = 0.92, p = 0.006), but was unrelated at lower levels (B = −0.34, p = 0.29).

FIGURE 5.

FIGURE 5

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Non‐directive maternal management of peer relationships moderates the association between DPA and weekend sleep latency. This figure demonstrates the association between DPA and weekend sleep latency at +1 SD (high) and −1 SD (low) levels of non‐directive maternal management of peer relationships. Participants had an average sleep latency of 9.37 min on weekends. DPA, deviant peer affiliation; MMPR, maternal management of peer relationships.

Deviant peer affiliation and maternal management of peer relationships were not related to the latent difference score of weekend to weekday sleep latency.

3.4. Post‐hoc analyses

3.4.1. Latent difference score models for weekday sleep

For the present study, we were particularly interested in weekend sleep; however, the latent difference score modelling approach can be similarly utilized with the intercept set for weekday sleep instead to contrast against the examination of weekend sleep. DPA was not directly related to weekday sleep hours, efficiency, onset or latency. Non‐directive maternal management of peer relationships was negatively related to weekday sleep hours. Directive and non‐directive maternal management of peer relationships did not moderate associations between DPA and weekday sleep parameters. As would be expected based on the modelling approach, the latent difference score results were similar in magnitude (opposite in direction) across sets of analyses. All results are presented in Tables S1–S3 in the Supplementary Materials.

3.4.2. Midpoint latent difference score model

Social jetlag has been assessed in at least three ways in the literature. Much of the literature considers the absolute or actual difference between the average midpoint of sleep on the weekends and the average midpoint of sleep on weekdays, uses sleep‐corrected versions of midpoint and/or duration, or considers the difference between sleep onset on weekends and weekdays (for review, see Roenneberg et al., 2019). We conducted a supplementary analysis that used the average midpoint of sleep on both weekends and weekdays in an additional latent difference score model. None of the variables in this model significantly predicted a latent difference in midpoint from weekends to weekdays. Additionally, none of the variables predicted weekend or weekday midpoint.

4. DISCUSSION

We examined relations between DPA and multiple actigraphy‐derived sleep parameters including sleep hours, efficiency, onset and latency over 1 week. We also investigated the differences in these sleep variables between weekdays and weekends. Further, directive and non‐directive maternal management of peer relationships were examined as moderators of relations between DPA and sleep. Results contribute to the literature in novel ways, and demonstrate the importance of considering peer affiliation as a predictor of multiple sleep parameters in adolescence as well as maternal management of peer relationships as a moderator.

Deviant peer affiliation predicted shorter and less efficient sleep only during weekend nights. Adolescents spend their time differently on weekends versus weekdays, including the amount of time they spend with peers and sleeping (Gracia et al., 2020). Although deviant peer relationships are likely maintained throughout the week, freedom from weekday responsibilities presents opportunities for adolescents to spend more time outside the home associating with peers during the weekend (Gracia et al., 2020; Kim & Lee, 2022). Adolescents who engage in deviant behaviours may violate norms and rules related to activities and schedules that affect sleep during the weekend. Notably, DPA was not associated with weekday sleep duration, efficiency, bedtime or latency, which demonstrates the importance of examining weekend sleep in the context of DPA.

Moderation results further demonstrated that associations between increased DPA and poor sleep (i.e. hours, onset and latency) on weekends were limited to youth with higher levels of non‐directive maternal management. Thus, providing youth with more autonomy over their peer relationships increases their risk for poorer weekend sleep, particularly when adolescents affiliate with deviant peers. Excessive autonomy granting and failure to confront risky behaviours and peer relationships is consistent with permissive parenting, which is known to predict a range of social and behavioural problems (Baumrind, 2013), including sleep problems (Tyler et al., 2019).

School schedules contribute to social jetlag in adolescence, or differences in sleep patterns between weekdays and weekends (Carvalho‐Mendes et al., 2020). These differences have been linked to negative outcomes such as anxiety and alcohol use (Haynie et al., 2018; Mathew et al., 2019). Our findings are consistent with others that provided evidence of social jetlag (Carissimi et al., 2016; Mathew et al., 2019), and highlight this variation between weekend to weekday sleep, especially in sleep onset. This result aligns with recent conceptualizations of the sleep‐corrected formula for social jetlag based on sleep onset (Jankowski, 2017; Roenneberg et al., 2019). Results also indicate that the variation in sleep onset was greatest at higher levels of both DPA and non‐directive maternal management of peer relationships. Conversely, this effect was lessened with lower levels of such parenting, supporting the influence of both peer relationships and maternal management on adolescent sleep patterns.

