ABSTRACT
Aim
To identify and critically appraise instruments that have been used to measure nurse resilience.
Design
A scoping review.
Data Sources
Comprehensive literature searches were conducted using four electronic databases CINAHL Ultimate, MEDLINE, PsycINFO and Emcare from the year 2012 to December 2024.
Methods
The titles, then abstracts, of retrieved articles were screened by the authors against inclusion and exclusion criteria, then full‐text screening was performed using Rayyan. Data about the study characteristics and the instruments used to measure nurse resilience were extracted. Copies of the instruments used to measure resilience were obtained and appraised.
Results
Of the n = 4694 publications identified in the initial search n = 386 were included in the scoping review. Studies originated in n = 45 countries, the majority were conducted in China (n = 119) and the United States of America (n = 53). Across the n = 386 included studies, n = 15 instruments to measure resilience were identified and critically appraised. The scores for the instruments critically appraised ranged from 0 to 6 out of a total possible score of 11. Synthesis of results examined instrument development, instrument features and application of instruments.
Conclusion
Critical appraisal of the instruments used to measure nurse resilience revealed significant deficiencies. None of the instruments included all of the key attributes and factors that influence nurse resilience. There was a predominant focus on individual factors and little consideration of the influence of nursing work environments. Due to the shortcomings of the existing instruments, there are currently substantial limitations in our understanding of nurse resilience and how to measure it.
Implications for the Profession
A profession‐specific comprehensive measure of nurse resilience needs to be developed to better capture the attributes of nurse resilience.
Impact
This review highlights the limitations of instruments applied to measure nurse resilience.
Reporting Method
The JBI scoping review framework.
Patient or Public Contribution
No patient or public contribution.
Keywords: adversity, instrument, measure, nurse, resilience, scale, stress, tool
Summary.
- What does this paper contribute to the wider global clinical community?
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○Nurse resilience has been predominately investigated in cross‐sectional studies of hospital‐based nurses.
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○The instruments that have been used to measure resilience in samples of nurses are generally weak and do not feature all of the known attributes and factors that influence nurse resilience.
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○The impact of the work environment should be considered when measuring nurse resilience.
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○
1. Introduction
Globally, nursing shortages continue to increase (Buchan and Catton 2023). This longstanding trend has been exacerbated by the coronavirus pandemic adding pressure to already struggling healthcare systems (Buchan, Catton, and Shaffer 2022). Nurses working in challenging conditions can experience negative impacts on their psychological well‐being (Hegney et al. 2015; Lorber and Dobnik 2022; Woo et al. 2020) which can impact the delivery of patient care (Aiken et al. 2023; Weaver et al. 2018). For example, burnout, which is one factor in resilience in nurses is associated with reduced patient safety and adverse events, including patient falls, medication errors and infections (Dall'Ora et al. 2020). In an attempt to promote patient safety and understand adverse psychological outcomes for nurses, protective factors such as resilience have been examined in research and practice (Mealer et al. 2012; Rees et al. 2015). The prevalence of research investigating nurse resilience has increased in recent years due to the urgent need to find ways to sustain and retain nurses in the profession (Kim and Chang 2022).
To investigate resilience in the context of nurses, researchers have sought to measure resilience with a variety of instruments (Cooper et al. 2020; Windle, Bennett, and Noyes 2011). Since early studies with a focus on nurse resilience were conducted (Dolan, Strodl, and Hamernik 2012; Manzano García and Ayala Calvo 2012; Mealer et al. 2012), our understanding of nurse resilience has evolved. This broader understanding of resilience is in keeping with psychological perspectives, where resilience is acknowledged to be variable based on the range of factors including time, context, age and the life circumstances individuals are exposed to (Connor and Davidson 2003). The majority of research investigating resilience has focused on the individual, and in practice, organisations have predominately looked at what individuals can do to maintain their own resilience whilst being exposed to the same work conditions (Cooper, Brown, and Leslie 2021b). This focus on the individual has come under criticism as it fails to examine and address factors in the work environment that undermine nurse resilience (Taylor 2019; Virkstis, Herleth, and Langr 2018). However, few research studies have investigated the external factors that influence nurse resilience (Cooper, Brown, and Leslie 2021b; Gensimore et al. 2020; Tabakakis et al. 2019).
A concept analysis (Cooper et al. 2020) and integrative review of nurse resilience (Cooper, Brown, and Leslie 2021b) highlighted the lack of consideration of external factors that can affect nurse resilience, and the consequent underestimation of the complexity of nurse resilience and the responsibility organisations have to their employees. Key attributes of nurse resilience were identified from the literature and a working definition was arrived at from the concept analysis (Cooper et al. 2020). The key attributes of nurse resilience derived from the literature were; (1) social support, (2) self‐efficacy, (3) work‐life balance (4) self‐care, (5) humour, (6) optimism and (7) being realistic. A limitation of the definition developed in the concept analysis was that it drew from the literature that had predominately focused on nurses maintaining their own resilience. To address this gap, an updated definition of nurse resilience was subsequently developed that derived from qualitative data obtained via focus groups with nurses. Data were analysed thematically, following the process described by Braun and Clarke (2006). This analysis revealed broader factors known to impact resilience in nurses. As a consequence of this focus group study, a further four attributes of nurse resilience were identified – workplace conditions, organisational philosophy, management performance and team factors – and a revised definition was published.
Resilience is a complex and dynamic process, influenced by individual factors, as well as modifiable workplace conditions, organizational philosophy, management performance, and the teams nurses work within. These factors influence the extent to which resilience can be sustained, to enable nurses to positively adapt to workplace stressors, avoid psychological harm, and continue to provide safe, high‐quality patient care (Cooper, Leslie, and Brown 2022, p. 9)
Given the urgent need to retain nurses in the profession and to ensure the highest standard of patient safety, establishing how well existing instruments capture the individual (Cooper et al. 2020) and organisational factors (Cooper, Leslie, and Brown 2022) known to influence nurse resilience is vital. The use of instruments that do not measure the known attributes of nurse resilience may be under‐ or over‐estimating levels of nurse resilience, contributing to the development of suboptimal interventions or strategies to promote nurse resilience, resulting in missed opportunities to better support nurses in their work.
