Student identities predict classmate and instructor fear of negative evaluation among undergraduates in large-enrollment introductory biology courses

ABSTRACT

Undergraduate biology students describe fear of negative evaluation (FNE), defined as a sense of dread associated with being unfavorably evaluated in a social situation, as negatively affecting their experiences in active learning courses. Yet, few studies have examined who is prone to experiencing FNE, the severity and duration of FNE, and whether the effects of FNE are experienced equally among undergraduates. To address these gaps, we surveyed 494 undergraduates enrolled in active learning introductory biology courses about their FNE as it relates to students in their courses (classmate FNE) and to their instructor (instructor FNE). Students reported higher instructor FNE than classmate FNE. Using linear regressions, we found that women and nonbinary students, persons excluded based on ethnicity or race (PEERs), continuing-generation college students, LGBTQ+ students, and non-native English speakers had higher instructor FNE than their respective counterparts. PEER students also had higher classmate FNE than white students. Women, nonbinary, and PEER students were more likely than men and white students to report a greater negative impact of FNE on their abilities to articulate their thoughts about science in class. This work highlights the importance of reducing FNE with the intent to create more equitable active learning biology classrooms.

INTRODUCTION

College biology students learn more and fail less in active learning courses where undergraduates engage in their learning through activities and discussions in class (1). However, research suggests that active learning science courses have the potential to exacerbate student fear of negative evaluation (FNE) (2–6), defined as the sense of dread associated with being unfavorably evaluated in a social situation (7, 8). Active learning courses offer an array of social evaluative situations or social situations where students may be judged by others (9, 10). Each social evaluative situation, such as working in a group or being asked to speak out in front of the whole class, has the potential to evoke FNE among undergraduates.

Studies have shown that when students have the choice of whether to ask or answer questions in front of large-enrollment science courses, over half of the students never participate, and FNE is a prominent factor influencing their comfort and self-reported participation (11, 12). Presenting in front of the class and being cold called, defined as involuntarily having to answer a question in front of the class without first talking to another student, cause the highest FNE among students (13). While instructors sometimes assume that students’ FNE will decrease with increased exposure to a particular active learning practice (14), evidence suggests that students need to have repeated opportunities to practice successfully sharing their thoughts in class in order for their FNE to be reduced (15, 16), and large-enrollment science courses rarely provide sufficient opportunities for each student to be called on (14).

Effects of FNE on undergraduates in active learning

Hampering student participation is just one consequence of high FNE among students enrolled in active learning college science courses. Undergraduates describe that worrying about being judged by others in class makes it difficult to think through science problems and can cause them to struggle to articulate their thoughts in front of others (2, 4). However, undergraduates report one potential benefit to experiencing FNE: it causes them to prepare more for class (4). These qualitative findings were corroborated by a survey study of 566 college science students across grade levels; participants reported that FNE most frequently caused them to overthink their responses and participate less in class, followed by causing them to prepare more for class and struggle to think and speak about science problems (13).

Gaps in the literature on FNE in college biology courses

Despite the effect that FNE may have on students, there is limited research on this topic in the context of active learning. However, two qualitative studies examining FNE in active learning science courses found that students fear negative evaluation from other students and their instructors (2, 4). Participants expressed concern that if their peers negatively evaluate them in class, they could be socially ostracized. They also highlighted that instructors may be quick to pass judgment since they are experts on the content. Despite undergraduates in active learning courses distinguishing between fearing negative evaluation from their peers and instructors, previous quantitative studies have not differentiated between these two sources of judgment. In addition, undergraduates describe a range of duration with regard to FNE: while some students describe experiencing FNE only in the moment of engaging in an active learning activity, others describe FNE as lasting for days (2, 4). Yet, it is unknown which of these durations is most common among undergraduates.