In contrast, more directive maternal management of peer relationships predicted a smaller difference in weekend to weekday sleep hours regardless of DPA. Directive management of peer relationships involves discussions with adolescents about the values and behaviours of their peers, and may communicate more general messages about health and safety. Whereas adolescents may resist some forms of parental involvement in their peer relationships (Smetana et al., 2005), maternal demonstrations of commitment to health and safety may facilitate adolescents' internalization of parental values and standards (Omer et al., 2016), consistent with the protective effect of more directive management of peer relationships in the present study. An important direction for future research is to understand the specific messages and style of communication that constitute effective management of peer relationships (Vansteenkiste et al., 2014).

This study has several strengths, including the use of latent difference score modelling to examine weekend to weekday differences in sleep hours, efficiency, onset and latency. Sleep was also measured using actigraphy, an objective measure of sleep. Mothers reported their management of peer relationships while adolescents reported on their DPA, which likely represents the best informants for each of these constructs. Future research should also examine fathers' management of peer relationships, considering research that shows differences between mothers' and fathers' management of peer relationships (Updegraff et al., 2001). Future research should also assess other parenting variables such as parental monitoring, parental knowledge or parental warmth, which have been linked to adolescent sleep (Gunn et al., 2019; Khor et al., 2021). Although we did not find evidence for the traditional midpoint calculations of social jetlag, our findings showed that the sleep‐corrected formula of social jetlag (i.e. the difference between sleep onset on weekends and sleep onset on weekdays) may be useful to consider in future research examining social factors such as parents and peers (Jankowski, 2017; Roenneberg et al., 2019).

Several study characteristics and limitations must also be noted. Two weekend nights and five weeknights of sleep data were collected, raising questions regarding potential differential findings with longer assessments. Nevertheless, the significance of effects in the expected directions suggest that the results are robust. The limited number of weekend nights did not allow analysis of sleep regularity, a growing area of interest due to its importance for adolescent health (Fuligni et al., 2018; Morales‐Ghinaglia & Fernandez‐Mendoza, 2023). Future research with additional weekend nights should consider whether DPA may be associated with sleep regularity. The geographic location and more rural nature of the sample may limit the generalizability of the findings; thus, future research should replicate these findings with other types of samples (e.g. urban). The internal consistency of the non‐directive subscale of the maternal management of peer relationships questionnaire was borderline acceptable, and a stronger assessment of this construct is warranted in future research. Furthermore, a potential limitation of this study is the age of the data set, collected over 10 years ago. While not uncommon in long‐term longitudinal investigations, this time gap may have implications for interpreting the findings in their appropriate context.

Overall, findings indicate that DPA is particularly salient for weekend sleep hours, efficiency, onset and latency, particularly at higher levels of non‐directive maternal management of peer relationships. Further, we provided evidence of peer and maternal influences on weekend to weekday differences in sleep hours and onset. These findings may be useful for identifying strategies to help improve sleep among adolescents, particularly on weekends. Results underscore the importance of DPA and maternal management of peer relationships as factors that influence sleep in adolescence, and highlight the need for integrated approaches that encompass both peer and family relationships towards a better understanding of sleep among youth.

FUNDING INFORMATION

This research was supported by grants from the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health (R01‐HD046795‐06) awarded to Dr Mona El‐Sheikh. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors, and does not necessarily represent the official views of the funding agencies.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT

The authors do not have any conflicts of interest to disclose, at this time.

Supporting information

TABLE S1. Unconditional model results of weekday to weekend sleep minutes, efficiency, onset and latency.

TABLE S2. Regression model results of the association between DPA, directive and non‐directive maternal management of peer relationships predicting the latent difference score between weekend to weekday sleep minutes and sleep onset.

TABLE S3. Regression model results of the association between DPA, directive and non‐directive maternal management of peer relationships predicting the latent difference score between weekend to weekday sleep minutes and sleep onset.

JSR-34-e70014-s001.docx (22.3KB, docx)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to thank the lab manager, Bridget Wingo, families and the many undergraduate and graduate research assistants for their work at all stages of this research.

McWood, L. M. , Erath, S. A. , Hinnant, B. , & El‐Sheikh, M. (2025). Predicting weekday and weekend sleep: Interactions between peers and mothers. Journal of Sleep Research, 34(6), e70014. 10.1111/jsr.70014

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

Research data are not shared.

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Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

Supplementary Materials

TABLE S1. Unconditional model results of weekday to weekend sleep minutes, efficiency, onset and latency.

TABLE S2. Regression model results of the association between DPA, directive and non‐directive maternal management of peer relationships predicting the latent difference score between weekend to weekday sleep minutes and sleep onset.

TABLE S3. Regression model results of the association between DPA, directive and non‐directive maternal management of peer relationships predicting the latent difference score between weekend to weekday sleep minutes and sleep onset.

JSR-34-e70014-s001.docx (22.3KB, docx)

Data Availability Statement

Research data are not shared.

Articles from Journal of Sleep Research are provided here courtesy of Wiley

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