ABSTRACT
Raising citizens’ awareness of the importance of microbiology in everyday life is crucial, especially considering the recent societal challenges such as emerging diseases or antibiotic resistance. Integrating this awareness into secondary education is essential, yet teaching microbiology requires alignment with national curricula. To evaluate how microbiology is incorporated into education, we analyzed and compared the life sciences/biology curricula of Portuguese, Spanish, and French secondary schools. Our findings reveal significant differences in how microorganisms, their functions, and applications are addressed. We highlight aspects of the Spanish and French curricula that could enhance microbiology education in Portugal, as well as challenges in including microbiology into existing curricula. Additionally, we review the state of the art of microbiology education, including ongoing initiatives aimed at supporting both teachers and students. To strengthen student engagement, we propose stronger collaboration between academia—comprising professors, researchers, and master’s/PhD students—schools, and science communication institutions. In this context, we present the conceptual framework of the EduBiota program, designed for Portuguese students/teachers and citizens, with a focus on the human microbiota. The program offers a combination of state-of-the-art knowledge, in-person and online, resources, and mini projects led by university students and researchers, ensuring accessibility and relevance for both schools and the broader community.
KEYWORDS: microbiology education, secondary schools, life sciences curriculum, science literacy
PERSPECTIVE
The challenge: call to action in microbiology literacy and education
A pivotal acknowledgment of the importance of microorganisms to the biosphere and society emerged two decades ago (1). However, this importance has been mostly framed in terms of the dangers posed by microorganisms (e.g., infections), with less emphasis on their beneficial roles in health and biotechnology (2, 3). This bias extends to the general public’s perception of microorganisms.
Since the American Academy of Microbiology (AAM) report (1), the world has faced several pandemics, with COVID-19 being the most notable. Meanwhile, advances in microorganism-based technologies have supported the production of chemicals and procedures for diagnosing, preventing, and treating diseases—including vaccines, antibiotics, antitumor agents, and immunomodulators—thereby contributing to societal well-being (4). Microbiology advances have also provided essential tools for the food industry, including fermented food, additives, emulsifiers, and enzymes (5); environmental remediation, such as biodegradation and bioremediation (6, 7); and energy production through biofuels like bioethanol and biodiesel (8). Furthermore, microorganisms such as Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae serve as crucial models in scientific and technological fields, including omics and synthetic biology (9–11).
In contemporary health and biology sciences, hosts and their associated microorganisms are no longer viewed as functionally separate entities; rather, they form an ecological unit known as the holobiont. The community of bacteria, viruses, protozoans, and fungi that interact with each other and with their host is referred to as microbiota. This complex host-microbiota consortium creates intricate structural and functional networks that regulate homeostasis and health.
Understanding microorganisms and their significance requires considering microbiota dynamics, encompassing both positive and negative interactions. This perspective underscores the need to increase general awareness about current microbiological knowledge and its implications for biosphere health. For society and policymakers to grasp both the origins and solutions to microbiology-related challenges, microbiology literacy must be improved. For example, only increased literacy can effectively counteract anti-vaccine movements and enhance the public’s understanding of critical public health concepts such as herd immunity, hygiene measures, and contact prevention (12–14).
Since citizen literacy is largely built through formal education, and given the inherently multidisciplinary nature of microbiology, integrating microbiology topics into various curricular areas relevant to societal challenges is essential. This approach ensures that microbiology literacy is fostered within a scholarly environment (15).
Previous approaches to microbiology education
Incorporating microbiology into school curricula
Several articles discuss the integration of microbiology topics into school curricula across different countries, targeting diverse audiences and educational levels (e.g., Sánchez-Angulo et al. [16]). Timmis (17) advocates for the introduction of a societally relevant microbiology curriculum in schools to enhance students’ literacy while promoting the use of teaching resources available at the International Microbiology Literacy Initiative website. Sánchez-Angulo et al. (16) focused on online resources and projects developed during and after the COVID-19 pandemic, proposing the inclusion of microbiology as a core element of Spain’s educational curriculum. Lloyd et al. (18) highlighted the need for online assistance and training courses for teachers to ensure microbiological safety in Australian secondary schools, as microbiology topics are increasingly incorporated into STEM curricula. In Canada, Davis et al. (19) identified curricular drivers emphasizing laboratory experimental design and bioinformatics competencies as opportunities for curriculum innovation in microbiology education. In Austria, Sagmeister et al. (20) developed a socio-scientific issues (SSI)-based curriculum unit for secondary school classrooms, incorporating role-playing activities to help students explore antibiotic resistance while considering both scientific and social implications.