It is also important to consider that FNE may differ among demographic groups. For example, studies show that women, first-generation college-going students, LGBTQ+ students, and students with disabilities report disproportionately high levels of FNE compared to their respective counterparts (13, 17). Recent research has shown that women and LGBTQ+ undergraduate science students express lower academic social comparison relative to their respective peers, meaning they perceive themselves as less than their peers with regard to their desirability as a groupmate, the extent to which they fit in among others in their major, and their academic talent (17). Students’ academic social comparison partially mediates the relationship between FNE and both gender and LGBTQ+ status. In other words, on average, women and LGBTQ+ students perceive themselves as less than their peers, which partially explains their disproportionately high FNE. Additionally, it is possible that students in minority groups, including persons excluded because of their ethnicity or race (PEERs), may have higher levels of FNE compared to their counterparts in majority groups because of stereotype threat. Stereotype threat describes a situation where an individual worries about being judged because of a particular negative stereotype about a group in a specific context (18). Furthermore, FNE was first documented in language learning courses, where students were asked to practice speaking a language they are learning in front of others in the class (19, 20). As such, students whose first language is not English may have higher levels of FNE if asked to speak in English in front of others. Finally, interviews with undergraduates in active learning courses found that students who feel as though they are struggling with the course content express FNE because they worry that others will judge them if they do not know the answer to a question. So, students with lower GPAs may be more likely to express FNE compared to their counterparts with higher GPAs. While there is some evidence that FNE varies by student identities, it is unknown whether the consequences of FNE vary by student demographics.

To address these gaps in the literature, we conducted a study of introductory college biology students in large-enrollment courses that incorporated active learning to address the following research questions:

1. To what extent do students report FNE from other students in class, and what is the average duration of classmate FNE?

2. To what extent do students report FNE from their instructors and what is the average duration of instructor FNE?

3. In what ways do students perceive that FNE affects them?

For each of these research questions, we examined the extent to which student identities predict the respective outcomes.

METHODS

Student recruitment

In Spring 2019, we recruited students from a research-intensive institution in the Southwest United States who were enrolled in one of two introductory biology courses for majors. The two classes that we recruited from were taught by two different instructors who identify as men. Both instructors had prior experience teaching in an active learning way, and their teaching styles are similar in that their content delivery is punctuated by asking students to engage in their learning primarily through think-pair-share activities and clicker questions with discussions. We distributed a single survey to students near the end of the term, so that students had sufficient exposure to active learning. Students were incentivized to participate with a small amount of extra credit in the course. We estimate that ~700 students were recruited to participate, and ~71% (N = 494) consented and filled out the survey.

Survey development

Classmate and instructor FNE in large-enrollment active learning college biology courses

To assess participants’ FNE in the context of their large-enrollment active learning college biology course as it related to their classmates, we modified the 8-item Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation (BFNE) scale. The BFNE is a widely used instrument in social anxiety research (8, 21, 22). Information about the development and validity of the instrument is provided in the supplemental material. We modified the eight positively framed items by changing the wording of each item so that it prompted participants to only consider their classmates in their active learning college biology course. Participants answered items about the extent to which they worry about their classmates evaluating them using five Likert response options ranging from “1, not at all characteristic of me” to “5, extremely characteristic of me.” In a prior study of large-enrollment college science courses at the same institution, a similarly modified BFNE scale demonstrated excellent internal consistency (13). The internal consistency for the classmate BFNE was acceptable (Cronbach’s α = 0.96). Participants’ scores on each of the eight items were summed for a total “classmate FNE” score.

This process was repeated to assess participants’ FNE in the context of their college biology course as it related to their instructors. Specifically, we replaced the words “other students” in the classmate FNE scale with “instructor,” and the internal consistency was also acceptable (Cronbach’s α = 0.97). Participants’ scores on each of the eight items were summed for a total “instructor FNE” score. We labeled classmate FNE and instructor FNE scores ranging from 0 to 16 as mild FNE, 17 to 31 as moderate FNE, and 32+ as severe FNE (13).

Duration of classmate and instructor FNE

Four questions were developed to assess the average amount of time that undergraduates experience classmate FNE (e.g., “On average, how much time do you spend thinking about the impression you make on other students during your active learning biology course? After you talk with other students in your active learning biology course, on average, how much time do you spend worrying about what they think of you?”). Students answered the questions on a Likert scale: 0, none at all; 1, I think about it in the moment; 2, I think about it for the rest of the class session; 3, I think about it for the rest of the day; 4, I think about it for more than 1 day. These stems and Likert scale options reflect the ways in which students have described their experiences with FNE in active learning classrooms in prior interview studies (2, 4). This process was repeated to assess the average amount of time undergraduates experience instructor FNE. Participants’ scores on the four items were averaged for a “classmate” and “instructor FNE duration” score, respectively. Assessment of the validity of each measure is provided in the supplemental material.

