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. 2025 May 8;5(4):306–313. doi: 10.1021/acsnanoscienceau.5c00031

Plasmonic Double-Hole Bull’s Eye Nanoantenna for Far-Field Polarization Control

Abbas Ghaffari †, Somayeh Kashani †, Jiazhen Li †, Paschalis Gkoupidenis †,‡, Robert Riehn ‡, Qing Gu †,‡,*
PMCID: PMC12371598  PMID: 40862074

Abstract

Plasmonic polarization conversion offers significant advantages over conventional methods, including a smaller device footprint and easier integration into photonic circuits. In this work, we numerically and experimentally investigate the polarization conversion properties of a plasmonic double-hole structure surrounded by circular nanograting, i.e., a bull’s eye antenna. Using a combination of polarimetric imaging via back focal plane (BFP) microscopy and Stokes parameter analysis, we demonstrate the functionality of our structure as a miniature on-chip polarization converter. Our results show that this nanostructure enables complex polarization transformations, including converting linear to circular polarization and vice versa. Polarization conversion efficiency is found to be dependent on the periodicity of the circular gratings and is particularly pronounced in the central region of Fourier space. Moreover, strong asymmetric scattering leads to distinctive patterns in the Stokes parameters across various incident polarization states. This work provides insights into the plasmonic manipulation of light polarization at the nanoscale with potential applications in miniature on-chip polarization convertors, polarization-controlled emitters, and advanced sensing technologies.

Keywords: plasmonics, polarimetry, nano antenna, Stokes parameter, polarization conversion

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Introduction

Over the past two decades, significant advancements have been made in the fields of nanophotonics and plasmonics thanks to the rapid development of novel materials and nanofabrication technologies. − These advancements have enabled the precise manipulation of light at the nanoscale, unlocking a wide range of applications, from photocatalysis and electrocatalysis to various optoelectronic devices for sensing, energy harvesting, and biotreatment. Additionally, the versatile design of metasurface, chiral structures, and electromagnetic field localization have led to a deeper understanding and control over the fundamental properties of light. , In particular, it has been demonstrated that plasmonic structures can enable precise control of amplitude, phase, direction, and polarization states of electromagnetic waves through engineered geometries, resonances, and near-field interactions. − ,− Plasmonic polarization conversion offers significant advantages over conventional methods, including a smaller device footprint, easier integration into photonic circuits, higher wavelength selectivity, and more tunable polarization control.

State-of-the-art plasmonic polarization converters have utilized various approaches to manipulate, detect, or control the polarization state of light. These include plasmonic nanostructures ,− and metasurfaces with tailored chiroptical properties, , plasmonic nanostructures integrated with quantum emitters for polarization-dependent emission, ultrafast polarization switching in nonlinear plasmonic metasurfaces, and polarization control through thermal or spin effects. , Numerous studies have also explored polarization control using dielectric metasurfaces, each with distinct advantages and limitations. Dielectric metasurfaces enable low-loss operation; however, they require multiple devices to achieve different polarization states. − On the other hand, polarization holography provides efficient conversion but is restricted to fixed polarization states, and achieving polarization conversion requires specific exposure conditions. MEMS-based approaches offer tunability but require external actuation. ,

Plasmonic bull’s eye antennaconsisting of a central subwavelength aperture surrounded by concentric periodic grating etched in a metal filmis particularly noteworthy because of its simplicity and effectiveness. − This structure allows for precise control over beam shape and radiation direction by coupling localized and propagating surface plasmons. ,, The performance of the bull’s eye antenna can be tailored by adjusting antenna geometry, such as periodicity, and controlling the optical properties of the antenna environment, such as the refractive index of the surrounding material, making this design valuable for various nanophotonic applications, including efficient photon collection, highly directional room-temperature single photon sources. ,,−

