Traditional ecological knowledge and practices in Zimbabwe: medicinal ethnobotany and ethnozoology among communities in Chipinge district

Abstract

Background

Traditional medicine is integral to the culture of the Ndau ethnic group in Chipinge district, Zimbabwe. Traditional healers use a wide range of plant and animal products to treat various ailments, and there is need for documentation and sustainable practices to preserve these resources for future generations and pharmaceutical potential. This study was aimed at documenting the medicinal ethnobotanical and ethnozoological knowledge of traditional healers in Chipinge, identify the species used, and assess the role of traditional healing practices in supporting healers' livelihoods.

Methods

Between December 2018 and March 2019, data were collected from 22 traditional healers using semi-structured questionnaires focusing on medicinal species, their uses, harvesting or collection methods, and their socioeconomic impacts. Plant voucher specimens were identified at the National Herbarium of Zimbabwe (SRGH) in Harare, and identities of animal species were confirmed by participants through use of images in the Mammals of Southern Africa field guide. Informant consensus factor (ICF) and use reports (Nur) were calculated to assess agreement among healers.

Results

Majority of participants (73.0%) attributed their knowledge to ancestral callings, while 27.0% had received mentorship. A total of 63 plant species from 31 families were documented, with roots (38.0%) and bark (33.0%) being the most commonly used parts. Of the ten vertebrate species reported, nine were mammals and one was a reptile. Ninety-five percent of the healers reported the local unavailability of some medicinal plant species. For plant-based remedies, the highest ICF (0.67) was recorded for AIDS-related infections and ulcers, while STDs had the most use reports (87). For animal-based treatments, AIDS had the highest ICF (0.8), followed by STDs (0.6), which also had the most use reports (11). The high use of traditional remedies for STDs and AIDS may reflect issues of stigma, accessibility, and trust in conventional health care, underscoring the need for culturally sensitive health education and integrated care approaches. Monthly incomes ranged from US$150 to US$600, with most clients coming from low-income local communities.

Conclusion

This study highlights the rich ethnopharmacological knowledge in Chipinge while underscoring challenges such as overharvesting and socioeconomic vulnerability. Sustainable harvesting and formal recognition of healers through national bodies like the Zimbabwe National Traditional Healers Association (ZINATHA) are essential steps toward integrating traditional medicine into modern health care and preserving this vital cultural heritage.

Background

Traditional healers play a crucial and often underappreciated role in addressing healthcare needs within communities, particularly in the prevention, control, and treatment of various health conditions [1]. Their role is increasingly acknowledged by international bodies such as the World Health Organization [2]. According to the WHO's "Traditional Medicine Strategy 2014–2023," there is a pressing need for national healthcare systems to integrate and collaborate with traditional healers to enhance healthcare delivery, especially in regions where access to conventional medical services is limited [2]. This strategy underscores the importance of leveraging traditional knowledge systems to complement and support biomedical approaches.

The epidemiological situation in Chipinge district, Zimbabwe, is marked by a high prevalence of diseases such as HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs) [3, 4], which is compounded by limited access to modern healthcare facilities [5, 6]. With only one referral hospital, three mission hospitals, and 14 under-resourced clinics serving a population of over 375,000, many residents rely heavily on traditional healers for primary healthcare needs [5]. The lack of adequate medical infrastructure and the high cost of biomedical treatments make traditional healers the first point of contact for a significant portion of the population in Chipinge district [5, 6]. Chipinge district's healthcare context is shaped by broader national challenges, as highlighted in the Zimbabwe National Health Strategy 2016–2020 [7]. During the economic hardship period, particularly from 2000 to 2008, the delivery of health services significantly deteriorated, with some improvements observed only after the economic recovery that began in 2009 [8]. Despite this, the health sector remains underfunded and largely dependent on external support [8]. Although key health indicators such as life expectancy and maternal mortality have shown progress [8], the availability of healthcare facilities and essential services in rural areas like Chipinge remains inadequate. The Zimbabwe Service Availability and Readiness Assessment (ZSARA) report of 2015 highlights that Manicaland province, where Chipinge is located, has a facility density of only 1.7 per 10,000 population, below the ZSARA benchmark of at least two facilities [9]. The economic challenges have led to a severe shortage of medical supplies, further limiting the effectiveness of modern healthcare facilities in the region [5, 6]. As a result, traditional healers play a crucial role in health care, not only due to cultural practices but also because of the limited availability and accessibility of formal healthcare services.

Studies support the formal integration of traditional medicine into national health systems, recognizing the critical role traditional practitioners play in healthcare delivery particularly in rural and underserved areas where biomedical services may be limited [10, 11]. For instance, research has shown that in certain African regions, traditional healers are the first point of contact for up to 80% of the population seeking health care [11, 12]. These practitioners not only offer culturally relevant and accessible care [10] but also contribute significantly to public health by addressing a range of ailments using locally sourced medicinal plants and knowledge passed down through generations [2]. Further statistics in sub-Saharan Africa indicate that the ratio of traditional healers to the population is approximately 1:500, compared to the starkly lower doctor-to-patient ratio of 1:40,000 [13]. In the context of Zimbabwe doctor-to-patient ratio is estimated to be ~ 5000 to 10,000, compared with the WHO recommended of 1:1000 [5, 6, 14]. This disparity underscores the reliance on traditional healers, particularly in rural areas where access to biomedical health care is limited. These figures highlight the critical need to integrate traditional healers into formal healthcare systems, ensuring that they complement the work of medical doctors and enhance overall healthcare delivery.

Ethnobotanical surveys are well-documented in the literature, providing extensive inventories of plant species used for medicinal purposes across various communities [10, 15–22]. The people of Chipinge district, who speak the Ndau dialect, have a rich history of utilizing medicinal plants. A study by Ngaruvhume et al. [23] focusing on the use of medicinal plants for malaria treatment highlighted the extensive medicinal knowledge within the community. The study also underscored the critical role that traditional healers continue to play in providing health care in this rural landscape. However, ethnozoological studies, those focusing on the medicinal use of animals and their products, are comparatively rare [24, 25]. This research fills a critical gap by integrating both ethnobotanical and ethnozoological approaches, targeting traditional healers who possess the most comprehensive knowledge of medicinal practices. This study is grounded in the cultural ecosystem services theory, which posits that traditional ecological knowledge and practices contribute significantly to human well-being and cultural identity [26–28]. In the context of Chipinge district, this theory provides a valuable framework for understanding how traditional healing practices function not only as a form of healthcare delivery but also as expressions of cultural heritage, spiritual connection, and community resilience. Traditional healers are custodians of this biocultural knowledge, using plant and animal resources in ways that reflect and reinforce cultural norms, beliefs, and values. By documenting and analyzing these practices, the study contributes to a deeper understanding of how cultural ecosystem services support both physical health and intangible cultural well-being. This theoretical approach also underscores the importance of conserving the biodiversity on which these services depend, as the erosion of ecological resources would lead to a parallel loss of cultural identity and healing capacity. The study hypothesizes that traditional healers in Chipinge district play an indispensable role in local healthcare systems by providing culturally relevant, accessible, and sustainable medical solutions that bridge the gaps left by formal healthcare services.