Effect of FNE on students

Prior interview studies have found that while FNE typically negatively affects students by hindering their abilities to think through science problems and articulate their thoughts about science, it can positively impact them by causing them to prepare more for class (2–4). To assess the extent to which students’ FNE impacted these outcomes, students were asked, “In your active learning biology class, to what extent do you think your concern about what others think of you (i) causes you to come to class prepared (e.g., do the assigned reading)? (ii) negatively affects your ability to clearly say what you are thinking when discussing biology problems during class? (iii) negatively affects your ability to think through biology problems during class?” Students answered each question using a 5-point Likert scale: “1, Not at all,” “2, A little,” “3, A moderate amount,” “4, A lot,” and “5, An extreme amount.” When piloting the survey in cognitive interviews with students, they highlighted that when they had trouble thinking or speaking in front of the class, it was difficult to tell how much of that was because of classmate FNE versus instructor FNE; they simply knew they were worried what others think of them, which impacted their experience. Therefore, we intentionally worded the question to ask about what “others think of you” and did not ask about the impact of student and instructor FNE separately.

Student demographics

At the end of the survey, students were asked a suite of demographic questions, including questions about their gender, race/ethnicity, college generation status, LGBTQ+ status, native language, and GPA.

Before administering questions in the study, the survey was piloted with three students in cognitive interviews to see if they were interpreting the items as expected (23). Minor changes were made to improve readability and understanding of the items. A copy of the final survey can be found in the supplemental material.

Analyses

Demographic differences in classmate and instructor FNE and FNE duration

We used linear regression to assess whether student demographics predicted classmate FNE and instructor FNE. We regressed participants’ total FNE scores on gender (woman or nonbinary/man), race (white/Asian/PEER), college generation status (first-generation college going/continuing-generation college student), LGBTQ+ status (LGBTQ+/non-LGBTQ+), native language (English/English as a second language [ESL]), and GPA. We also accounted for whether students were enrolled in the first (BIO I) or second (BIO II) introductory biology course by including course as a random effect in the model (24). Only complete responses were included in the analyses (i.e., if a participant declined to state one of the demographic characteristics in the model, their responses were not included). This left 434 responses used in the regression analyses. For all descriptive statistics and other analyses, we include all participants (n = 494). Information about how demographic groups were determined, including why we grouped women and nonbinary individuals, is provided in the supplemental material.

We also used linear regression to assess whether student demographics predicted the duration of classmate and instructor FNE. For all models, we checked for multicollinearity among the predictors by examining the variance inflation factor (VIF) values using the car package in R (25). The VIF values indicated that there was no issue with multicollinearity. Assumptions of linearity, homoscedasticity, and normality were checked and met for all linear regressions. For linear regressions, beta coefficients are a measure of effect size. For example, in a model where classmate FNE is the outcome, a beta estimate of 3 would indicate that the group of interest scored three points higher on the FNE measure (out of 40) compared to the reference group. In reporting the results, means and standard deviations are reported to help conceptualize the average FNE and frequency scores for different student groups; all significant differences were detected using a linear regression, and the full results are reported in the supplemental material.

Student versus instructor FNE scores

A paired-sample t-test was conducted to test whether there was a difference in classmate versus instructor FNE scores. We used a Pearson correlation test to assess the relationship between classmate and instructor FNE scores.

Demographic differences in the effects of FNE on students

To assess whether students’ demographics predicted the extent to which they experience the effects of FNE, we ran three ordinal regressions. We regressed the student responses on the Likert scale questions asking the extent to which FNE (i) causes them to come to class prepared, (ii) negatively affects their ability to clearly say what they are thinking when they discuss their thoughts about science, and (iii) negatively affects their ability to think through biology problems in class. In the ordinal regressions, we included class as a fixed effect (rather than a random effect as in the linear regressions) because the R package used for analyses cannot run ordinal regressions with random effects with fewer than three groups. For all ordinal regressions, proportional odds assumptions were checked and met.