2. The Review
2.1. Aim
The aim of this scoping review was to identify and critically appraise instruments that have been used to measure nurse resilience. The following question was developed to guide the review: How has resilience been measured in samples of nurses? The objectives of the review were to:
Identify all instruments that have been used to measure resilience in samples of nurses.
Extract information on the types of research studies that administered measures of resilience in samples of nurses.
Assess the features of each instrument used to measure resilience in nurses.
Ascertain how many of the key attributes (Cooper et al. 2020) and known factors that influence nurse resilience (Cooper, Leslie, and Brown 2022) are present in each instrument.
3. Methods
3.1. Design
A scoping review was conducted following the JBI scoping review framework (Peters et al. 2020) to identify and critically appraise instruments used to measure resilience in nurses (File S1). The JBI framework (Peters et al. 2020) consists of nine steps: (1) defining and aligning the research question and objectives; (2) developing and aligning the inclusion criteria with the research question and objectives; (3) describing the planned approach for searching, selecting, extracting and presenting the evidence; (4) searching the evidence; (5) selecting the evidence; (6) extracting the evidence; (7) analysing the evidence; (8) presenting the results and (9) summarising the evidence and drawing conclusions. The review is presented in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta‐Analyses Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA‐ScR) (Tricco et al. 2018).
3.2. Search Methods
The search strategy was developed by two authors (AC and GR) and reviewed by an academic librarian. In a preliminary search of the electronic database CINAHL Ultimate, key search terms were nurs* AND resilienc* AND measure OR tool OR scale OR instrument. Results were analysed for the detection of further key words and seed articles (Cooper, Brown, and Leslie 2021a; Mealer et al. 2012) were utilised to ensure all relevant articles were included. During preliminary searching, the key search terms cross‐sectional OR longitudinal were added. An exclusion search term of NOT qualitative was added to minimise the number of ineligible articles retrieved. The strategy identified key search terms that were then applied across four electronic databases; CINAHL Ultimate, MEDLINE, PsycINFO and Emcare (File S2). Search limits applied were articles published between the year 2012 and December 2024, full text and English language. The date limit of 2012 was applied to facilitate a timely review and with reference to this being a known time when a number of research studies (Dolan, Strodl, and Hamernik 2012; Manzano García and Ayala Calvo 2012; Mealer et al. 2012) quantitatively investigating resilience in nurses were emerging. Final database searches were conducted on the 9th of December 2024. All retrieved articles were uploaded to Endnote where duplicates were removed. The remaining articles were then transferred to Rayyan (Ouzzani et al. 2016).
3.3. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
Eligibility criteria were developed based on the JBI scoping review methodology (Peters et al. 2020) which includes Participants, Concept and Context. For this review: (1) Participants were nurses; (2) Concept was instruments used to measure resilience in samples of nurses and (3) Context was all healthcare settings. Inclusion criteria captured quantitative and mixed methods research studies that used an instrument to measure resilience in a sample of nurses working in any healthcare setting. Studies of Registered Nurses, Enrolled Nurses, Licensed Practice Nurses, Nurse Practitioners, Nurse Managers and all equivalents met inclusion criteria. The exclusion criteria were qualitative research studies and study samples that included student nurses, assistants in nursing, midwives, nurses working in academic settings or other health professionals. These exclusion criteria were applied to keep the review profession specific and relevant to clinical healthcare settings.
3.4. Selection of Sources
Following the removal of duplicates, a pilot of source selection was undertaken by the two authors (AC and GR) completing the screening process. A random sample of 25 titles and abstracts were reviewed. No modifications to the inclusion or exclusion criteria were required on completion of the pilot. A three‐stage review process was then undertaken. In the first stage, two researchers (AC and GR) independently screened the titles and abstracts to determine potential eligibility and relevance to the review. In the second stage, full texts were then independently reviewed and assessed (AC and GR) against the inclusion criteria. After the first and second stage reviews, conflicts on screening decisions were discussed and a final consensus was reached through discussion by three authors (AC, GR and JB). In the final stage of the review, copies of the instruments used to measure resilience in the publications were sought.
3.5. Data Extraction
Data were extracted for all research studies that met the inclusion criteria. The plan for data extraction was discussed by two authors (AC and GR) with reference to the second objective of the scoping review. The following data were extracted from each study; citation, year of publication, country/countries, study design, sample size, setting, resilience instrument used and other measures obtained.
3.6. Quality Appraisal
Critical appraisal is not a requirement of a scoping review (Pollock et al. 2022). Typically, critical appraisal involves evaluating the methodological rigour of the research studies included in a literature review (Tod, Booth, and Smith 2022). However, as the focus of this review was to identify and examine instruments that have been used to measure resilience in samples of nurses, a specific appraisal tool was developed to assess the instruments. Each instrument was scored based on the key attributes and known factors that influence nurse resilience (Cooper, Leslie, and Brown 2022) with a total possible score of 11 (Table 1). Based on Cooper, Leslie, and Brown (2022), the 11 key attributes and known factors that influence nurse resilience are; social support, self‐efficacy, work‐life balance, self‐care, humour, optimism, being realistic, workplace conditions, organisational philosophy, management performance and team factors. A comparison was made between what the original authors contended that each instrument measured, with the 11 key attributes and known factors that influence nurse resilience (Cooper et al. 2020; Cooper, Leslie, and Brown 2022). The working definitions (Cooper et al. 2020; Cooper, Leslie, and Brown 2022) for each key attribute of nurse resilience were used to determine if an instrument measured the construct (Table 1). Two authors (JB and GR) independently reviewed and scored (0 absent, 1 present) each included instrument based on the criteria outlined in Table 1. The scores were then compared and discussed by all of the research team until a consensus was reached about the scoring for each instrument assessed.