Current curricula in Portugal, Spain, and France
Following the scientific community’s advocacy for the inclusion of microbiology in official school curricula, an emerging question arises: “To what extent do current curricula integrate the societally relevant aspects of microbiology?” Given that Portugal, Spain, and France share cultural ties and similarly centralized education systems, we compared the high-school biology/life-sciences curricula of these three countries.
In Portugal (21, 22), microbiology-related topics within the 10th–12th grade biology curriculum are:
Infectious diseases: Viruses and bacteria are identified as infectious agents, and antibiotic-resistant bacteria are mentioned. The human microbiota is referenced, but interactions are not explored.
Cell structure: The basic structure of bacterial (prokaryotic) cells is introduced in contrast to eukaryotic (animal/plant) cells.
Ecological roles: Bacteria and fungi are introduced as decomposers in biogeochemical cycles.
Food microbiology: Fermentation is studied in the context of food production, along with treatments that prevent food spoilage by microorganisms.
Genetic applications: Bacteria and viruses are discussed as models for genetic engineering to produce valuable (e.g., insulin). Concepts such as the lac and tryptophan operons, PCR, and restriction enzymes are introduced for genetic manipulation.
Although the guidelines recommend practical activities, major challenges hinder implementation in schools, including insufficient laboratory equipment and technicians, limited teacher training, and reduced class time (23, 24).
The Spanish curriculum (25) presents a broader coverage of microbiology:
Prokaryotic diversity: Students distinguish between eubacteria and archaea based on genetic composition, cellular structure, and evolutionary history.
Microbial culturing: Microbial growth methods in controlled environments and sterilization techniques.
Cellular/genetic comparison: Prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomes are compared, helping students understand cellular organization, genetic inheritance, and evolutionary differences. The curriculum also explores microscopy techniques and osmotic pressure effects on microorganisms.
Bacterial genetics: Horizontal gene transfer (transformation, transduction, and conjugation) is highlighted as a key process in bacterial adaptation, particularly in acquiring antibiotic resistance—a major public health issue. Viruses, viroids, and prions are also addressed as non-cellular pathogens and tools for genetic manipulation.
Genetic engineering: Topics such as PCR, restriction enzymes, molecular cloning, and CRISPR-Cas9 are explored, highlighting their importance in research, medicine, and biotechnology.
Infectious diseases and immunity: The role of microorganisms, particularly viruses and bacteria, in causing zoonotic diseases and epidemics is discussed, along with immunity concepts that explain infection dynamics through the phases of disease (incubation, acute, and recovery) and the role of external barriers (e.g., skin and mucous membranes).
Ecological significance: Role of microorganisms in decomposition, nutrient cycling, symbiotic relationships, biodiversity, and environmental stability.
This 2-year course blends theory with hands-on activities like microbial isolation/culturing, linking microbiology to real-life applications, including infectious diseases control, antibiotic resistance, and biotechnology innovations.
In France (26, 27), microbiology is primarily integrated into the themes of ecosystems and human health:
Symbiosis: Microorganisms contribute to human health (e.g., human microbiota), while pathogenic relationships and public health issues (e.g., epidemic outbreaks) are also addressed.
Antibiotic resistance: Bacterial genetic variation and its medical and public health implications are explored.
Viruses and cancer: The role of viruses (e.g., hepatitis B and papillomavirus) in carcinogenesis and prevention strategies is discussed. Vaccination, antibiotics, infectious agents, and immune responses are also covered.
Microbial ecology: Microorganisms in agroecosystems are studied in the context of soil quality and fertility, emphasizing their role in recycling biomass into mineral elements.