RESULTS

Participants

A total of 494 undergraduates participated in the study (Table 1). The demographics of the participants were reflective of the demographics of first- and second-year biology majors at the institution.

TABLE 1.

Participant demographics (N = 494)

Characteristic	Value, % (n)
Gender
Nonbinary	0.4 (2)
Man	28.9 (143)
Woman	69.8 (345)
Decline	0.8 (4)
Race/ethnicity
American Indian/Alaska Native	1.0 (5)
Asian	18.0 (89)
Black or African American	4.7 (23)
Latine	19.4 (96)
White	50.4 (249)
Another race	4.5 (22)
Decline to state	2.0 (10)
College generation status
First generation	27.3 (135)
Continuing generation	72.7 (359)
Decline to state	0.0 (0)
Native language
English	78.7 (389)
Not English (ESL)	20.9 (103)
Decline to state	0.4 (2)
LGBTQ+
No	86.0 (425)
Yes	9.3 (46)
Decline to state	4.7 (23)
GPA
M ± SD	3.49 ± 0.50
Class
Intro bio I	29.4 (145)
Intro bio II	70.6 (349)

Finding 1: persons excluded because of their ethnicity or race express disproportionately high levels of FNE as it relates to other classmates, and the duration of FNE is longer for LGBTQ+ students

Participants primarily reported mild FNE with regard to other students in class (58.5%), followed by moderate FNE (34.8%), with only 6.7% of students reporting severe FNE. The average FNE total score was between mild and moderate FNE (M = 16.4, SD = 8.1). PEER students were more likely to report significantly higher levels of classmate FNE (M = 17.9, SD = 8.8) compared to white students (M = 16.2, SD = 7.8) (Fig. 1A), although this difference is relatively small. The regression results are reported in the supplemental material. The mean classmate FNE duration score (M = 1.1, SD = 0.78) indicated that participants primarily experienced FNE “in the moment,” when they were worried about being judged by others, as opposed to not experiencing any FNE, or having FNE affect them for the class period, a full day, or more than 1 day. Notably, LGBTQ+ students were significantly more likely to report being impacted by classmate FNE for a longer period of time (M = 1.3, SD = 1.1) compared to their non-LGBTQ+ counterparts (M = 1.0, SD = 0.72) (Fig. 1B). The regression results are reported in the supplemental material.

Fig 1.

Beta coefficients and estimated 95% confidence intervals for women or nonbinary, Asian, PEER, first-generation college going (First gen), LGBTQ+, and English as a second language (ESL) students, as well as GPA, with regard to (A) classmate FNE scores and (B) duration of classmate FNE. Reference groups are men, white students, continuing-generation college students, non-LGBTQ+ students, and native English speakers. Confidence intervals that do not cross the vertical dashed line at x = 0 are statistically significant.

Finding 2: women and gender nonbinary individuals, PEERs, continuing-generation college students, LGBTQ+ students, and non-native English speakers express disproportionately high levels of FNE as it relates to instructors, and LGBTQ+ students and non-native English speakers report a longer duration of FNE

Participants also primarily reported mild FNE with regard to their instructor (52.4%), followed by moderate FNE (36.6%), with 10.9% of students reporting severe FNE. The average instructor FNE total score was moderate FNE (M = 18.1, SD = 9.4) and significantly higher than the classmate FNE score (M = 16.4, SD = 8.1, t[493] = 5.0, P < 0.0001). There was a moderate positive correlation between instructor FNE and classmate FNE (r[492] = 0.67, P < 0.0001). Student groups who reported disproportionately high instructor FNE compared to their counterparts included women and nonbinary individuals (M = 19.1, SD = 9.3) compared to men (M = 16.0, SD = 8.8), PEER students (M = 20.5, SD = 10.1) compared to white students (M = 17.4, SD = 9.2), continuing-generation college students (M = 18.3, SD = 9.2) compared to first-generation college students (M = 17.5, SD = 9.6), LGBTQ+ students (M = 21.2, SD = 11.4) compared to non-LGBTQ+ individuals (M = 18.0, SD = 2.3), and non-native English speakers (M = 19.6, SD = 10.2) compared to native English speakers (M = 17.7, SD = 9.1) (Fig. 2A). Specifically, PEER (β = 3.8), LGBTQ+ (β = 3.1), and continuing-generation college students (β = 3.0) are likely to score ~3 points higher than their respective group on the instructor FNE scale, while non-native English speakers (β = 2.6) and women and non-binary individuals (β = 2.5) are likely to score ~2.5 points higher, indicating modest differences among these groups. The mean instructor FNE duration score (M = 1.2 ± .9) indicated that participants primarily experienced FNE “in the moment,” when they were interacting with their instructor. LGBTQ+ students (M = 1.5 ± 1.2) compared to non-LGBTQ+ students (M = 1.1 ± .92) and non-native English speakers (M = 1.3 ± 1.0) compared to native English speakers (M = 1.1 ± .91) were more likely to report a significantly longer duration of FNE (Fig. 2B).