TABLE 1.
Working definitions of the key attributes of nurse resilience.
| Key attribute | Working definition | Score |
|---|---|---|
|
Social support |
“Nurses can draw social support from colleagues, managers, friends and family. Individuals need to engage with social supports, and workplaces can provide support systems and foster positive collegial relationships.” (Cooper et al. 2020) “the provision of assistance or comfort to others, typically to help them cope with biological, psychological, and social stressors. Support may arise from any interpersonal relationship in an individual's social network, involving family members, friends, neighbors, religious institutions, colleagues, caregivers, or support groups. It may take the form of practical help (e.g., doing chores, offering advice), tangible support that involves giving money or other direct material assistance, and emotional support that allows the individual to feel valued, accepted, and understood” (APA dictionary of psychology) (APA Dictionary of Psychology) |
1 |
| Self‐efficacy |
An individual's belief in their own ability to succeed. (Cooper et al. 2020) “An individual's subjective perception of their capability to perform in a given setting or to attain desired results” (APA dictionary of psychology) (APA Dictionary of Psychology) |
1 |
| Work–life balance |
“Work–life balance is the division of an individual's time between work and family or leisure activities.” Time does not need to be equally divided between work and leisure but rather work‐life balance is met when there is a compatibility between work and non‐work activities. (Cooper et al. 2020) “The level of involvement between the multiple roles in a person's life, particularly as they pertain to employment and family or leisure activities” (APA dictionary of psychology) (APA Dictionary of Psychology) |
1 |
| Self‐care | “When an individual actively practices protecting their well‐being and happiness. This encompasses … both physical and mental well‐being” (Cooper et al. 2020) | 1 |
| Humour |
“The ability to make light of adversity” (Cooper et al. 2020) “The ability to find things funny, the way in which people see that some things are funny, or the quality of being funny” (Cambridge dictionary) (HUMOUR | English meaning ‐ Cambridge Dictionary) |
1 |
| Optimism |
“Optimism is the extent to which individuals hold favourable expectations for the future” (Cooper et al. 2020) “In nurses, optimism is often discussed in the context of remaining positive and looking for the positive in adversity” (Cooper et al. 2020) |
1 |
| Being realistic | “Being realistic can be described as having a practical and sensible idea of what can be achieved or expected. This includes reframing experiences, having realistic expectations about caregiving, cultivating a realistic perspective on life and realistic goal setting” (Cooper et al. 2020) | 1 |
| Workplace conditions | Perceptions of management of the hospital and organisational support offered. Physical resources available to staff, leave and pay conditions, and support services all contribute to workplace conditions (Cooper, Leslie, and Brown 2022) | 1 |
| Organisational philosophy | Does the workplace uphold the organisational values and philosophy at the organisational level? Does the organisation “live” the values it sets and is this evident in working conditions? (Cooper, Leslie, and Brown 2022) | 1 |
| Management performance | Management performance and perceptions of management impact nursing resilience. Leadership skills and level of support provided by management included (Cooper, Leslie, and Brown 2022) | 1 |
| Team factors | Camaraderie can increase resilience levels in nursing. Team and colleague support and dealing with adversity as a unit rather than an individual can assist nurses to cope with challenges and improve resilience (Cooper, Leslie, and Brown 2022) | 1 |
3.7. Synthesis of Results
A descriptive summary of the review findings is presented through narrative, tables and figures. In keeping with the aim and objectives of the review, data were extracted and presented to describe the characteristics of studies that have measured resilience in samples of nurses.
4. Results
4.1. Selection of Sources of Evidence
The initial search identified n = 4694 publications. Of these, n = 2598 were duplicates, leaving n = 2096 for possible inclusion (Figure 1). The remaining publications underwent title and abstract screening and n = 1542 were excluded. This left n = 554 publications for full‐text review, where a further n = 148 publications were excluded, leaving n = 406 publications. The resilience instruments for these n = 406 publications were then reviewed. There were n = 5 studies that used an instrument that was not published in the literature and not available following requests from the authors, and n = 15 where the instrument was not available in English. Following these exclusions, n = 386 publications met the inclusion criteria.
FIGURE 1.
PRISMA flow diagram.
4.2. Characteristics of Sources of Evidence
The prevalence of studies that measured resilience in samples of nurses increased from n = 3 studies published in 2012 to n = 105 in 2024 (Figure 2). The majority of studies (n = 329, 85%) had a cross‐sectional design (Table 2 File S3). Only 47 studies had an interventional design. Of these n = 30 consisted of interventions that aimed to promote nurse resilience. Studies originated in n = 45 countries; the majority were conducted in China (n = 119) and the United States of America (n = 53) (Table 2). Study samples predominately consisted of hospital‐based nurses, working in all specialities. Sample sizes ranged from seven to 70,932 participants. A number of studies focused on specific specialities, with intensive care (n = 23), mental health settings (n = 23) and emergency departments (n = 16) being the most frequently investigated.
FIGURE 2.
Number of articles measuring resilience in nurses by country and year.
TABLE 2.