Despite the recognized importance of traditional healers in Chipinge district, there remains a significant gap in our understanding of the extent and nature of their contributions to health care. These practitioners not only provide culturally relevant care but also play a pivotal role in filling the healthcare void left by the inadequacies of the formal medical system. However, the specific dynamics of their practices, including the plants and animals they use, the socioeconomic aspects of their work, and the sustainability of their resource sourcing, are poorly documented. To fully appreciate and support the role of traditional healers, it is crucial to systematically explore these dimensions, thereby enabling a more integrated approach to health care in the district. Therefore, this study seeks to achieve the following objectives:

1. Assess the patient engagement levels of traditional healers, including the average number of consultations they handle monthly.

2. Investigate the sources and transmission of medicinal knowledge among traditional healers in Chipinge district.

3. Analyze the economic contributions of traditional healing practices, focusing on the average monthly income of healers.

4. Evaluate the sourcing practices of medicinal plants and animals, with an emphasis on sustainability and conservation.

5. Document the diversity of plants and animals used in traditional medicine and determine the level of consensus among healers regarding their use.

Materials and methods

Study area

The study was conducted in the Chipinge district, located in the southeastern part of Zimbabwe (Fig. 1). The sampled villages lie at low altitudes, ranging between 434 and 567 m above sea level (a.s.l.). The area receives an average annual rainfall of 553 mm, with maximum temperatures exceeding 40 °C during the summer months from August to February, and mean monthly temperatures above 21 °C. The region is predominantly characterized by various types of wooded grasslands and bushlands [29], with a generally flat terrain that is prone to flooding, especially Tongogara and Chibuwe (Fig. 1). Common tree species in the area include Adansonia digitata L., Vachellia nilotica (L.) P.J.H.Hurter & Mabb., Senegalia nigrescens (Oliv.) P.J.H.Hurter, and Colophospermum mopane (J.Kirk ex Benth.) J.Kirk ex J.Léonard [30, 31]. The soils are largely alluvial, particularly in areas adjacent to the Save River [29]. The local grass species include Eragrostis cylindriflora Hochst., Digitaria eriantha Steud., Oropetium capense Stapf, Aristida adscensionis L., Urochloa trichopus (Hochst.) Stapf, and Aristida rhiniochloa Hochst. [29]. Chipinge district is part of Manicaland province and is predominantly inhabited by the Ndau ethnic group, with Ndau, a dialect of Shona, being the primary language spoken. Subsistence farming is the main livelihood for the community, with small grains such as finger millet (Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn., millet (Cenchrus americanus (L.) Morrone, and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench being the most commonly cultivated crops. Maize (Zea mays L.) is more popular among farmers along the Save River, where irrigation infrastructure is available. According to the 2022 national census, the human population density in the district is estimated at 62 people per square kilometer. The district has human population of over 350,000 [5]. The Ndau people are well known for their strong traditional beliefs and reliance on medicinal plants for primary health care [23].

Fig. 1.

a Inset map of Africa showing the location of Zimbabwe, b inset map of Zimbabwe indicating the position of Chipinge district and Save Valley Conservancy and c enlarged map of Chipinge district showing traditional healer sampling sites, ward boundaries (blue numbers indicate ward designations) and two conservation areas. In Zimbabwe, a ward is the smallest administrative and political unit, typically comprising several villages or urban neighborhoods and functions under a Rural District Council (RDC) in rural areas or an Urban Council in towns and cities

Questionnaire survey

Data were collected between December 2018 and March of 2019 using a semi-structured questionnaire. The questionnaire was designed to cover key themes, including the types of plants and animals used in treatments must be the same as those used in traditional medicine, the season of harvesting, the animal or plant parts utilized, the number of patients treated weekly, and the income generated from these treatments. The ethnobotanical and ethnozoological data were gathered from 22 purposively sampled participants in the district using snowball sampling technique [32]. To diversify recruitment and ensure legitimacy, additional names were obtained through consultations with local authorities, including the Headman and several village heads, who helped identify reputable and active practitioners. This combined approach helped enhance trust and broaden the scope of participant inclusion. Importantly, no payments or financial incentives were offered to participants for their involvement in the study. While traditional healers often charge clients for services and may earn income from their practices, none of the participants requested payment for participating in the research. Their willingness to contribute appears to have been motivated by interest in the research topic, recognition from community leaders, and the perceived value of documenting indigenous knowledge. All participating traditional healers were thoroughly briefed on the study's objectives, and informed consent was obtained before the interviews commenced. The questionnaire was administered in the local language, Chindau. Identifying the animals used in traditional medicine was relatively straightforward, as vernacular names and descriptions often corresponded with commonly known terms [33]. To confirm the identification of specific animal species referenced by the traditional healers, we utilized photographic plates from a field guide [34, 35]. For plant species, we compiled a comprehensive list of species used by each healer, along with their associated medicinal uses. Following this, we accompanied the traditional healers to nearby habitats of the species to collect voucher specimens. These specimens were subsequently identified by plant taxonomists at the National Herbarium of Zimbabwe (SRGH) in Harare. This process ensured accurate species identification and documentation, which are critical for ethnobiology and ethnomedicine research as highlighted in the ethical guidelines of the International Society of Ethnobiology (www.ethnobiology.net). These voucher specimens included essential plant parts such as leaves, stems, flowers, and fruits, where available [10]. Photographic documentation was used to aid species identification, with traditional healers identifying animals from illustrated field guides [35]. In most cases, this approach enabled reliable identification. When uncertainty remained, researchers photographed the animal parts or products in question; these images were later verified by taxonomists or compared with reference specimens housed in university collections. Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the headmen of the respective communities, following a process similar to that described by Ngarivhume et al. [23].

Data analysis

Descriptive data were analyzed as percentages. The informant consensus factor (ICF), developed by Trotter and Logan [36], is calculated using the formula: ICF = (N_ur − N_t)/(N_ur − 1). For the diseases categories, N_ur represents the number of use reports by informants for a specific illness category, while N_t refers to the number of taxa used for that illness by all informants. For the plant and animal species, N_ur represents total use reports for the species and N_t represents number of unique categories associated with the species. The ICF indicates the level of agreement among informants, ranging from 0 to 1, with higher values reflecting greater consensus. This suggests a cultural coherence in the selection of medicinal plants, highlighting their perceived effectiveness in treating particular ailments [37–40]. Indices were calculated using the R package ethonobotanyR [41]. The informant consensus factor values were calculated exclusively for categories and species with a minimum of four use reports (N_ur ≥ 4). This threshold was set to minimize the risk of inflated ICF values resulting from limited sample sizes. The use reports (UR_s) are a common measure in ethnobiology and ethnomedicine that quantify the number of times a specific species (s) is mentioned for a particular use category (u) by different informants (i). The formula to calculate the total number of UR_s for a given species is:

$${\text{UR}}_s=\sum _{u=1}^{\mathit{uNC}}\sum _{i=1}^{\mathit{iN}}{\text{UR}}_{\mathit{ui}}$$

where

• UR_s is the use report for species s.