Fig 2.

Beta coefficients and estimated 95% confidence intervals for women or nonbinary, Asian, PEER, first-generation college going (First gen), LGBTQ+, and English as a second language (ESL) students, as well as GPA, with regard to (A) instructor FNE scores and (B) duration of instructor FNE. Reference groups are men, white students, continuing-generation college students, non-LGBTQ+ students, and native English speakers. Confidence intervals that do not cross the vertical dashed line at x = 0 are statistically significant.

Finding 3: FNE causes students to prepare more, but more than half report that it hinders their abilities to articulate their thoughts about science and think clearly in class

Participants were asked to what extent worrying about what others think of them causes them to prepare more for class, hinders their ability to say what they are thinking when discussing biology problems during class, and hinders their ability to think through biology problems during class. Sixty percent of students reported that FNE causes them to prepare more for class at least a little. However, FNE also had a notably negative impact on students’ experiences in the course. Sixty-four percent reported that FNE hinders their ability to articulate their thoughts in class, and 53% reported that it can hinder their thinking, with the severity of impact ranging from a little to extremely (Fig. 3).

Fig 3.

The extent to which students agree that FNE causes them to improve their preparation for class, hinders their ability to articulate their thoughts in class, and hinders their ability to think through science problems.

We assessed whether student demographics predicted the extent to which they reported that their FNE affected their preparation for class, their ability to articulate their thoughts when discussing biology in class, and their ability to think through biology problems during class. There were no demographic differences in the extent to which students perceived that FNE caused them to prepare more in class (Fig. 4A). However, women and nonbinary students had 1.7× higher odds than men, and PEER students had 1.7× higher odds than white students of reporting a more negative effect of FNE on their ability to clearly articulate their thoughts in class (Fig. 4B). Additionally, women and nonbinary individuals had 1.8× higher odds than men of reporting a more negative impact of FNE on their ability to think through biology problems (Fig. 4C).

Fig 4.

Odds ratios and estimated 95% confidence intervals for women or nonbinary, Asian, PEER, first-generation college going (First gen), LGBTQ+, and English as a second language (ESL) students, as well as GPA, with regard to the extent FNE (A) causes them to prepare more for class, (B) hinders their speaking, and (C) hinders their thinking. Reference groups are men, white students, continuing-generation college students, non-LGBTQ+ students, and native English speakers. Confidence intervals that do not cross the vertical dashed line at x = 1 are statistically significant.

DISCUSSION

This study revealed that introductory biology students tend to have mild to moderate FNE with regard to their classmates and instructors. This is encouraging given that we hypothesize that lower levels of FNE, in contrast to either no FNE or high levels of FNE, would likely have a positive impact on student motivation and performance (26, 27). Indeed, over half of the participants in this study reported that their FNE caused them to prepare more for class. However, we argue that instructors may want to consider other ways of motivating students, rather than relying on FNE, given that it did not improve preparation for 40% of students and considering the potential detrimental impacts of moderate to severe FNE, which disproportionately affect underrepresented and underserved groups.