Summary of included studies.
| Author and year | Country | Study design | Sample size | Setting | Resilience tool/measure used | Other attributes measured/tools used |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Abdollahi et al. (2021) | Iran | Cross‐sectional | 422 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Professional moral courage |
| Abdulmohdi (2024) | United Kingdom | Cross‐sectional | 294 | Multisite hospital and community | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10 item | Burnout, perceived social support and perceived organisational support |
| Abu‐Alhaija and Gillespie (2022) | America | Cross‐sectional | 48 | Multisite hospital trauma EDs | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Clinical events |
| Abualruz and Hayajneh (2023) | Jordan | Quasi‐experimental | 150 | Single site hospital | Brief Resilience Scale | Depression, anxiety and stress |
| Abualruz et al. (2024a) | Jordan | Cross‐sectional | 155 | Multisite hospital | Brief Resilience Scale | Depression, anxiety, stress, emotional intelligence |
| Abualruz et al. (2024b) | Saudi Arabia | Cross‐sectional | 150 | Single site hospital | Resilience Scale 14‐item | Emotional intelligence, work engagement and psychological empowerment |
| Afshari et al. (2021) | Iran | Cross‐sectional | 387 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Nil |
| Aghamohammadi et al. (2023) | Iran | Cross‐sectional | 1025 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Persian translation) | Nil |
| Akbulut et al. (2023) | Turkey | Cross‐sectional | 676 | Single site hospital | Brief Resilience Scale | Vaccination hesitancy and anxiety |
| Akinabadi et al. (2024) | Iran | Cross‐sectional | 205 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Family function and lifestyle |
| Alameddine et al. (2021a) | Lebanon | Cross‐sectional | 265 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Job satisfaction |
| Alameddine et al. (2021b) | Lebanon | Cross‐sectional | 511 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Intention to quit and burnout |
| Alan et al. (2022) | Turkey | Cross‐sectional | 489 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Turkish translation) | Critical thinking, diagnostic skills and communication skills |
| Albaqawi et al. (2024) | Saudi Arabia | Cross‐sectional | 511 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10 item | Compassion fatigue, moral injury and moral distress |
| Albougami (2024) | Saudi Arabia | Cross‐sectional | 216 | Single site hospital | Brief Resilient Coping Scale | Nil |
| Alenezi (2024) | Saudi Arabia | Cross‐sectional | 361 | Single site mental health setting | Resilience at Work Scale | Workplace violence |
| Al Hadid et al. (2022) | Jordan | Cross‐sectional | 300 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Perceived stress |
| Alharbi et al. (2020) | Saudi Arabia | Cross‐sectional | 321 | Multisite hospital critical care settings | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Coping strategies, compassion satisfaction and compassion fatigue |
| Al‐Harrasi et al. (2024) | Oman | Cross‐sectional | 173 | Multisite hospital | Brief Resilience Scale | Burnout |
| Alhawatmeh et al. (2021) | Jordan | Cross‐sectional | 550 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Perceived stress, physical health, psychological health and social health |
| Almegewly et al. (2022) | Saudi Arabia | Cross‐sectional | 139 | Single site hospital critical care settings | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Perceived stress |
| Alonazi et al. (2023) | Saudi Arabia | Cross‐sectional | 179 | Single site hospital mental health settings | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Compassion fatigue, compassion satisfaction, burnout and secondary post‐traumatic stress |
| Al‐Shomrani et al. (2024) | Saudi Arabia | Cross‐sectional | 318 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Turnover intention |
| Andersen et al. (2021) | America | Cross‐sectional | 167 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Non‐work‐related stress and shift work characteristics |
| Ang et al. (2018a) | Singapore | Cross‐sectional | 1338 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Burnout, compassion fatigue and secondary traumatic stress |
| Ang et al. (2018b) | Singapore | Cross‐sectional | 1338 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Nil |
| Aqtam et al. (2023) | Iran | Cross‐sectional | 227 | Multisite hospital intensive care units | Brief Resilient Coping Scale | Stress |
| Asadi et al. (2023) | Iran | Cross‐sectional | 340 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Professional ethics |
| Ata et al. (2020) | Turkey | Cross‐sectional | 100 | Single site hospital intensive care unit | Resilience Scale for Adults | Compassion fatigue, compassion satisfaction, burnout and secondary post‐traumatic stress |
| Atay et al. (2023) | Turkey | Cross‐sectional | 263 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Turkish translation) | Post‐traumatic Growth |
| Babanataj et al. (2019) | Iran | Quasi‐experimental | 30 | Single site hospital critical care settings | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Stress |
| Bai and Bai (2024) | China | Cross‐sectional | 417 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Chinese translation) | Personal strength, psychological needs satisfaction and job satisfaction |
| Bai et al. (2024) | China | Cross‐sectional | 1169 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Gratitude, stress and job satisfaction |
| Bani et al. (2023) | Italy | Cross‐sectional | 102 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Italian translation) | Mental well‐being and burnout |
| Bernburg et al. (2019) | Germany | Randomised controlled trial | 86 | Multisite hospital mental health settings | Brief Resilient Coping Scale | Job stress, emotional regulation skills and quality of relationships with patients |
| Bonamer and Aquino‐Russell (2019) | America | Quasi‐experimental | 27 | Single site community | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Burnout, compassion satisfaction and compassion fatigue |
| Bouchard and Rainbow (2021) | America | Cross‐sectional | 118 | Nurse Practitioners completing a Doctor of Nursing Practice program | Response to Stressful Experiences Scales | Adverse childhood experiences, job‐stress, compassion fatigue, compassion satisfaction, burnout and secondary post‐traumatic stress |
| Brook et al. (2023) | United Kingdom | Longitudinal | 68 | Multisite hospital and community | Brief Resilience Scale | Post‐traumatic stress disorder, burnout, depression, anxiety, stress, well‐being and nursing work index |
| Brown et al. (2018) | America | Cross‐sectional | 521 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Change fatigue and job satisfaction |