• UR_ui represents the use report for each informant i within each use category u for species s.

• uNC is the total number of use categories for the species.

• iN is the total number of informants who reported uses for the species.

Some of the data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, such as percentages and rankings, to summarize key findings. To explore the relationships between medicinal plants, animals, and the diseases they were used to treat, chord diagrams were employed in R. Chord diagrams are particularly valuable in this context as they visually represent the connections between different species and the ailments they address. This method allows for the simultaneous visualization of multiple relationships, showing not only which diseases are treated by a single species but also highlighting the variety of ailments that a traditional healer may report treating. The use of chord diagrams thus provided a comprehensive and intuitive way to illustrate the complex interactions between traditional remedies and health conditions, enhancing the overall analysis and interpretation of the data.

Results and discussion

Sociodemographic characteristics

About 81.8% of the traditional healers were male while 18.2% were female (Table 1). Several other studies focusing on traditional healers have shown this sex biased gender [23, 42–44]. Most healers (90.9%) were married (Table 1). Marital status was documented as it represents a marker of stability and maturity in traditional healing practice [45], while also serving as an important social institution that strengthens healers' positions as respected community leaders and facilitates the intergenerational transmission of healing knowledge [46]. Of the 22 traditional healers interviewed, only nine confirmed the use of both animal and plant products in their healing practices. All the healers interviewed regarded their occupation as traditional healing practice and subsistence farming. Considering that most healers were married, traditional healing and agriculture become their sources of livelihoods. Approximately 50.0% of the traditional healers interviewed were over 50 years old, with the smallest proportion in the youngest age group of 21 to 30 years (Table 1). This trend of increasing numbers of traditional healers with age has also been observed in other regions, such as Mali [47], South Africa [48], and Zambia [12].

Table 1.

Sociodemographic characteristics of traditional healers from Chipinge district, Zimbabwe

Characteristics	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Sex
Male	18	81.8
Female	4	18.2
Age group
21–30 years	2	9.1
31–40 years	5	2.7
41–50 years	4	18.2
> 50 years	11	50.0
Marital status
Married	20	90.9
Not married	2	9.1
Religion
Traditional	22	100.0
Ethnicity
Ndau	22	100.0
Occupation
Subisistence farmer	22	100.0
Healer	22	100.0
Source of traditional knowledge
Taught by family members	6	27.3
Ancestral	16	72.7
Education
Primary	12	54.5
Secondary	6	27.3
Tertiary	3	13.6
No education	1	4.5

Patient engagement

The estimated number of individuals consulting traditional healers ranged from 100 to 250 per month, with a median of 110 patients. For the 22 traditional healers interviewed, this translates to approximately 2420 patients assisted monthly based on the median value. Notably, the number of patients treated by a single traditional healer per month exceeded those consulting a traditional healer in South Africa which ranged between 15 and 30 patients per month [48] The South African study attributed the low number of people consulting traditional healers to several factors, including the abundance of traditional healers, favoritism within communities, and the increased availability of clinics and hospitals [48]. In contrast, a study in Tanzania found that a single traditional healer could be consulted by as many as up to 200 people per week, significantly higher than the figures reported in this study [49]. Given the limitations of Zimbabwe's modern healthcare system [5, 6, 8], the integration of traditional healers into the healthcare framework becomes increasingly essential [2].

Healing knowledge

Seventy-three percent of traditional healers reported that their healing abilities stemmed from an ancestral calling (a culturally embedded belief that individuals are chosen by ancestral spirits, typically deceased relatives or lineage spirits to become traditional healers. This calling often manifests through illness, dreams, or visions, prompting the individual to undergo initiation and training under an established healer [50]), while 27% indicated that they were taught how to harvest and use herbs and animal products. This distinction between traditional healers, categorized as either herbalists (who rely on learned knowledge) or diviners (who draw upon ancestral guidance), has been similarly observed in Zambia [48, 51]. The reliance on divine guidance for selecting species to treat ailments presents challenges in developing new drugs based on traditional healer surveys. Additionally, traditional healers commonly administer remedies as concoctions involving two or more species, complicating the integration of traditional medicine into modern pharmaceuticals [52, 53]. While traditional healers may keep their knowledge within families, preserving this knowledge is crucial for society as a whole. Despite the challenges posed by the secrecy of their practices, the cultural and medicinal value of their expertise remains significant, underscoring the importance of safeguarding this knowledge for future generations.

Healer income

Financially, traditional healers earned between US$150 and US$600 per month, with a median income of US$225. This income range is significantly lower than that reported in neighboring South Africa, where traditional healers reportedly earned around US$2,000 per month [54]. The healers attributed their lower earnings to the fact that 95% of their patients were from local communities who often could not afford their fees. As a result, healers frequently provided their services at reduced rates or even for free, driven by moral obligations. The economic disparity between Zimbabwe and South Africa also allows South African healers to charge higher fees. Gross domestic product per capita is more than three times for South Africa when compared with Zimbabwe [55]. However, the income for these traditional healers in this study is within the range that healers in Brazil were earning per month [21]. Therefore, the contribution of traditional medicinal practices to the livelihoods of healers should not be overlooked.

Resource sourcing

A total of 63 plant species were recorded from 31 families. Ninety-five percent of traditional healers reported that medicinal trees were no longer available in their local communities, forcing them to harvest from protected areas such as the Save Valley Conservancy (SVC), Chipinge Safari Area (Fig. 1), and neighboring Mozambique. This highlights the urgent need for sustainable harvesting practices and the registration of all traditional healers under the Zimbabwe National Traditional Healers Association (ZINATHA), as the majority are currently unregistered. Registration through ZINATHA enables better regulation, promotes adherence to ethical and sustainable harvesting guidelines, and allows for training and monitoring aimed at conserving medicinal plant and animal resources. The healers also noted a noticeable decline in several species they traditionally harvested. The lack of standardized harvesting practices exacerbates this issue, as different healers harvest various parts of the same plant (Fig. 2). Similar to this study, 86% of traditional healers in South Africa reported a decline in the availability of medicinal plants in their harvesting areas [23]. For those using animal products, their sources are often hunters (poachers) who illegally obtain animals from nearby protected areas [56]. Traditional healers mostly used trees in their treatment an observation which is similar to other several studies [10, 18, 23, 57]. Most medicinal plant products used by traditional healers in Chipinge came from different plant parts, with roots contributing 35%, bark 34%, leaves 22%, and stems and ground fruit only 9% (Fig. 2). Although other studies conducted in various landscapes of Zimbabwe support the findings of this study [10, 18, 23], a study in southwestern Ghana a region with a wet rainforest climate reported that healers predominantly used leaves [55]. This difference may be attributed to ecological variation, as Zimbabwe’s drier savanna woodlands experience seasonal leaf loss during the dry season, potentially limiting the availability and use of leaves. Majority of traditional healers mentioned that they harvest some of their plant products from nearby protected areas, including Save Valley Conservancy and Chipinge Safari Area (Fig. 1).