As demonstrated by Lezec et al. and further studied by others, ,, the bull’s eye antenna can enable efficient coupling of incident light to surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs), enhancing the transmission coefficient through the aperture by orders of magnitude. Furthermore, these structures allow control over the directionality of transmitted light and can concentrate the electromagnetic energy at the central aperture. This beaming effect results from the interference between directly transmitted light and SPP-scattered light from the grating, where the radial propagation wavelength through the grating matches the grating period, and all scattering events from the grating are in phase. , Consequently, plasmonic bull’s eye structures have been used to enhance and control the unidirectional and unpolarized emission from single photon sources. ,, When used with light-emitting materials, this structure enables significant fluorescence enhancement with highly directional emission and narrow beam divergence angles. , When a quantum emitter is placed in the central aperture, its emission couples to SPPs that propagate radially outward along the metal surface, resulting in more photons being directed toward the collection optics, which leads to a large improvement in collection efficiency. −

On the other hand, polarization, i.e., the vector characteristic of light, plays a pivotal role in light–matter interaction, which can also be controlled through various plasmonic designs. ,− Various experimental approaches have been employed to study polarization effects in plasmonic structures, including polarization-resolved measurements like Stokes and Mueller matrix polarimetry, K-space polarimetry for far-field angular distribution, and near-field mapping techniques. , Recently, polarimetry imaging has drawn increasing attention for its ability to significantly enhance image contrast, particularly when imaging objects are in a scattering media. Furthermore, it holds substantial potential for applications in biomedical science and environmental research. ,

We previously demonstrated that the bull’s eye antenna can function as a refractive index sensor by efficiently coupling SPPs to the far field and creating a distinct interference pattern that is highly sensitive to refractive index changes within the subwavelength aperture. In this work, we exploit the use of a bull’s eye antenna to manipulate the polarization characteristics of the transmitted light, with an aperture consisting of a pair of plasmonic holes. We further explored its function as a polarization converter. We used back focal plane (BFP) imaging to characterize the spatial distribution of the transmitted light transmitted through the structure and measured the Stokes parameters at all points collected by the microscope objective. Our plasmonic metasurface introduces structural asymmetry, enabling polarization conversion across Fourier space. Notably, it has the potential to direct two orthogonal polarization states to different locations in k-space, allowing for simultaneous polarization multiplexing.

Results and Discussion

The proposed nanoplasmonic polarization converter is based on a pair of nanoholes embedded in the center of a bull’s eye antenna with six concentric circular corrugations, with a footprint of approximately 8–10 μm, patterned on a 160 nm thick gold film. The grating periodicity, ranging from 700 to 800 nm, is used to modify the polarization of the incident beam. The gold film is supported by a 170 um thick fused silica substrate with a chromium adhesion layer, and the structure is fabricated using focused ion beam (FIB) milling. The nanoholes have a center-to-center separation of 400 nm and an average aperture diameter of 150 nm. The schematic and scanning electron microscope (SEM) of the device are shown in Figure a,b, respectively. The dimensions are verified by SEM images. We use the finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method through commercial software Lumerical FDTD (Ansys, 2021) to simulate the transmitted field from the bull’s eye antenna with double holes, where a broadband plane wave light with various polarizations illuminates the structure, and observations are made from the glass substrate side. For circularly polarized light, two orthogonally polarized plane waves with a 90° phase shift are applied. The substitution of the plane wave by a Gaussian beam does not cause changes to the simulation results (Supporting Information SI.4). Transmitted fields are collected, and a near-to-far field transformation is performed to analyze the far-field patterns, with Stokes polarimetry used to study the polarization state. Experimentally, we use BFP microscopy to study light transmitted through the bull’s eye. BFP microscopy is widely used in biology and photonics to study properties of transmitted or emitted light, including polarization, intensity, phase, and spatial frequency (momentum), by capturing images at the back focal plane of the objective lens.

1.