| Buntoro et al. (2023) | Indonesia | Cross‐sectional | 902 | Online snowball sample | Adapted Adult Personal Resilience Scale | Depression level and work duration |
| Bursch et al. (2018) | America | Cross‐sectional | 115 | Single site hospital paediatric and neonatal intensive care | Brief Resilience Scale | Burnout, post‐traumatic stress, depression, anxiety and stress |
| Byers et al. (2021) | America | Cross‐sectional | 77 | Members of the National Black Nurses Association | Brief Resilience Scale | Experiences of racism and stress |
| Cabrera‐Aguilar et al. (2023) | Peru | Cross‐sectional | 459 | Single site hospital | Brief Resilient Coping Scale | Stress, self‐efficacy and work engagement |
| Cao and Chen (2019) | China | Cross‐sectional | 345 | Multisite hospital haemodialysis | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Empathy and work engagement |
| Cao and Chen (2020) | China | Cross‐sectional | 582 | Multisite hospital haemodialysis | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Empathy and work engagement |
| Cao and Chen (2021) | China | Cross‐sectional | 528 | Multisite hospital haemodialysis | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Empathy, work engagement, compassion fatigue scale and turnover intention |
| Cao et al. (2021a) | China | Cross‐sectional | 329 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Transition shock, social support, work environment and turnover intention |
| Cao et al. (2021b) | China | Cross‐sectional | 393 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Transition shock scale, empathy, compassion fatigue, compassion satisfaction, burnout and secondary post‐traumatic stress |
| Cao et al. (2024) | China | Cross‐sectional | 725 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Occupational stress and insomnia |
| Caroccini et al. (2024) | Brazil | Cross‐sectional | 164 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Brazilian translation) | Meaning of work |
| Carpio et al. (2018) | America | Cross‐sectional | 48 | Multisite hospital | Resilience at Work Scale | Nil |
| Catarelli et al. (2023) | America | Cross‐sectional | 43 | Multisite hospital | Brief Resilience Scale | Burnout |
| Çelik and Yarali (2023) | Turkey | Randomised controlled trial | 100 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Sleep quality |
| Cha and Baek (2023) | South Korea | Cross‐sectional | 300 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Korean translation) | Emotional labour, depression, job stress, Tae‐wom (workplace violence/organisational culture) coping and perceived threat of COVID‐19 |
| Chan, S., et al. (2021) | China | Cross‐sectional | 124 | Multisite hospital, department of health, ‘others’ | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Anxiety, mental health, Covid‐19 pandemic‐related stress and coping ability |
| Chen et al. (2021) | China | Cross‐sectional | 70,932 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Work–family conflict and career development |
| Chen et al. (2022) | China | Cross‐sectional | 413 | Multisite hospital mental health settings | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Occupational stress, and mental health and well‐being |
| Chen et al. (2023) | China | Cross‐sectional | 160 | Multisite care facilities for older adults | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Self‐efficacy and attitudes about providing mouth care and work stress |
| Chen et at. (2024a) | China | Cross‐sectional | 121 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Challenge‐hindrance stressors and coping |
| Chen et al. (2024b) | China | Cross‐sectional | 1141 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Workplace violence, turnover intention and compassion fatigue |
| Chen et al. (2024c) | China | Cross‐sectional | 241 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Job stress and emergency response competence |
| Chesak et al. (2015) | America | Randomised controlled trial | 55 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Stress Scale, mindful attention awareness and anxiety |
| Chesak et al. (2021) | America | Quasi‐experimental | 51 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Stress, anxiety and mindful attention awareness |
| Chiu‐Yueh et al. (2024) | Taiwan | Cross‐sectional | 322 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Chinese translation) | Gratitude and thoughts of quitting |
| Cho et al. (2017) | South Korea | Cross‐sectional | 179 | Multisite hospital intensive care units | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Korean translation) | Negative emotions and post‐traumatic stress |
| Choi and Kim (2022) | South Korea | Cross‐sectional | 137 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Korean translation) | Job stress, sleep quality and healthy behaviour patterns |
| Choi et al. (2022) | South Korea | Cross‐sectional | 131 | Multisite hospital emergency departments | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Korean translation) | Perceived stress, experiences of violence, ability to cope with violence and responses to violence |
| Chua et al. (2024) | Singapore | Cross‐sectional | 270 | Multisite hospital | Brief Resilience Scale | Intent to stay, occupational self‐efficacy, working environment and insomnia severity |
| Chukwuorji et al. (2024) | Nigeria | Cross‐sectional | 200 | Single site hospital | Resilience Scale 14‐item | Spiritual involvement and beliefs and post‐traumatic growth |
| Chura et al. (2022) | Peru | Cross‐sectional | 286 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Spanish translation) | COVID‐19 pandemic‐related stress, health questionnaire and fear of COVID |
| Clark et al. (2021) | America | Cross‐sectional | 175 | Multisite hospital emergency departments | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Moral distress and workplace engagement |
| Coetzee et al. (2024) | South Africa | Cross‐sectional | 264 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Satisfaction with life, sense of coherence, depression, perceived social support, fear of COVID‐19 and perceived vulnerability to disease |
| Connelly et al. (2023) | Canada | Cross‐sectional | 434 | Multisite aged care | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item, Resilience at Work Scale and Resilience at Work Team Scale | Individual impacts of the COVID‐19 pandemic |
| Connelly et al. (2024) | Canada | Cross‐sectional | 768 | Multisite community | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item and Resilience at Work Scale | Emotional intelligence |
| Converso et al. (2018) | Italy | Cross‐sectional | 333 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Job resources, self‐efficacy, hope, optimism and work ability |
| Converso et al. (2019) | Italy | Cross‐sectional | 94 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Italian translation) | Menopausal symptoms, burnout, job contentment, self‐efficacy, social support and optimism |