Fig. 2.

Proportional percent of use of different plant parts, bark, fruit, leaf, root, and stem by traditional healers in Chipinge district, Zimbabwe

Ethnobotanical and ethnozoological practices

The informant consensus factor (ICF) for diseases treated by traditional healers using medicinal plants was notably higher for AIDS and ulcers, both at 0.67 (Table 2). In contrast, back pain had an ICF of zero. Overall, the ICF values for these traditional healers were generally low, potentially due to the secrecy among healers and the fact that many diseases were treated with concoctions of multiple medicinal plants (Fig. 3, Table 3). When responding, healers may have mentioned what they considered the primary plant in the mixture, leading to lower ICF values. The average ICF across all disease categories for the interviewed traditional healers in Chipinge district was 0.45, significantly lower than the 0.75 reported in a study conducted among traditional healers in the Oshikoto region of Namibia [58]. However, the ICF values we obtained are comparable to those reported in other countries in Africa, for example, in Algeria [59, 60]. The highest number of use reports (N_ur = 87) was recorded for STDs, with a large number of taxa (N_t = 40) used to treat these conditions (Table 2). The high number of plant species used to treat sexually transmitted infections (STIs) in this study reflects the widespread reliance on traditional medicine for managing reproductive health issues in many rural communities [61, 62]. Several factors contribute to this trend. First, there is often limited access to modern healthcare facilities in remote areas such as Chipinge, with long distances to clinics, high consultation fees, and stockouts of essential drugs acting as significant barriers to biomedical treatment [63]. Second, stigma associated with STIs may discourage individuals from seeking care in formal health settings, prompting them to consult traditional healers who offer a more private and culturally familiar environment [64, 65]. Third, many people believe in the efficacy of herbal remedies, particularly for conditions perceived to have both physical and spiritual components, which is often the case with STIs in African traditional belief systems [66]. Thus, the preference for herbal medicine in treating STIs is shaped by a combination of healthcare accessibility, sociocultural perceptions, and trust in indigenous knowledge systems.

Table 2.

Quantitative analysis of medicinal plant use across nine disease categories which had treated by 22 traditional healers interviewed in Chipinge district, Zimbabwe

Use categories	Nur	Nt	ICF
AIDS	16	6	0.67
Fever	30	14	0.55
STDs	87	40	0.56
Aphrodisiac	17	11	0.38
TB	32	22	0.32
Ulcers	25	9	0.67
Childbirth	22	10	0.57
Stomachache	10	7	0.33

Fig. 3.

Chord diagrams for the relationships between each plant species and the different diseases that it is used to treat (a) and the relationship between each traditional healer and the diseases that they treat using plant products (b). Note: uses reported by traditional healers like childbirth support and luck fall outside the conventional disease framework

Table 3.

Medicinal plants, their use categories, and use reports by traditional healers in Chipinge district, Zimbabwe. tCD is the total number of use categories, tUR is the total number of use reports and ICF is the informant consensus factor. Plants with a (–) under the ICF column had tUR < 4 and were not considered for ICF