1

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Device structure and experimental Stokes parameters measurement. (a) Schematic of the device structure. A 160 nm thick gold film is deposited on a 170 μm-thick fused silica substrate, with a 5–10 nm chromium adhesion layer in between. The grating has a periodicity (p) ranging from 700 to 800 nm, with a width (w) of p/2 and a depth (h) of 40 nm. At the center of each device, a pair of nanoholes is arranged with a center-to-center separation (S) of 400 nm and an average aperture diameter (D) of 150 nm. (b) SEM image of a device. The scale bar is 2 μm. (c, d) BFP images corresponding to different configurations, denoted as I a–I f in accordance with Table , of the analyzer under linear (y-polarized) and right-handed circular (RCP) polarizations of the incident beam, respectively. The scale bar in (c) is 280 μm.

To obtain a comprehensive understanding of the polarization state, we performed Stokes parameter analysis on all pixels corresponding to wave vectors within the numerical aperture (NA) of the objective lens. The optical testing setup, shown in Supporting Information SI.2, is a transmission microscope with an 800 nm laser focused onto the sample with a long working distance objective. Polarization is controlled by a quarter-waveplate (QWP) and a linear polarizer. Transmitted light is collected by a second microscope objective, collimated with a convex lens, and recorded by a CCD to capture the radiation pattern. Polarimetry uses a QWP and polarizer between the collimating lens and a flip mirror, while imaging in real and Fourier spaces is achieved with a plano-convex lens. To measure the four Stokes parameters experimentally, we conducted six different experiments with various angles of the QWP and linear polarizer relative to the x-axis.

Table outlines the configuration of the polarizer and QWP for the six experiments, where Φ and θ represent the angles of the linear polarizer and QWP relative to the x-axis, respectively.

1. Measured Transmission Intensities Under Six Analyzer Configurations (QWP Angle θ and Linear Polarizer Angle Φ) .

intensity θ (deg) Φ (deg)
I a 0 0
I b 90 90
I c 45 45
I d 135 135
I e 0 45
I f 0 135
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a

I a–I f denoting the transmitted light intensity. The first Stokes parameter, S 0 = I a + I b, represents the total intensity of the transmitted light. The second parameter, S 1 = I a – I b, which measures the vertical or horizontal polarization of light. The third parameter, S 2 = I c – I d, indicates whether the linear polarization aligns with ±45° angles. The fourth parameter, S 3 = I e – I f, captures the circular polarization component, reflecting the left- or right-handiness of the circular polarization state.

Figure c,d presents experiment cases under linearly (y-polarized) and circularly polarized (RCP) incident light, respectively. The subpanel labels I a to I f denote transmitted light intensities and correspond to those in Table . For most experiments, a donut-shaped or double lobe-shaped radiation pattern is observed, which rotated with changes in the angle configuration of the QWP and linear polarizer. Under linearly polarized light illumination, the lowest and highest transmission coefficients are recorded as I a and I f. For circularly polarized incident light, these values are recorded in I e and I a, respectively. The collected angular distribution of the beaming of the radiation pattern has been massively studied in the literature and can be explained by the excitation of SPPs, coupling, and scattering out by the grating. ,,,

To understand how our design of plasmonic double holes embedded in a bull’s eye antenna affects the polarization states and radiation pattern, we performed FDTD simulation and numerically compare the optical response of bare plasmonic double holes to that of a double hole encompassed by circular grooves, under various incident polarization conditions. To quantify the polarization state of the transmitted light in the simulation, a near- to far-field transformation is applied to the electromagnetic field data collected by a plane monitor. The Stokes parameters are then calculated using the standard formulations provided in eq , which offer a full numerical description of the polarization state of the transmitted light in terms of intensity and phase relationships between orthogonal field components.