European public health: Comparative health policies based on EU guidelines.
Comparing the three curricula, all address essential microbiology topics, highlighting the impact of microorganisms on human life and planetary sustainability. However, important differences emerge. Portugal offers a solid conceptual foundation but lacks extensive coverage of microbial diversity and robust laboratory practices. Spain delivers the most technical and up-to-date curriculum, ranging from microbial ecology to modern genetic engineering techniques. France adopts a more applied and interdisciplinary approach, linking microbiology to public health and environmental stewardship, although with less emphasis on hands-on laboratory experiences.
An additional aspect concerns the integration of the microbiota and holobiont concepts. While these concepts are referenced, they are not fully developed in the Portuguese and Spanish curricula, limiting students’ understanding of the complex symbiotic interactions between hosts and their associated microorganisms. France integrates these ideas more comprehensively but still leaves room for a deeper experimental approach.
These differences reveal that while microbiology is formally present, its educational potential is not yet fully realized. While the Portuguese curriculum provides a solid theoretical foundation, it is limited in terms of microbial diversity coverage and laboratory-based learning. Conversely, Spain offers a more technically advanced curriculum, but its focus on molecular microbiology could benefit from a more integrated ecological perspective. France, although providing a broader interdisciplinary approach, could greatly benefit from stronger laboratory activities that connect theoretical knowledge to real-world applications.
Our approach to strengthening microbiology education
Literature survey of projects and courses
A complementary strategy to the need for microbiology education and enhanced scientific literacy is the implementation of short-term projects and courses in schools. These initiatives would leverage specialized human and material resources provided by external partner organizations (e.g., academia), complementing the school’s capabilities and engaging the target audience.
By conducting a systematic review of databases, considering the research question and using the Population, Phenomena of Interest, Context (PICo) framework as described by Hosseini et al. (28)—What are the experiences of secondary school students related to microbiology learning in the school context?—we identified 56 relevant references from the last ten years. Details on methods and the corpus of relevant references (CR) can be found in supplemental file 1 (Systematic review method).
We identified various dissemination strategies focused on public involvement and engagement, as well as citizen science (supplemental file 1 [CR1, 22, 30, 37, 53]). Additionally, some studies were centered on microbiology education integrated into school-curriculum context (supplemental file 1 [CR8, 23]) and aimed to produce innovative learning resources for secondary school students to learn about microbiology (supplemental file 1 [CR2, 12, 14, 16, 18, 21, 33, 36, 40, 54]).
All the analyzed studies consist of projects or courses that resulted from some type of partnership between university professors/researchers and secondary schools/community. Some studies focused on specific topics, such as examining antibiotic resistance development as an example of natural selection and exploring the importance of preserving antibiotic efficacy (some framing it as a SSI) (supplemental file 1 [CR3, 8, 10, 16, 20, 24, 27, 43, 47, 52]), others addressed food safety and associated methods (supplemental file 1 [CR5, 21, 41, 45]), or broader themes like microbial morphology and phenotypic characteristics (supplemental file 1 [CR13, 15, 22, 52]).
The strategies of these projects vary depending on the resources available to the organizing institutions. Some offer participants the opportunity to work with researcher-tutors and older students (supplemental file 1 [CR1, 3, 5, 9, 11, 12, 24, 48, 49, 51]), while others focus on science communication through the creation of posters (supplemental file 1 [CR12, 26, 31, 32, 37, 42, 48, 51]), animations (supplemental file 1 [CR8]), and videos (supplemental file 1 [CR29, 53]). Several studies highlight strategies for microbiology education, including educational virtual games like Poison Riddle (supplemental file 1 [CR21]) and Tiny Biome Tales (supplemental file 1 [CR48]), as well as board games (supplemental file 1 [CR11, 16, 22, 38, 54]), story-based approaches (supplemental file 1 [CR11, 18, 55]), role playing (supplemental file 1 [CR42]), building 3D educational models (supplemental file 1 [CR19, 36, 38]), and online microbiology training programs, such as the international project e-Bug (supplemental file 1 [CR20]), OUWB Online Enrichment Program (supplemental file 1 [CR22]), Microbes and You (supplemental file 1 [CR52]), and Adopt a Microorganism (supplemental file 1 [CR11]). Other studies focus on hands-on laboratory activities (supplemental file 1 [CR3, 4, 6, 10, 12, 13, 23, 25, 34, 35, 44, 50, 52, 56]), field trips and excursions (supplemental file 1 [CR25, 29]), microscopy experiences (supplemental file 1 [CR6, 13, 35, 37]), or bioinformatics (supplemental file 1 [CR23, 37, 43]).