Family	Growth form	Voucher number	Botanical name (* = cultivated plants)	Common names (E = English, S = Shona	Medicinal uses	Use in Zimbabwe and other countries	Healers’ opinion about availability of species	Plant part used	tCD	tUR	ICF	Biological activities
Anacardiaceae	Tree	CHP21	Lannea edulis (Sond.) Engl	Mutsambatsi (S), wild grape (E)	STDs (1), sexual performance (1)	STDs [10, 73, 74]	Less available	Root, bark	2	2	–	Antimicrobial, antimalarial and antioxidant [75]
	Tree	CHP18	*Mangifera indica L	Mango (E)	STDs (2), stomach ache (1)	Diarrhoea and dysentery [10.18]	–	Root, bark	2	3	–	Antidiabetic and antimicrobial [70]
	Tree	CHP33	Sclerocarya birrea (A.Rich.) Hochst	Marula (E), mupfura (S)	STDs (3), fever (2), TB (2)	Fever [71]	Common	Root, bark, leaf	3	7	0.67	Antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory [72, 76], antiparasitic and antimicrobial [77]
	Tree	CHP42	Searsia dentata (Thunb.) F.A.Barkley	Nana-berry (E)	TB (1)	Mucus on lungs [78]	Common	Root, bark	1	1	–	Anticonvulsant [79]
Annonaceae	Shrub	CHP44	Annona stenophylla Engl. & Diels	Dwarf custard-apple (E)	STDs (1), sexual performance (1), TB (1)	Gonorrhoea and syphilis [10, 18, 80]	Less available	Root, bark, leaf	3	3	–	Antioxidant and antimicrobial [81]
Apocynaceae	Shrub	CHP43	Carissa spinarum L	Conkerberry (E), mumbambara (S)	STDs (1), sexual performance (1), TB (1)	TB [71, 82]	Common	Root, bark	3	3	–	Anticonvulsant [83]
Asparagaceae	Shrub	CHP45	Asparagus africanus Lam	Bush asparagus (E)	STDs (1), childbirth (1)	Dilate birth carnal [10], childbirth [84]	Common	Bark	1	1	–	Anti-inflammatory [85]
Asphodelaceae	Herb	CHP01	Aloe spp.	Gavakava (S)	Ulcers (8)	Constipation [18, 50]	Common	Root, leaf, stem, fruits	1	8	1	–
Asteraceae	Herb	CHP08	Dicoma anomala Sond	Chifumuro (S)	Fever (1), TB (1)	Panecea [10, 18]	Less available	Leaf, bark	2	2	–	Analgesic and anti-inflammatory [86]
Bignoniaceae	Tree	CHP02	Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth	Mubveve (S), sausage tree (E)	STDs (3), TB (1), sexual performance (1)	Respiratory infections [87], aphrodisiac [88]	Less available	Root, bark	3	5	0.67	Anti-inflammatory [89], antioxidant and anticancer [90]
Chrysobalanaceae	Tree	CHP03	Parinari curatellifolia Planch. ex Benth	Mobola plum (E), muchakata (S)	STDs (2), TB (1), ulcers	Constipation [18, 80]	Common	Root, bark, fruit	2	3	–	Antimicrobial [91] and anti-inflammatory [92]
Clusiaceae	Tree	CHP22	Garcinia buchananii Baker	Granite garcinia (E), mutunduru (S)	TB (1), sexual performance (1)	Aphrodisiac [18, 80, 93]	Common	Bark	2	1	–	Antioxidative [94] and anti-diarrheal [95]
Combretaceae	Tree	CHP24	Combretum apiculatum Sond	Mubhondo (S)	STDs (2)	Syphilis [96]	Common	Root, bark	1	2	–	Anti-inflammatory and anthelmintic [96]
	Tree	CHP23	Combretum imberbe Wawra	Mutsviri (S), leadwood (E)	Sexual performance (1)	Infertility [96]	Common	Bark	1	1	–	Antischistosomic and anti-inflammatory [96, 97]
	Tree	CHP04	Combretum mossambicense (Klotzsch) Engl	Knobbly bushwillow (E), mubondorokoto (S)	Ulcers (1)	Abdominal pains [96]	Common	Root, bark	1	1	–	Anti-inflammatory and anthelmintic [96]
	Tree	CHP05	Combretum zeyheri Sond	Large-fruited bushwillow (E), mupembere-kono (S)	Fever (2),	Fever [96]	Common	Root, leaf	1	2	–	Anti-inflammatory and anthelmintic [96]
Ebenaceae	Tree	CHP06	Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A.DC	Jackal-berry (E), mushumha (S)	Sexual performance (2), STDs (1)	STIs [98]	Common	Root, bark	2	2	–	Antimicrobial, antiproliferative, antiparasitic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antiviral [99]
	Shrub	CHP07	Euclea divinorum Hiern	Mushangura (S), diamond-leaved euclea (E)	STDs (2)	Gonorrhoea [100]	Common	Bark, leaf	1	2	–	Antimicrobial [101] and antioxidant [98]
Euphorbiaceae	Tree	CHP10	Macaranga capensis (Baill.) Benth. ex Sim	Mufukusha (S), river macaranga (E)	Sexual performance (1)	Aphrodisiac [93], male impotence [102]	Common	Root, bark	1	1	–	Antibacterial [102, 103]
	Herb	CHP11	*Ricinus communis L	Castor-oil plant (E)	STDs (1), TB (1)	Venereal diseases [104]	–	Root, leaf	2	2	–	Anti-inflammatory, antiarthritic [105, 106], antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial [107]
Fabaceae	Tree	CHP19	Colophospermum mopane (J.Kirk ex Benth.) J.Kirk ex J.Léonard	Mopane (E), musharu (S)	STDs (1), fever (1)	Syphilis [108]	Common	Root, bark	2	2	–	Antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant [108]
	Herb	CHP20	Indigofera setiflora Baker	–	Sexual performance (2)	–	Common	Root	1	2	–	–
	Tree	CHP12	Pterocarpus angolensis DC	Bloodwood (E), mubvamaropa (S)	Stomach pain (2)	Menorrhagia [18, 80]	Less available	Root, bark	1	2	–	Antibacterial [109]
	Tree	CHP13	Vachellia nilotica (L.) P.J.H.Hurter & Mabb	Muwunga (S), sweet thorn (E)	STDs (1), TB (3)	Gonorrhoea and syphilis [10, 71, 93]	Common	Root, bark, leaf	2	4	0.67	Antibacterial, antifungal, antimycobacterial and antioxidant [110]
	Tree	CHP14	Brachystegia boehmii Taub	Mfuti (S), mufuti (E)	STDs (1)	STI [10]	Common	Bark, leaf	1	1	–	Antibacterial and antimicrobial [111]
	Tree	CHP15	Cassia abbreviata Oliv	Long-tail cassia (E), muremberembe (S)	STDs (3), TB (1)	Syphilis and gonorrhoea [10, 112]	Less available	Root, leaf	2	4	0.67	Antioxidant [112], antibacterial [113] and antiviral [114]
	Tree	CHP16	Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn	Mupangara (S), sickle bush (E)	STDs (2), TB (1)	STIs [115]	Common	Root, bark, leaf	2	3	–	Antibacterial, antifungal and antioxidant [115]
	Tree	CHP17	Piliostigma thonningii (Schumach.) Milne-Redh	Monkey bread (E), musekesa (S)	STDs (1), TB (2)	Bronchitis [116]	Common	Root, bark, leaf	2	3	–	Antibacterial, antifungal and antioxidant [117]
Hypoxidaceae	Herb	CHP25	Hypoxis obtusa Burch. ex Ker Gawl	African potato (E)	TB (1), stomach ache	Stomach ache [118]	Rare	Leaf	2	1	–	Antioxidants, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetics and anti-convulsant [119]
Kirkiaceae	Tree	CHP26	Kirkia acuminata Oliv	Mubvumira (S), white seringa (E)	STDs (4), fever (1)	Fever [120, 121]	Less available	Root, bark, leaf	2	5	0.75	Antibacterial [121, 122]
Lamiaceae	Tree	CHP27	Vitex payos (Lour.) Merr	Chocolate berry (E), mutsubvu (S)	STDs (5), fever (1), TB (1), AIDS (2), heart disease (2)	Cough [10]	Common	Root, bark, stem	5	11	0.63	Antimicrobial [123, 124]
Loganiaceae	Tree	CHP34	Strychnos cocculoides Baker	Corky monkey-orange (E), muzhumwi (S)	Fever (1), sore throat (1)	Abdominal pains and infertility [18, 80]	Common	Bark, leaf	1	1	–	Antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant [125]