S0=⟨Ex2⟩+⟨Ey2⟩S1=⟨Ex2⟩−⟨Ey2⟩S2=⟨ExEy*⟩+⟨EyEx*⟩S3=i⟨ExEy*⟩−i⟨EyEx*⟩ 1

Figure a,c depicts the simulated optical response of the bare double holes under circular (RCP) and linear y-polarized incident radiation, respectively. Analysis of the Stokes parameters S 3 and S 1 reveals that the transmitted light largely preserves the polarization state of the incident light with other Stokes parameters being close to zero across all angles in the Fourier space, indicating minimal polarization conversion (almost no polarization conversion). In contrast, in our design, Figure b,d demonstrates that the antenna induces significant polarization modifications (more details in Supporting Information SI.3). The S 3 parameter identifies regions in the Fourier space where the handedness of the incident beam is completely reversed, forming a ring-shaped pattern of opposite helicity. Furthermore, nonzero values of S 1 and S 2 in specific regions indicate a complete conversion from circular to linear polarization. Figure d illustrates the transformation of linearly polarized incident light to circularly polarized transmitted light. These observations provide evidence of strong interaction of light with the bull’s eye, resulting in substantial alterations in the polarization state of the transmitted light.

2.

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FDTD simulation of the bare double holes pair vs the double holes embedded in the bull’s eye structure. (a, c) Normalized Stokes parameters for the bare double holes under circular and linear polarizations of the incident beam, as shown schematically by blue and red arrows. (b, d) normalized Stokes parameters of the bull’s eye with the double holes under circular and linear polarizations of the incident beam. Here, hole separation and diameter are 200 and 100 nm, respectively. Light illuminates the structure from the top, and the thickness of the gold is 200 nm.

To experimentally investigate the polarization conversion properties of our structure, we performed polarimetric BFP imaging through Stokes parameter analysis. Our structure comprises a pair of holes with 400 nm spacing, surrounded by six concentric grooves with a periodicity of 700 nm. Under RCP incidence, Figure a depicts that the Stokes parameter S 0, which represents the total intensity, exhibits a subtle 3-fold rotational symmetry in its low-intensity regions, highlighted by the dotted lines in Figure a, S 0. This pattern contrasts with the intensity distribution observed under linearly y-polarized excitation in Figure b. Additionally, the central region of S0 displays two high-intensity lobes, bisected by an area of diminished intensity. Strong 3-fold and higher-order rotational symmetries have been observed in chiral plasmonic structures. The observed far-field radiation patterns in our structure arise from the interplay of two primary mechanisms: direct transmission through the nanoholes and SPPs excited by the apertures and the surrounding circular grating. Single subwavelength apertures, such as the nanoholes in our design, launch SPPs upon illumination by coupling localized surface plasmon modes to propagate SPPs on the metal-dielectric interface. The circular grating on the illuminated side enhances this process by providing the necessary momentum matching to convert incident photons into SPPs, with periodic corrugations acting as coupling interfaces. The radiation into the far field is governed by the interference between light directly transmitted through the nanoholes and SPPs that propagate along the metal surface and are subsequently scattered into the far field. This interference is phase-sensitive, producing complex intensity distributions that depend on the structural geometry and polarization of the incident light. This behavior aligns with prior studies that emphasize the role of single apertures and grating structures in facilitating efficient SPP excitation and coupling to the far field. ,,

3.

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Experimental polarimetric by BFP Imaging of bull’s eye with double holes embedded. Normalized Stokes parameters of any point in the Fourier space within the NA of the microscope objective, (a) under circular polarization (RCP) of the incident beam. The dotted lines highlight the subtle 3-fold rotational symmetry (b) under linear (y-polarized) polarization of the incident beam. The periodicity and width of the groove are 700 and 350 nm, respectively. The scale bar in (a) is 300 μm.