| Cooper et al. (2021) | Australia | Mixed methods (observational) | 755 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Knowledge of organisational values for the organisation in which participants worked |
| Craigie et al. (2016) | Australia | Quasi‐experimental | 21 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Depression, post‐traumatic stress, alcohol and substance misuse, compassion satisfaction, compassion fatigue, burnout, negative affect and passion for work |
| Çuhadar et al. (2023) | Turkey | Cross‐sectional | 153 | Single site hospital | Brief Resilience Scale (Turkish translation) | Stress |
| Dehvan et al. (2018) | Iran | Cross‐sectional | 60 | Single site hospital mental health | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Mental health and well‐being |
| Delaney (2018) | Ireland |
Mixed methods (observational) |
13 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Self‐compassion, mindfulness, burnout, compassion satisfaction and compassion fatigue |
| Delgado et al. (2020) | Australia | Cross‐sectional | 482 | Multisite hospital and community mental health settings | Resilience at Work Scale | Emotional labour |
| Delgado et al. (2021) | Australia | Cross‐sectional | 482 | Multisite hospital and community mental health settings | Resilience at Work Scale | Psychological well‐being, depression, anxiety and stress |
| Ding et al. (2023) | China | Cross‐sectional | 1774 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Chinese translation) | Workplace violence, loneliness, sleep quality, perceived cognitive deficits, anxiety and social support |
| Diño et al. (2022) | Manila | Mixed methods (observational) | 50 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Motivation and intent to stay |
| Dolan, Strodl, and Hamernik (2012) | Australia | Mixed methods (observational) | 16 | Single site hospital haemodialysis | Resilience Scale 25‐Item | Burnout |
| Dordunoo et al. (2021) | South Korea | Cross‐sectional | 199 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Work environment, burnout, compassion satisfaction and compassion fatigue |
| Du et al. (2024) | China | Cross‐sectional | 924 | Single site hospital | Brief Resilience Scale | Compliance with standard precautions, burnout and servant leadership |
| Durmuåÿ et al. (2024) | Turkey | Cross‐sectional | 302 | Single site hospital | Brief Resilience Scale (Turkish translation) | Workplace incivility, work stress, turnover intention and presenteeism |
| Ediz and Yanik (2024) | Turkey | Cross‐sectional | 464 |
Multisite hospital and community |
Brief Resilience Scale (Turkish translation) | Disaster preparedness, empathy |
| Fan et al. (2022) | China | Cross‐sectional | 360 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Workplace violence and mental health |
| Foli et al. (2024) | America | Multi‐method (observational) | 41 | Nurses in recovery from substance abuse | Brief Resilience Scale | Post‐traumatic growth and perceived organisational support |
| Foster et al. (2018) | Australia | Quasi‐experimental | 24 | Multisite hospital mental health | Workplace Resilience Inventory | Depression, anxiety, stress, life satisfaction, psychological well‐being, work satisfaction and self‐efficacy |
| Foster et al. (2024a) | Australia | Cross‐sectional | 144 | Multisite mental health settings | Brief Resilience Scale | Psychological distress, well‐being, emotional intelligence, coping self‐efficacy, post‐traumatic growth, workplace belonging and turnover intention |
| Foster et al., (2024b) | Australia | Partially clustered randomised controlled trial | 122 | Multisite mental health settings | Brief Resilience Scale | Psychological distress, well‐being, emotional intelligence, coping self‐efficacy, post‐traumatic growth, workplace belonging and turnover intention |
| Foster et al. (2024c) | Australia | Cross‐sectional | 87 | Multisite mental health settings | Brief Resilience Scale | Well‐being, turnover intention, mental health stigma, perceived stress and work satisfaction |
| Fradelos et al. (2023) | Greece | Cross‐sectional | 378 | Multisite hospital general and mental health setting | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Greek translation) | Health, anxiety and coping |
| Galanis et al. (2023) | Greece | Cross‐sectional | 584 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Greek translation) | Nil |
| Galura et al. (2022) | America | Cross‐sectional | 149 | Multisite hospital | Brief Resilience Scale | Job demands and resources, burnout, stress, job satisfaction and job performance |
| Gao et al. (2017) | China | Cross‐sectional | 365 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Mental health and general well‐being |
| García et al. (2018) | Spain | Cross‐sectional | 537 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Spanish translation) | Burnout and mental health |
| Garcia‐Dia et al. (2018) | America | Cross‐sectional | 150 | Multisite hospital and community | Resilience Scale 14‐item | Nil |
| Georges et al. (2022) | Haiti | Cross‐sectional | 179 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Burnout, self‐efficacy and work environment |
| Ghahramani et al. (2023) | Iran | Cross‐sectional | 280 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Intention to quit |
| Gil‐Almagro et al. (2024) | Spain | Longitudinal | 131 | Multisite hospital critical care settings | Resilience Scale 14‐item (Spanish translation) | Depression, anxiety, stress, self‐efficacy and occupational hardiness |
| Giordano et al. (2024) | America | Cross‐sectional | 177 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 2‐item | Quality of life and well‐being |
| Gotlib et al. (2022) | Poland | Cross‐sectional | 145 | Multisite hospital | Brief Resilient Coping Scale (Polish translation) | Motivations towards COVID‐19 vaccinations, anxiety and self‐efficacy |
| Guo et al. (2017) | China | Cross‐sectional | 1061 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Self‐efficacy and coping style |
| Guo et al. (2018) | China | Cross‐sectional | 1061 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Burnout |
| Gündüz et al. (2024) | Turkey | Cross‐sectional | 276 | Single site hospital | Resilience Scale for Adults (Turkish translation) | Professional quality of life |
| Habibpour et al. (2023) | Iran | Cross‐sectional | 158 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Stress, compassion satisfaction, compassion fatigue and burnout |
| Hale et al. (2023) | America | Mixed methods (observational) | 30 | Multisite community | Brief Resilience Coping Scale | Qualitative open‐ended questions |
| Hamaideh et al. (2024) | Saudi Arabia | Cross‐sectional | 140 | Multisite hospital inpatient mental health | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Perceived stress |