	Tree	CHP35	Strychnos innocua Delile	Powder-bark monkey-orange (E)	STDs (2), sexual performance (1), stomach ache (1)	Gonorrhoea [126], cholera [127]	Common	Root, bark, leaf, fruit	3	4	0.33	–
	Tree	CHP36	Strychnos madagascariensis Poir	Black monkey-orange (E), muhwakwa (Shona)	STDs (1), childbirth (1)	Gonorrhoea [18]	Common	Root, bark	2	2	–	Antidiabetic and antioxidant [128]
	Tree	CHP28	Strychnos spinosa Lam	Mutamba (S), spiny monkey-orange (E)	Childbirth (1), STDs (1)	Gonorrhoea [10], STIs [98]	Common	Root, bark	2	1	–	Antimicrobial, anti-oxidant. anti-inflammatory and anti-plasmodial [125]
Malvaceae	Tree	CHP29	Adansonia digitata L	Baobab (E), muuyu (S)	Childbirth (6)	-	Common	Bark, stem	1	6	1	Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antimicrobial [129]
	Tree	CHP30	Thespesia garckeana F.Hoffm	Mutohwe (S), snot apple (E)	STDs (1), childbirth (1), fever (1)	STDs [130]	Common	Root, leaf	3	3	–	Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory [130, 131]
	Forb	CHP31	Corchorus tridens L	Gusha (S), horn-fruited jute (E)	Childbirth (2), STDs (1)	STDs [132]	Common	Root, bark	2	3	–	Antioxidant, anticancer and antimicrobial [132]
	Shrub	CHP32	Grewia flavescens Juss	Climbing raisin (E)	STDs (1), childbirth (1)	Inducing labour [74]	Common	Root, bark	2	2	–	Anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial [133]
	Shrub	CHP37	Grewia monticola Sond	Donkey berry (E), mutewa (S)	STDs (9), childbirth (1), fever (1), ulcers (1), TB (1)	Diarrhoea [10, 18, 71]	Common	Root, bark, stem	5	13	0.67	–
	Shrub	CHP38	Grewia bicolor Juss	Mutongoro (S), white-leaved raisin (E)	STDs (6), ulcers (1)	Diarrhoea, gonorrhoea [10]	Common	Root, bark	2	6	1	Antimicrobial [134]
Moraceae	Tree	CHP39	Ficus ingens (Miq.) Miq	Mutsamvi (S), red-leaved rock fig (E)	STDs (1)	Genital warts [135]	Common	Root, leaf	1	1	–	Analgesic and anti-inflammatory [136]
	Tree	CHP40	Ficus sycomorus L	Muonde (S), sycomore fig (E)	STDs (2), childbirth (1), TB (1)	Cough, TB [135]	Common	Bark, leaf	3	4	0.33	Anti-bacterial [137]
Moringaceae	Shrub	CHP41	*Moringa oleifera Lam	Horse-radish tree (E)	AIDS (7)	–	–	Root, bark, leaf	1	7	1	Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-cancer [138], anti-viral and anti-allergic [139]
Myrtaceae	Tree	CHP48	*Eucalyptus grandis W.Hill ex Maiden	Eucalyptus (E)	STDs (1), childbirth (2)	Infectious diseases [140]	–	Root, bark, leaf	2	3	–	Antibacterial, antiviral, inti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant and analgesic [140]
	Tree	CHP49	*Psidium guajava L	Guava (E)	Stomach (1), ulcers (1)	Gastrointestinal infections [141, 142]	–	Root, bark, leaf	2	2	–	Anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, anti-diabetic and anti-cancer [143–145]
	Tree	CHP50	Syzygium cordatum Hochst. ex C.Krauss	Mukute (S), waterberry (E)	STDs (2), stomach ache (1)	Diarrhoea [135]	Common	Root, bark	2	2	–	Anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal and antidiarrheal [146]
Ochnaceae	Tree	CHP54	Ochna pulchra Hook	Mermaid tree (E), muparamhosva (S)	STDs (6), stomach ache (1)	Diarrhoea [147]	Common	Root, bark, stem	2	7	0.83	Antibacterial [1489]
Olacaceae	Shrub	CHP55	Ximenia americana L	Blue sourplum (E), mutengeninyatwa (S)	Fever (2), ulcers (1)	Abdominal pains [149]	Common	Root, bark, leaf	2	3	–	Anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anti-diarrheal, antipyretic, and antioxidant [150]
	Shrub	CHP56	Ximenia caffra Sond	Munhengeni (S), sourplum (E)	STDs (2), fever (9), TB (1), back pain (1), heart disease (1)	Back ache, venereal diseases [10, 18]	Common	Root, bark, leaf	5	14	0.82	Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and antiparasitic [151]
Phyllanthaceae	Tree	CHP57	Bridelia mollis Hutch	Mudenhanyani (S), velvet sweetberry (E)	AIDS (3)	AIDS [152, 153]	Common	Root, leaf, stem	1	1		Antibacterial, antifungal and antioxidant [152, 153]
	Shrub	CHP46	Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Royle	Musosoti (S), snowberry tree (E)	STDs (1), fever (1), sexual performance (2)	Venereal diseases, sterility [154]	Common	Root, bark, leaf	3	4	0.33	Antiparasitic, antimicrobial, antiepilepsy and antidiabetic [154]
Picrodendraceae	Tree	CHP09	Androstachys johnsonii Prain	Lebombo ironwood (E), musimbiti (S)	Sexual performance (3)	Aphrodisiac [18]	Common	Root, bark	1	1	–	Antibacterial [155], antimicrobial and antifungal [156]
Rhamnaceae	Tree	CHP47	Phyllogeiton discolor (Klotzsch) Herzog	Brown ivory (E), munyii (S)	STDs (5), back pain (1)	Body pains [71, 157]	Common	Root, bark	2	6	1	Antimicrobial [157]
	Tree	CHP51	Ziziphus mucronata Willd	Buffalo-thorn (E), muchecheni (S)	STDs (1), fever (2), TB (2)	Gonorrhoea, syphilis [135]	Common	Root, bark, leaf	3	5	0.5	Antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant [158]
Rutaceae	Tree	CHP52	*Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck	Lemon (E)	STDs (2), fever (4), ulcers (1)	Fever [159]	–	Root, bark, leaf	3	7	0.67	Antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant [160]
Pteridaceae	Herb	CHP53	Hemionitis calomelanos (Sw.) Christenh	Mumvuriwedombo (S)	STDs (3), chest problems (1), AIDS (1)	Chest colds, asthma [161]	Common	Leaf	3	5	0.5	Antimicrobial [161]
Solanaceae	Herb	CHP58	*Nicotiana tabacum L	Chikwarimba (S), tobacco (E)	TB (4)	–	–	Leaf, stem	1	4	1	Anti-oxidation and anti-inflammatory [161]
	Herb	CHP59	Solanum incanum L	Nhundurwa (S), bitter tomato (E)	STDs (2), childbirth (6), AIDS (2)	Genital warts [93]	Common	Root, leaf, stem	3	10	0.78	Antibacterial and antioxidant [18]
Verbenaceae	Shrub	CHP60	*Lantana camara L	Lantana (E), mbarapati (S)	STDs (2), stomach ache (2), ulcers (1)	Stomach ache [163]	–	Root, bark, stem	3	5	0.5	Antimicrobial, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory [163]
	Herb	CHP63	Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng	Zumbani (S), fever tea (E)	STDs (1), TB (4)	Bronchitis, common cold, pneumonia, TB [164, 165]	Common	Root, leaf, stem	2	5	0.75	Anti-inflamatory [164, 165]
Vitaceae	Shrub	CHP61	Ampelocissus obtusata (Welw. ex Baker) Planch	Wild grape (E)	Stomach ache (1), STDs	Stomach ache [10], syphilis [135, 147]	Common	Root, bark	2	1	–	Antibacterial [166]
Zingiberaceae	Herb	CHP62	*Zingiber officinale Roscoe	Ginger (E)	Stomach ache (2), ulcers (10), AIDS (1)	Stomach problems [18], digestive disorders [167]	–	Root	3	13	0.83	Anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, anti-hyperglycemic and anti-lipidemic [168]