In the case of circularly polarized illumination, the S 1 parameter, which corresponds to the vertical and horizontal states of polarization, reveals pronounced linear polarization components at wave vectors corresponding to the 3-fold rotationally symmetric regions. However, the Stokes parameter S 2, which represents the degree of polarization aligning with ±45° angles, exhibits a spatial distribution in the Fourier space that closely resembles that observed under linear polarization. Notably, the S 3 parameter, which describes the circular state of the polarization, under circular illumination indicates that the central region weakly preserves the incident polarization state. On the other hand, under y-polarized illumination, Figure b shows that the Stokes parameter S 0 exhibits an angular distribution characterized by two high-intensity lobes separated by a region of reduced intensity. The distribution of S 1 indicates that most of the Fourier space retains the polarization state of the incident light. However, distinct regions display orthogonal polarizations relative to those of the incident beam, confirming polarization conversion to the orthogonal state. The distribution of S 2 reveals a cross-shaped pattern with alternating positive and negative values, suggesting the presence of diagonal linear polarization components. The S 3 parameter displays four mutually orthogonal lobes with distinct circular polarization states, including a notable region with circular polarization at normal incidence (kx = ky = 0). In summary, in both experimental configurations, we observed significant polarization state conversion, particularly pronounced in the central region of the Fourier space. The wave vectors of different colors (blue and red) in Figure confirm not only polarization conversion, as evident in S 1 (Figure a) and S 3 (Figure b), but also the angular distribution of light with orthogonal polarizations. These experimental observations validate the polarization manipulation achieved by our structure.

To quantitatively assess the polarization conversion efficiency and study the impact of the bull’s eye antenna periodicity, we focus our analysis on the central region (see analysis of other regions in Supporting Information SI.6), highlighted by the blue circle in Figure a, of the Fourier plane (kx = ky = 0). This region is of particular interest due to its fundamental significance in both theoretical photonics and practical applications like slow light and beaming. ,, Figure b presents the area-averaged Stokes parameters when an RCP beam is normally incident on the structure. The comparison of S 1 under different grating periodicities shows high values for all periodicities. This confirms that a significant portion of the transmitted light is converted from circular to linear polarization. On the other hand, small values of S 2 for all periodicities imply a negligible conversion to the diagonally linear polarization states. The same quantity is presented in Figure c when a y-polarized beam is normally incident on the structure. The values of S 1 show that the transmitted light preserves the polarization of the incident illumination. However, the values of S 3 reveal noticeable linear to circular polarization conversion for all periodicities. Our results highlight a key distinction between our plasmonic double-hole bull’s eye structure and conventional bull’s eye plasmon antennas. Unlike the structures investigated in prior studies, where the preservation of the incident polarization state at k = 0 is attributed to the system’s symmetry, our design inherently breaks this symmetry due to the presence of the double-hole aperture. This asymmetry enables significant polarization conversion, even in the central region of Fourier space.

4.

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Effect of the bull’s eye periodicity on the device’s performance in polarization conversion. (a) The blue circle in the image indicates the region utilized for averaging the Stokes parameters. (b) The polarization conversion of three devices with periodicities ranging from 700 to 800 nm, RCP of the incident beam. (c) Same as (b) but under y-polarization of the incident beam.

The periodicity-dependent polarization conversion observed in Figure can be explained by two contributing factors: [1] the phase relation between the transmitted light from the ZMWs and the scattered light from the rings that are directly influenced by the distance from the center of ZMWs to the first ring and [2] the excitation of SPPs, which is inherently dependent on the periodicity. As demonstrated in the study by Yi et al., the distance from the center of ZMWs to the first ring determines the phase relationship between the directly transmitted light and SPPs. When this distance closely matches the periodicity P, a stronger constructive interference occurs in the normal direction (around k = 0), resulting in a more pronounced central beam. As shown in Supporting Information SI.5, the radiation pattern from structures with different periodicities under vertically polarized incident light exhibits distinct features. For P = 700 nm, a weak central spot and two lobes are observed in the intensity distribution, and for P = 760 nm, the central spot is even weaker. Finally, for periodicity of P = 800 nm, the central spot almost disappears, suggesting destructive interference along the optical axis due to a mismatch between the distance from the center of ZMWs to the first ring and P. Therefore, the efficiency of the polarization conversion at the central region is linked to the angular distribution of light.