| Han et al. (2022) | China | Quasi‐experimental | 226 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Mental health and perceived stress |
| Han et al. (2023) | South Korea | Cross‐sectional | 220 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Korean translation) | Meaning in life and post‐traumatic growth |
| Harris et al. (2021) | America | Cross‐sectional | 405 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Job satisfaction and anticipated turnover |
| Harwood et al. (2024) | Canada | Cross‐sectional | 42 | Multisite hospital and community | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Burnout and job satisfaction |
| Hasan and Alsulami (2024) | Saudi Arabia | Cross‐sectional | 250 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Well‐being, depression, stress, anxiety and stress |
| Hassan et al. (2022) | Saudi Arabia | Cross‐sectional | 219 | Single site hospital mental health settings | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Burnout and attitudes towards safety culture |
| He et al. (2021) | China | Cross‐sectional | 709 | Multisite hospital general and mental health | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Grit, personality traits, self‐control and task performance |
| Hennen and Phillips (2023) | America | Cross‐sectional | 35 | Multisite hospital emergency departments | Brief Resilience Scale | Work performance, workplace aggression, mental health stigma and competency in caring for patients with mental illness |
| Honein‐AbouHaidar et al. (2023) | Lebanon | Cross‐sectional | 1556 | Multisite hospital and community | Resilience Scale 14‐item (Arabic translation) | Organisational and work factors |
| Hong et al. (2021) | South Korea | Cross‐sectional | 842 | Multisite hospital | Brief Resilience Scale | Stress, anxiety and mental health |
| Hoşgör and Yaman (2022) | Turkey | Cross‐sectional | 284 | Single site hospital | Brief Resilience Scale | Job performance |
| Hou et al. (2021) | China | Cross‐sectional | 707 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Social support and anxiety |
| Howie‐Esquivel et al. (2022) | America | Cross‐sectional | 101 | Multisite hospital and community | Brief Resilience Scale | Quality of life at work and burnout |
| Hsieh et al. (2016a) | Taiwan | Cross‐sectional | 159 | Multisite hospital emergency departments | Resilience Scale for Adults (Chinese translation) | Social support and depression |
| Hsieh et al. (2016b) | Taiwan | Cross‐sectional | 187 | Multisite hospital emergency departments | Resilience Scale for Adults (Chinese translation) | Social support, religious beliefs and personality traits |
| Hsieh et al. (2017) | Taiwan | Cross‐sectional | 230 | Multisite hospital emergency departments and mental health | Resilience Scale for Adults (Chinese translation) | Personality traits and social support |
| Hu et al. (2020) | China | Cross‐sectional | 2014 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Chinese translation) | Burnout, anxiety, depression, fear scale, presence of skin lesions, self‐efficacy and social support |
| Huang et al. (2021) | China | Cross‐sectional | 953 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Personality traits, coping styles, self‐efficacy and psychological distress |
| Huang et al. (2023) | China | Cross‐sectional | 197 | Multisite hospital emergency medical teams | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Coping styles, anxiety and depression |
| Huang et al. (2024a) | China | Cross‐sectional | 466 | Online snowball sample of Emergency Nurses | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Chinese translation) | Perceived organisational support and fear of future violence |
| Huang et al. (2024b) | China | Cross‐sectional | 646 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Chinese translation) | Public health emergency competencies, perceived stress and coping |
| Huang et al. (2024c) | China | Cross‐sectional | 1601 | Multisite hospital | Resilience Scale 14‐item (Chinese translation) | Coping and empathy for pain |
| Hwang and Lee (2023) | South Korea | Cross‐sectional | 131 | Multisite hospital intensive care units | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Korean translation) | Depression, job stress, sleep quality and burnout |
| Irwin et al. (2021) | America | Quasi‐experimental | 42 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Nil |
| Itzhaki et al. (2015) | Israel | Cross‐sectional | 118 | Single site hospital mental health | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Hebrew translation) | Exposure to violence, perceived jobs stress, life satisfaction and post‐traumatic growth |
| Jamebozorgi et al. (2022) | Iran | Cross‐sectional | 364 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Burnout |
| Janzarik et al. (2022) | Germany | Randomised controlled trial | 75 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item and Brief Resilience Scale | Mental health and micro stressors |
| Jeon and Kim (2023) | South Korea | Cross‐sectional | 107 | Single site hospital oncology setting | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Korean translation) | Professional quality of life and caring behaviour |
| Jiménez et al. (2022) | Madrid | Cross‐sectional | 375 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Spanish translation) | Burnout and personality traits |
| Jo et al. (2023) | America, Japan and Korea | Cross‐sectional | 662 | Online snowball sample | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Compassion fatigue, compassion satisfaction, burnout and secondary traumatic stress |
| Jose et al. (2020) | India | Cross‐sectional | 120 | Single site hospital emergency department | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Burnout |
| Jose et al. (2022) | India | Cross‐sectional | 137 | Single site hospital intensive care units | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Stress, anxiety, fear relating to the covid‐19 pandemic and insomnia |
| Joy et al. (2023) | Qatar | Cross‐sectional | 300 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Self‐esteem and self‐compassion |
| Jubin et al. (2022) | France | Cross‐sectional | 9898 | Members of the French National Order of Nurses | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (French translation) | Burnout, compassion satisfaction, compassion fatigue, stress, social support and coping skills |
| Jubin et al. (2023) | Switzerland | Longitudinal | 1013 responses over three timepoints | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (French translation) | Perceived stress, post‐traumatic growth, perceived social support and psychosocial risk in the workplace |
| Jubin et al. (2024) | France, Switzerland, Portugal and Canada | Longitudinal | 3310 responses over three timepoints | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (French, German and Portuguese translations) | Perceived stress, post‐traumatic growth, perceived social support, quality of life and well‐being |