Indeed, all the interviewed traditional healers treated STDs, which could have also led to a high N_t (Fig. 3, Table 2). This aligns with country statistics, which indicate an HIV prevalence rate of 14.6% in Zimbabwe, where sexual intercourse is the predominant mode of transmission for both HIV and STDs [67–69]. These statistics support the observed high values of N_ur, N_t, and ICF for STDs.

Although the number of taxa and use reports for AIDS were not particularly high, AIDS still had the highest ICF values (Table 2). The top medicinal plants with the highest use reports were Ximenia caffra Sond. (14), Grewia monticola Sond. (13), Zingiber officinale Roscoe (13), Vitex payos (Lour.) Merr. (11), and Solanum incanum L. (10) (Table 3). Tuberculosis (TB) and fever were the other two diseases that most traditional healers treated. Since TB and fever are usually opportunistic infections for people living with HIV, this might explain why most healers were also treating these diseases.

Some medicinal plant species exhibited high informant consensus factor (ICF) values, highlighting their significant role in traditional medicine. Adansonia digitata, used to prevent birth complications, and Moringa oleifera Lam., used to treat AIDS opportunistic infections, both achieved an ICF value of 1.0, indicating complete agreement among traditional healers on their medicinal uses (Table 2). In the case of A. digitata, respondents reported that pregnant women chew the bark from around five to six months of pregnancy; the bark extracts are believed to help prepare the birth canal by promoting tissue flexibility and gradual expansion, thereby reducing the risk of perineal tearing during delivery. Similarly, Grewia bicolor Juss., utilized for treating STDs, Phyllogeiton discolor (Klotzsch) Herzog for STDs and back pain, and Nicotiana tabacum L. for TB, also had ICF values of 1.0. These results underscore the high reliability and cultural consensus on the medicinal applications of these species within the community. A unique finding in this study is the use of A. digitata for childbirth, which contrasts with its predominant uses reported in the literature [169]. Typically, A. digitata is documented as traditional medicine for conditions such as malaria, TB, fever, microbial infections, anemia, and toothache [169]. This novel application highlights the dynamic and context-specific nature of ethnobotanical knowledge, demonstrating the need for localized studies to capture unique traditional ecological practices. Other species with high ICF values included Ochna pulchra Hook. (0.83), X. caffra (0.82), and Z. officinale (0.83). Both O. pulchra and X. caffra were predominantly used for treating STDs, while Z. officinale was used for ulcers and other stomach-related ailments. The high ICF values for these species suggest strong consensus and potentially effective bioactive compounds in addressing these health concerns. The high ICF values for several species point to a robust shared knowledge system among traditional healers, reflecting the cultural importance and perceived efficacy of these plants. The discovery of A. digitata being used for childbirth is particularly significant, as it extends the known medicinal uses of this species and may inform further pharmacological studies. Additionally, the high consensus on species like Z. officinale, widely recognized for its medicinal properties, aligns with global ethnopharmacological findings and validates the local traditional knowledge about the species. Nine species recorded in this study are exotic to Zimbabwe and therefore, cultivated in home gardens, agricultural fields or occurred as weeds (Table 3). About 75% of the recorded species were categorized as common or widespread by participants. But Hypoxis obtusa Burch. ex Ker Gawl. was categorized as rare while Annona stenophylla Engl. & Diels, Cassia abbreviata Oliv., Dicoma anomala Sond., Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth., Kirkia acuminata Oliv., Lannea edulis (Sond.) Engl., and Pterocarpus angolensis DC. were categorized as less available and difficult to get. Plant species such as A. digitata and K. africana are extensively harvested not only for medicinal bark but also for their fruits and seeds, which are vital for regeneration. Similarly, herbaceous and subshrub species such as D. anomala, H. obtusa and L. edulis are usually uprooted while C. abbreviata and Pterocarpus angolensis are often stripped of their bark and used for medicinal or other traditional uses. While these species are currently categorized as "least concern" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List, certain species may be vulnerable to overharvesting in the long term, with frequent bark and fruit harvesting posing potential threats to their long-term sustainability if not managed properly. Unsustainable harvesting, especially of bark and reproductive parts, can severely compromise natural recruitment and population viability. Therefore, while their conservation status remains stable for now, ongoing monitoring and sustainable harvesting practices are crucial to avoid future population declines of some of these species.

For animal products, AIDS opportunistic infections had the highest ICF values (0.8) among traditional healers, with a similar N_t to plants. Additionally, STDs also had a high ICF value (0.67) with the highest number of use reports (11) (Table 4, Fig. 3). Interestingly, some use categories were unique to animal products, such as luck, particularly in the context of poaching in Save Valley Conservancy and Chipinge Safari Area (Table 5, Fig. 3). Another important use category unique to ethnozoology was the chasing away of evil spirits (Table 4, Fig. 4). The apparent prevalence of animals over plants in spiritual contexts can be attributed to several interconnected factors. Animals exhibit observable agency, movement, and communicative behaviors that facilitate anthropomorphizing and spiritual attribution [170, 171]. The biological similarities between humans and animals create stronger kinship connections, making them more intuitive intermediaries between physical and spiritual realms [172]. Furthermore, the historical hunter–prey relationships established more immediate and intense spiritual bonds with animals than with stationary plants [173]. Animals' visible life force through breath, blood, and discernible death transitions reinforces their connection to spiritual concepts of animation and soul [174]. While plants do feature prominently in many spiritual traditions through sacred groves, psychoactive substances, and agricultural deities [175], their slower, less visible responsiveness and communication generally position them as secondary spiritual actors in many cultural contexts [176]. This differential spiritual positioning reflects fundamental differences in human perception and relationship with various forms of life rather than an inherent spiritual hierarchy.

Table 4.

Quantitative analysis of animal products uses across six disease categories treated by nine traditional healers interviewed in Chipinge district, Zimbabwe

Use categories	Nur	Nt	ICF
AIDS	6	2	0.8
Evil spirits	5	4	0.25
Lucky charm	10	4	0.67
STDs	11	5	0.6
Aphrodisiac	8	5	0.43
Skin diseases (infections/problems)	4	3	0.33

Table 5.

List of medicinal animals their use categories and use reports from Chipinge traditional healers, Zimbabwe. tCD is the total number of use categories, tUR is the total number of use reports and ICF is the informant consensus factor. Animals with a (–) under the ICF column had tUR < 4 and were not considered for ICF