Reasoning for FNE-related demographic differences

In contrast to a recent study of undergraduates showing that women and nonbinary students report higher classmate FNE across college science courses compared to men (17), the current study did not detect a significant gender difference in classmate FNE but did find that women and nonbinary individuals had higher instructor FNE than men. A notable difference between the previous study (17) and the current study is that the previous study was conducted across science courses (including physics, chemistry, and geosciences), where men are often the majority, and the current study is specific to biology courses, where women are often the majority (28–30). Women in particular may feel more confident when they are surrounded by other women (31). Given that both of the instructors of the courses studied here were men, this may contribute to the gender difference in instructor FNE. Additionally, compared to men, women and nonbinary individuals reported a greater impact of FNE on their ability to think through science problems in class and their ability to articulate what they are thinking. A prior study shows that men underestimate the academic performance of women in undergraduate biology classrooms, even when outspokenness is controlled for (32). It is possible that for some students, FNE could hinder them from expressing their thoughts as effectively as they would like, potentially impacting how their academic performance is perceived by others.

PEER students reported significantly higher classmate and instructor FNE compared to their white counterparts, although both differences were relatively small (an average of a 2-point increase for student FNE and a 3-point increase for instructor FNE, on 40-point scales). Evidence suggests that PEER college students experience stereotype threat (18, 33). As such, it is possible that during social interactions in active learning science courses, PEER students worry about confirming stereotypes, which could increase their FNE.

LGBTQ+ students reported modestly higher instructor FNE compared to their non-LGBTQ+ counterparts. However, the duration of LGBTQ+ students’ FNE was longer for interactions with classmates and instructors. The longer duration of LGBTQ+ students’ FNE may be due to the stress of navigating their concealable stigmatized identity in a classroom with more social interactions (34). The higher FNE with instructors and not classmates for LGBTQ+ students may stem from worries about LGBTQ+ acceptance among older, less-accepting generations. Exploratory research indicates that college students are accepting of LGBTQ+ individuals revealing their identities in the classroom (35, 36).

Students who speak English as a second language may have slightly increased FNE from their instructor because of worry about being understood with an accent or using the right word (37, 38). Additionally, there can be stigma surrounding individuals whose native language is not English in courses that are taught in English; there is some research which highlights that native English-speaking instructors are perceived to be more competent than non-native English-speaking instructors (39, 40). Students who speak English as a second language may have greater FNE from instructors compared to their classmates because older adults, compared to younger adults, are more likely to harbor implicit biases toward other groups (41). Furthermore, some of these students may be more familiar with large power distance cultures, where cultural hierarchical roles are valued (42), compared to the US, which is considered a medium power distance culture. Thus, they may fear what instructors think of them but not what other students think of them, due to the hierarchical status of instructors in the classroom.

Continuing-generation college students displayed modestly higher levels of instructor FNE compared to first-generation college students. This is in contrast to recent studies where one showed no difference in FNE between first- and continuing-generation college students’ classmate FNE (17), and another showed that first-generation college students in active learning science courses expressed higher classmate FNE (13). However, continuing-generation college students may experience more pressure to perform well in front of instructors. A study of college students found that increased levels of student-reported helicopter parenting, defined as parents who closely watch or “hover” over their children and who are often overinvolved in parenting, are associated with higher levels of FNE (43). Parents of college students who themselves attended college can be heavily involved in their child’s school-related decisions, whereas parents who have not attended college may be more likely to encourage students to figure out school-related decisions independently (44). Therefore, it may be that continuing-generation college students are more likely to experience helicopter parenting as it relates to their college science courses and their relationships with instructors, which may be related to higher levels of instructor FNE.

Notably, while we predicted that lower-performing students may exhibit higher levels of FNE, GPA was not a significant predictor of FNE in the current study. It is possible that GPA is not a robust predictor of students’ biology content knowledge, so future studies should explore whether other potential predictors, such as students’ scores on a concept inventory or course pre-test, are predictive of FNE. While students who struggle academically may fear negative evaluation, it is possible that students who excel are particularly fearful of judgment, even if they are likely to perform well. In fact, researchers have found a significant positive correlation between FNE and perfectionism (45, 46).

Reducing FNE in active learning college biology courses

Repeated exposure to speaking in front of others in the same setting, particularly if the experience feels positive, may help alleviate FNE (16, 47). In small classes, this can be accomplished through small group work and whole class discussions, as long as there are enough opportunities for students to be able to share repeatedly in front of each other. For large-enrollment courses, there are simply too many students for any one student to have enough exposure in front of the whole class. This has caused some instructors to limit the sharing of ideas in front of the whole class; the share part of think-pair-share has been argued to be the most inequitable part of the activity and calls into question whether this is needed in large-enrollment courses (14). Instructors have identified alternative ways for students to share their thoughts in the classroom, such as through classroom polling or via electronic posts, which are less likely to induce FNE and result in inequities with regard to whose voices are heard.