Some studies feature particularly original and innovative activities. For example, Harris et al. (supplemental file 1 [CR19]) presented 3D models, Tactile Teaching Tools with Inquiry-Guided Learning, to explain antibody-epitope binding specificity, making the strategy inclusive for blind, deaf, and hearing-impaired students. Furlain et al. (supplemental file 1 [CR17]) described how nanoscale magnetite-silver composites are effective and recoverable antimicrobial agents for water disinfection. Morales et al. (supplemental file 1 [CR32]) detailed a hands-on activity for learning biological concepts such as symbiosis and homeostasis through the study of termite gut protozoa, linking these to biological processes affecting both the human body and the environment. Somalinga et al. (supplemental file 1 [CR50]) described a three-day Photosynthetic Bioreactor Research Program, where secondary school students learned molecular biology techniques, including PCR, DNA gel electrophoresis, DNA ligation, bacterial transformation, recombinant protein over-expression, and protein purification.
Potvin and Hasni (29) identified key factors that enhance students’ interest, motivation, and attitude toward science and technology (S&T), such as activities (e.g., summer camps), contextualized in-school experiences, inquiry-based learning, and pedagogical approaches linked to real-world issues. Additionally, some studies assessed knowledge through surveys on relevant microbiology-related issues, e.g., pneumonia (supplemental file 1 [CR28]), antiviral vaccination, and COVID-19 (supplemental file 1 [CR7]), although with insufficient information on whether students received follow-up education based on the survey results.
The outcomes of these initiatives are encouraging, and participants often describe science as more approachable and reliable, considering it a potential career path (supplemental file 1 [CR9, 35, 36, 52]). Many students also gain awareness of new concepts and experience in conducting independent microbiology experiments (supplemental file 1 [CR10, 13, 35, 46, 54, 56]) and develop a revised understanding of microorganisms, overcoming the common misconception that they are always harmful to human health (supplemental file 1 [CR12, 15, 46, 50, 56]).
Deepening academia-school student interfaces
In line with the above studies, we also argue that enhancing the education and dissemination of S&T fields (namely microbiology) in secondary schools should be based on educational projects developed in collaboration with higher education institutions. This can be achieved by engaging students and fellows (master’s and PhD students and postdoctoral researchers) under the supervision of faculty members and researchers, both from the scientific area (microbiology) and science education.
The mutual benefits of this academy-school collaboration are significant. On the one hand, school students will benefit from:
access to researchers’ and professors’ expertise in microbiology topics;
interaction with higher education students and fellows, who, being only a few years older, share a similar generational mindset, making communication more effective;
the introduction of innovative and engaging learning strategies within the curricular framework; and,
exposure to the enthusiasm and passion of these young scientists for their research and science communication, which can captivate students, empower them to make informed decisions, and even motivate them to pursue STEM fields in their future studies.
On the other hand, higher education students and fellows will have the opportunity to communicate microbiology topics, develop skills in public engagement, and contribute to addressing misconceptions about science. Additionally, in many universities, science communication activities are eligible for credit accreditation in master’s/PhD programs, potentially enhancing students’ prospects for grants and job opportunities.
Potvin et al. (30) highlighted the benefits of collaborating with researchers to address misconceptions. For this, it is essential to translate complex scientific concepts into simple, engaging, and understandable language to non-scientific audiences (31). For example, Potvin et al. (30) found that school students’ interest is highly influenced by pedagogical novelty, perceived ease of learning, and their intention to pursue the subject, while self-concept is shaped by achievement and perceived ease of learning. Interestingly, Hellgren and Lindberg (32) noted that the Medicine Hunt Project prevented the decline of students’ intrinsic motivation for science, although it did not change their goals, attitudes, values, or beliefs.