Family	Scientific name	Local name (E = English; S = Shona)	Animal part	Healers’ opinion about availability of species	Medicinal uses	Use in Zimbabwe and other countries	tCD	tURs	IFC
Bovidae	Aepyceros melampus melampus, Lichtenstein 1812	Impala (E), mhara (S)	Fat oil	Common	Childbirth (2)	Antenatal care [180]	1	2	–
Chamaeleonidae	Chamaeleo chamaeleon (Linnaeus, 1758)	Chameleon (E), rwaivhi (S)	Fat oil	Common	STDs (2)	Convulsions, antenatal care [180]	1	2	–
Hyaenidae	Crocuta crocuta (Erxleben 1777)	Bere (S), hyena (E)	Fat oil	Common	STDs (2), luck (2), aphrodisiac (1)	Dry eyes, tooth ache, TB [181], invoke witches [180]	1	5	0.50
Cercopithecidae	Cercopithecus pygerythrus (F. Cuvier, 1821)	Monkey (E), tsoko (S)	Tail fat, penis	Common	Luck (4), aphrodisiac (1), evil spirits (2), skin disease (1)	Rashes [180]	4	8	0.57
Elephantidae	Loxodonta africana (Blumenbach 1797)	Elephant (E), nzou (S)	Fat oil	Common	Childbirth (1), aphrodisiac (1)	Hepatitis [181]	2	2	–
Suidae	Potamochoerus larvatus (F. Cuvier, 1822)	Bush pig (E), nguruve (S)	Fat oil	Common	Skin disease (1)	Stomach ulcers [181]	1	1	–
Pythonidae	Python natalensis Smith 1833	Python (E), shato (S)	Fat oil	Less available	STDs (5), evil spirits (1), skin disease (2), AIDS (3)	Treat back pain [181]	4	11	0.70
Cercopithecidae	Papio ursinus Kerr 1792	Baboon (E), gudo (S)	Tail fat	Common	STDs (1), luck (2), aphrodisiac (4), evil spirits (1)	Aphrodisiac [44]	4	8	0.57
Bovidae	Syncerus caffer (Sparrman 1779)	Buffalo (E), nyati (S)	Ground horn	Common	Aphrodisiac (1)	Asthma, fever, aphrodisiac [182]	1	1	–
Syngnathidae	Smutsia temminckii (Smuts 1832)	Haka (S), pangolin (E)	Tail fat	Rare	STDs (1), luck (2), evil spirits (1), AIDS (3)	Goodluck [181], spiritual ailments, cancer, epilepsy [183], cough [180]	4	7	0.50

Fig. 4.

Chord diagrams for the relationships between each animal species and the different diseases that it is used to treat (a) and the relationship between each traditional healer and the diseases that they treat using animal products (b). Some uses reported by traditional healers (e.g., for luck or childbirth support) fall outside the conventional disease framework

Ulcers, stomach problems, back pain, and heart disease were only treated with plants (Table 3, Fig. 3). Surprisingly, skin diseases were not found among the use categories for plants, despite being frequently mentioned in other ethnobotanical surveys conducted in the country and elsewhere [10, 18, 21]. Animal oil or fat was the commonly used animal part in this study, similar to research findings obtained in South Africa [177]. Python natalensis had the highest informant consensus factor (ICF) among animals, with a value of 0.70. This species was used in the treatment of STDs, exorcising evil spirits from sick patients, skin diseases, and AIDS opportunistic infections. Despite this relatively high ICF, the overall consensus on the use of animal products in traditional medicine among the Ndau people of Manicaland, Zimbabwe, was generally low, with most ICF values being around 0.5. This suggests that animal-based remedies are less popular compared to plant-based treatments in Ndau traditional healing practices. The limited use of animal products is further underscored by the fact that only 9 out of 22 traditional healers interviewed employed animal-derived remedies. This finding highlights a cultural inclination toward plant-based treatments, which are more commonly integrated into traditional medicine systems [10, 18]. Moreover, the reliance on plant-based remedies aligns with global trends, as many biomedical drugs are derived from plant sources rather than animals [178]. Indeed, a comprehensive review of existing ethnozoological studies reveals that relatively few investigations have been conducted (see Table 5). One critical example is Smutsia temminckii (ground pangolin), which has an ICF value of 0.5 and is classified as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List (Table 5). Smutsia temminckii was categorized as rare by the participants while Python natalensis (python) was regarded as less available, and the rest of the species were perceived as common. The consensus on species uses and their availability or local conservation status suggests an urgent need to discourage the use of such endangered animals in traditional medicine. Instead, traditional healers could be encouraged to focus more on plants, which are not sustainable but their harvesting may be, and also offer a diverse range of bioactive compounds for therapeutic purposes [179]. Encouraging the use of plant-based remedies over animal-derived products could reduce pressure on vulnerable wildlife species, like Smutsia temminckii, while promoting the conservation of biodiversity. Additionally, the higher ICF values are associated with plants point to their central role in traditional healing systems, offering opportunities for further research into their pharmacological properties and potential integration into modern medicine. Overall, the uses of plants highlighted by many traditional healers agreed with what was observed in other studies that were carried out in Zimbabwe as well as in the region (Table 3). The pharmacological activity of many medicinal plants was mainly anti-inflammatory [72, 76], antiparasitic, antimicrobial, antibacterial [102, 103], antioxidant, anti-inflammatory [85], antioxidant, and anticancer [90]. (Table 3).

Conclusion

The findings from this study provide a compelling narrative on the critical role of traditional healers in Zimbabwe, particularly in regions where modern health care is limited. The high engagement of patients with traditional healers underscores the perpetual reliance on indigenous medical practices, which are deeply rooted in cultural and ancestral traditions. The diversity of medicinal plants and animal products utilized, coupled with the observed decline in resource availability, highlights the urgent need for sustainable practices and the preservation of this invaluable knowledge. The economic analysis reveals significant disparities in the earnings of traditional healers across different regions, emphasizing the socioeconomic challenges faced by these practitioners. Moreover, the study's ethnobotanical and ethnozoological data reveal a complex and nuanced landscape of traditional medicinal practices, with significant implications for bioprospecting and the integration of traditional knowledge into modern pharmacology. As the demand for traditional medicine persists, it is crucial to safeguard and integrate these practices within the broader healthcare framework, ensuring that both the cultural heritage and the biodiversity on which they depend are preserved for future generations. This study contributes valuable insights into the potential for traditional medicine to complement modern health care, while also highlighting the challenges that must be addressed to fully realize this potential.

Abbreviations

ICF

Informant consensus factor

IUCN

International Union for the Conservation of Nature

AIDS

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome

STD

Sexual transmitted disease

ZINATHA

Zimbabwe National Traditional Healers Association

WHO

World Health Organization

HIV

Human immunodeficiency virus

N_ur

Number of use reports

N_t

Number of taxa

SVC

Save Valley Conservancy

TB

Tuberculosis

ZSARA

Zimbabwe Service Availability and Readiness Assessment

Author contributions

JM conceived the research idea, collected the data, analysed the data, and wrote the paper. AM reviewed the manuscript and checked the taxonomy of documented species.

Funding

Not applicable for this study.

Availability of data and materials

No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

This study, conducted in 2019, adhered to rigorous ethical standards to ensure the protection and respect of all participants. The study tools, including the consent form and participant information sheet, were reviewed and approved for suitability by the headmen of each traditional healer's community. The study was carried out in compliance with the ethical principles outlined in the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its subsequent amendments. All participants provided informed consent for the interviews and the publication of the research findings. We extend our sincere gratitude to the Zimbabwe National Traditional Healers Association for their invaluable support and for granting permission to conduct this research in the selected areas.

Consent for publication

Informed consent was obtained from all interviewed traditional healers prior to their participation in the study.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.