To show that periodicity impacts polarization conversion via the excitation of SPPs, as shown in Supporting Information SI.6, we have analyzed the polarization conversion of these devices (P = 700, 760, and 800 nm) under different polarization of the incident light across different regions and numerical apertures (NA). Our results indicate an overall stronger polarization conversion for a periodicity of P = 760 nm. As demonstrated by Laux et al., under illumination at 800 nm, SPPs are optimally excited when the grating periodicity is approximately 750 nm, which is close to our observed optimal periodicity of 760 nm. This suggests that the periodicity-dependent SPP plays a significant role in enhancing the polarization conversion efficiency. The efficient coupling of incident light into SPP modes at P ≈ 760 nm likely facilitates stronger light–matter interactions, leading to more effective polarization transformation.

Conclusions

The study highlights the sophisticated polarization conversion properties of a plasmonic double-hole surrounded by a bull’s eye antenna, examined through a combination of FDTD simulation and experimental BFP microscopy along with Stokes parameter analysis. This work reveals that the structure is capable of significantly altering the polarization state of the incident light, namely, the conversion from linear to circular polarization, and vice versa. These transformations are highly dependent on the periodicity of the bull’s eye geometry, with notable effects in the central region of the Fourier space.

The research observed asymmetric scattering and distinct Stokes parameter patterns across various incident polarization states. These results emphasize the bull’s eye with plasmonic double holes’ ability to manipulate light polarization at the nanoscale, which opens new avenues for developing polarization-controlled emitters and sensors. Moreover, this work contributes to a deeper understanding of the light–matter interaction in plasmonic nanostructures, which may pave the way to potential applications in quantum optics and biomedical sensing. Future research could focus on optimizing the geometry for specific polarization tasks and exploring its wavelength dependence.

Methods

Device Fabrication

Bull’s eye polarization converters with double nanoholes were fabricated on 160 nm thick gold films (on fused silica with a Cr adhesion layer) using focused ion beam (FIB) milling. The grating periodicity was varied between 700 and 800 nm, with groove width and depth set to p/2 and 40 nm, respectively. Nanoholes were 150 nm in diameter with a 400 nm center-to-center spacing. Metal layers were deposited by DC sputtering. Full fabrication details are provided in Supporting Information SI.1.1.

Optical Characterization

Optical measurements were performed using a transmission microscope setup with an 800 nm laser source and polarization control via a linear polarizer and QWP. Transmitted light was collected and analyzed in both real and Fourier space by using CCD imaging. Polarimetry was carried out using sequential QWP and polarizer elements. A full schematic and description are included in the Supporting Information SI.1.2.

FDTD Simulation

Three-dimensional FDTD simulations were performed using Lumerical to model light transmission through the structure under linearly and circularly polarized illumination. Material dispersion for gold was modeled by using a six-parameter fit. Near- to far-field transformations and Stokes polarimetry were applied to extract far-field polarization states. Additional simulation parameters are described in the Supporting Information SI.1.3.

Supplementary Material

ng5c00031_si_001.pdf (696.4KB, pdf)

Acknowledgments

Q.G. acknowledges support from the National Science Foundation (CAREER ECCS-2209871, ECCS-2240448). R.R. acknowledges support from the National Institutes of Health (GM126887) and the US Air Force Office of Scientific Research (AFOSR, FA9550-23-1-0311).

The Supporting Information is available free of charge at https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsnanoscienceau.5c00031.

  • Fabrication, optical characterization, and FDTD simulation methods (SI.1); optical setup (SI.2); comparison of bare vs structured double-hole pairs (SI.3); far-field radiation pattern analysis (SI.4); results for different numerical apertures (SI.5); and polarization conversion performance at varying numerical apertures (SI.6) (PDF)

A.G. conceptualized the research, fabricated the devices, and conducted FDTD simulations and experimental work. S.K. contributed to data analysis, image processing, and manuscript preparation. J.L. provided technical assistance with the optical setup. P.G. offered additional support. R.R. and Q.G. supervised the project and assisted in manuscript drafting. CRediT: Abbas Ghaffari conceptualization, data curation, formal analysis; Somayeh Kashani formal analysis; Jiazhen Li data curation; Paschalis Gkoupidenis project administration; Robert Riehn formal analysis, funding acquisition; Qing Gu funding acquisition, investigation, project administration.

The authors declare no competing financial interest.

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