Thus, there is an urgent need to develop educational and science outreach programs to engage school students in microbiology activities. These programs should be interactive and structured around a university-school-society partnership, where higher students/fellows may play a key motivational role.
The EduBiota program concept
New positive emotions and inspirations can emerge in microbiology and health learning by including scientific and societal concepts like the microbiome and holobiont. After reviewing the literature and studying microbial literacy among a cohort of Portuguese 12th-grade students (33), we emphasize the importance of introducing these cutting-edge concepts in secondary schools. Such topics revolutionize our understanding of human biology, interspecies relationships, homeostasis, and disease while highlighting the crucial role of beneficial microorganisms. Engaging with these topics deepens students’ awareness of their bodies and health, fostering informed views on disease prevention (e.g., diabetes and autoimmune disorders), healthier eating habits, and antibiotic overuse risks.
The analysis of the Portuguese, Spanish, and French curricula revealed critical areas where microbiology education could be strengthened—particularly regarding hands-on experience, microbiota literacy, and real-world contextualization. These findings highlight the pressing need for educational initiatives to bridge these gaps. In this context, we propose EduBiota, a collaborative program designed to address these challenges and enhance microbiology literacy at the secondary school level. This initiative fosters collaboration between different educational levels and connects schools with research centers. EduBiota can help consolidate microbiology as a key tool for scientific literacy and civic engagement. The integration of hands-on activities, real-world case studies, and interdisciplinary approaches promoted by the EduBiota program addresses the identified gaps, transforming microbiology education into a driver of educational innovation and societal awareness.
EduBiota is a research-driven initiative for Portuguese secondary school students exploring microbiology and human microbiota. It aims to leverage microbiology knowledge, promote scientific literacy, and foster positive attitudes toward science, stimulating interest in scientific careers. The EduBiota team includes Academia (university professors, specialists in microbiology and science education, researchers, and PhD/master’s students), schools (teachers and students), and Science Communication Centres (Centro Ciencia Viva, a Portuguese network of science dissemination to the public, https://www.cienciaviva.pt/en/) .
EduBiota will enhance microbiology literacy through multiple resources, tailored to various school contexts (Fig. 1):
Fig 1.
Brief description of the EduBiota Educational Framework.
Knowledge base through curricular references, inspiration from educational models, feedback from participating schools, and curated bibliographic resources.
Live interaction activities promote real-time engagement through accredited training, workshops, conferences, and outreach activities.
@EduBiota site (edubiota.com) provides diverse educational tools, including online forums, podcasts, tutorial videos, experimental protocols, lesson plans, and image galleries.
While primarily targeting secondary schools, EduBiota will also be accessible to the public, broadening microbiology literacy.
The program draws inspiration from and promotes other resources that describe microbiology topics that integrate into biology curricula and relate to the UN Sustainable Development Goals (such as Table S1). It is important to connect curricular topics with real-world challenges and their societal impact. Additionally, most of the resources we share aim to strengthen core classroom competencies, such as hypothesis formulation, scientific inquiry, and data interpretation, while also developing socio-emotional skills, including critical thinking, problem-solving, decision-making, resilience, communication, and respect for diversity.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) grant 2024.04293.BDANA.
Contributor Information
Lara Raquel Pinto Amorim, Email: up201100276@edu.fc.up.pt.
Davida S. Smyth, Texas A&M University-San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, USA
SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL
The following material is available online at https://doi.org/10.1128/jmbe.00107-25.
Details on methods and the corpus of relevant references.
Microbiology topics that integrate into biology curricula and align with the UN Sustainable Development Goals.
ASM does not own the copyrights to Supplemental Material that may be linked to, or accessed through, an article. The authors have granted ASM a non-exclusive, world-wide license to publish the Supplemental Material files. Please contact the corresponding author directly for reuse.
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Associated Data
This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.
Supplementary Materials
Details on methods and the corpus of relevant references.
Microbiology topics that integrate into biology curricula and align with the UN Sustainable Development Goals.