Furthermore, instructors can explicitly express that they aim to create a “judgment-free” culture within their classroom to reduce both classmate and instructor FNE. Undergraduates in active learning courses have highlighted that it can be helpful when instructors successfully error frame (48) or imply that students’ incorrect answers are useful and natural (4). Students also emphasize the benefit of being able to discuss ideas with other students before being asked to answer a question in front of the whole class. Realizing that other students struggle with content too and answering on behalf of a group, as opposed to just themselves, help reduce students’ FNE (2, 4).

There are many instances beyond the college biology classroom where individuals are evaluated in social situations. As such, helping undergraduates to cope with FNE is important as they progress in their careers. Single-session interventions (SSIs) are specific, structured psychosocial intervention programs that intentionally involve just one encounter or engagement with a program or intervention and have been shown to improve emotional and behavioral functioning in young adults for decades (49). Currently, an SSI has been developed that is less than 30 minutes and delivered online to help undergraduate biology students cope with FNE. In a study of 282 upper-level active learning physiology students, participants who were randomized to complete the SSI reported greater increases in overall confidence in engaging in interactions with peers and instructors compared to students in the control condition (50). Therefore, if efforts to reduce FNE-evoking active learning practices are combined with interventions to help students cope with FNE, we predict that it could change who is speaking in the biology classroom and the quality of their contributions.

Limitations

This study was conducted in large-enrollment biology courses at a single research-intensive institution, so caution should be taken in generalizing the findings to other settings. Additionally, the way active learning is implemented, the makeup of each biology course, and the characteristics of the instructor likely affect students’ FNE, which is why the biology course from which the students were recruited was controlled for when assessing which demographics predict classmate and instructor FNE and duration of FNE. However, it is worth noting that the FNE levels reported by these students are similar to FNE levels reported by a sample of 566 students who were asked about their FNE across their college science courses (13). We also recognize that students may not accurately report their experiences and behaviors (51). Therefore, experimental studies are needed to test the extent to which FNE affects students’ preparation, cognition, and speaking abilities. Finally, we grouped women and gender nonbinary individuals together in analyses so as to not exclude nonbinary people from the study. Nonbinary individuals made up <1% of this group.

Future directions

Future studies are needed to better understand why demographics predict student and instructor FNE. While one study has found academic social comparison to be an important mediator between gender and LGBTQ+ status and FNE (17), other constructs, including stereotype threat (18) and perfectionism (45), warrant additional exploration. The research community would also benefit from further understanding what levels of FNE, as measured by student and instructor FNE scales, are associated with negative academic outcomes. Finally, instructor efforts to reduce both classmate and instructor FNE among their students should be systematically evaluated to identify evidence-based practices that others can adopt when looking to make their classrooms more inclusive.

Conclusion

Undergraduates enrolled in introductory college biology courses tended to exhibit mild to moderate FNE from their classmates and their instructors. Compared to their respective counterparts, PEER students reported disproportionately high FNE with regard to both classmates and instructors, while women and nonbinary individuals, continuing-generation college students, LGBTQ+ students, and non-native English speakers reported disproportionately high FNE with regard to their instructors. FNE commonly caused students to prepare more for class but also led them to struggle thinking through science problems, which was disproportionately the case for women and nonbinary students. FNE also caused students to struggle speaking during class, which was disproportionately true for women, nonbinary, and PEER students. Instructors can work toward creating more inclusive college science courses by fostering judgment-free active learning environments.

ETHICS APPROVAL

This study was done with approved Arizona State University IRB protocol #9791.

SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL

The following material is available online at https://doi.org/10.1128/jmbe.00191-24.

Supplemental material. jmbe.00191-24-s0001.docx.

Supplemental methods, think aloud protocol, copy of survey, and results of statistical analysis.

ASM does not own the copyrights to Supplemental Material that may be linked to, or accessed through, an article. The authors have granted ASM a non-exclusive, world-wide license to publish the Supplemental Material files. Please contact the corresponding author directly for reuse.