| Jurado et al. (2022) | Spain | Cross‐sectional | 1013 | Online snowball sample | Resilience Scale 14‐item (Spanish translation) | Job strain and burnout |
| Kang et al. (2021) | South Korea | Cross‐sectional | 435 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Korean translation) | Work‐place bullying, structural empowerment and nursing performance |
| Karabulak et al. (2021) | Turkey | Cross‐sectional | 201 | Multisite hospital and community | Brief Resilience Scale (Turkish translation) | Stress |
| Kartal et al. (2022) | Turkey | Cross‐sectional | 156 | Multisite hospital emergency departments | Brief Resilience Scale (Turkish translation) | Fear of death |
| Kayalar and Hicdurmaz (2024) | Turkey | Cross‐sectional | 121 | Multisite hospital oncology setting | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Turkish translation) | Emotional regulation, self‐compassion and metacognitions |
| Ke et al. (2020) | China | Cross‐sectional | 131 | Multisite hospital operating rooms | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Plasma monoamine neurotransmitter and serum cytokine levels |
| Kelly et al. (2021) | America | Cross‐sectional | 1688 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Burnout |
| Kılınç et al. (2021) | Turkey | Cross‐sectional | 720 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Turkish translation) | Social support |
| Kim et al. (2022) | South Korea | Cross‐sectional | 206 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Korean translation) | End‐of‐life care‐related stress and individuals “calling” for their work |
| Kim et al. (2024a) | America | Cross‐sectional | 676 | Multisite hospital and community | Resilience Scale 14‐item | Moral injury and well‐being |
| Kim et al. (2024b) | South Korea | Randomised Controlled Trial | 112 | Multisite hospital and community | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Korean translation) | Functional health, social support, post‐traumatic stress, depression and anxiety |
| Kiratli and Duran (2024) | Turkey | Cross‐sectional | 214 | Healthcare setting not specified | Brief Resilience Scale (Turkish translation) | Compassion fatigue and loneliness at work |
| Kiziloglu et al. (2023) | Turkey | Cross‐sectional | 325 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Turkish translation) | Personality type, fear of COVID‐19 and levels of stress |
| Kleier et al. (2022) | America | Cross‐sectional | 189 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Professional commitment |
| Kondo et al. (2024) | Japan | Cross‐sectional | 229 | Multisite hospital critical care settings | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Japanese translation) | Attitudes towards care of the dying and sense of coherence |
| Kong et al. (2024) | China | Cross‐sectional | 626 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Chinese translation) | Job satisfaction, health‐related quality of life, self‐esteem, social support neuroticism, perceived prejudice and occupational stress |
| Koprowski et al. (2021) | America | Quasi‐experimental | 419 | Multisite hospital and community | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Nil |
| Koutantelia et al. (2024) | Greece | Cross‐sectional | 158 | Multisite hospital paediatric settings | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Greek translation) | Anxiety and depression |
| Kutluturkan et al. (2016) | Turkey | Cross‐sectional | 140 | Single site hospital oncology | Resilience Scale for Adults | Burnout |
| Labrague et al. (2020) | Philippines | Cross‐sectional | 325 | Multisite hospital | Brief Resilience Scale | COVID‐19‐related anxiety, social support and organisational support |
| Labrague et al. (2021a) | Philippines | Cross‐sectional | 736 | Multisite hospital and community | Brief Resilience Scale | COVID‐19‐related anxiety, social support and mental health |
| Labrague et al. (2021b) | Philippines | Cross‐sectional | 270 | Multisite hospital | Brief Resilience Scale | Compassion fatigue, job satisfaction, intention to leave and self‐appraised quality of care provided |
| Labrague et al. (2021c) | Philippines | Cross‐sectional | 259 | Multisite hospital | Brief Resilience Scale | COVID‐19‐associated discrimination, mental health and turnover intention |
| Labrague (2021) | Philippines | Cross‐sectional | 255 | Multisite hospital | Brief Resilience Scale | Pandemic fatigue, job contentment and sleep quality |
| Lan et al. (2023) | China | Randomised Controlled Trial | 93 | Multisite hospital emergency settings | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Disaster nursing ability |
| Lang et al. (2022) | Australia | Cross‐sectional | 239 | Members of the Australian College of Perioperative Nurses | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Workplace bullying and burnout |
| Lara‐Cabrera et al. (2021) | Spain | Cross‐sectional | 332 | Members of the Official College of Nursing of Tenerife | Resilience Scale 14‐item | Well‐being, stress, depressive symptoms and anxiety |
| Lee et al. (2022) | South Korea | Cross‐sectional | 146 | Multisite hospital operating rooms | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Korean translation) | Job stress, burnout and communication competence |
| Lee et al. (2023a) | South Korea | Cross‐sectional | 221 | Single hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Korean translation) | Grit, calling and vocation and retention intention |
| Lee et al. (2023b) | Indonesia | Cross‐sectional | 182 | Multisite hospital and community | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Indonesian translation) | Burnout and psychological empowerment |
| Lee et al. (2024a) | Taiwan | Cross‐sectional | 387 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Quality of work life, personal accomplishment and turnover intention |
| Lee et al. (2024b) | Taiwan | Cross‐sectional | 319 | Multisite hospital and community | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Health‐related quality of life, general health and burnout |
| Lee and Lee (2022) | South Korea | Cross‐sectional | 348 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Job calling, relationship between leader and employee, workplace bullying, work environment, job satisfaction and intention to stay |
| Lei et al. (2024) | China | Cross‐sectional | 522 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Chinese translation) | Intimate partner violence, work environment and alienation at work |
| Leng et al. (2020) | China | Cross‐sectional | 2981 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Stressors |
| Li et al. (2021a) | Taiwan | Cross‐sectional | 132 | Single site hospital emergency department | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Workplace violence and intention to leave |
| Li et al. (2021b) | China | Cross‐sectional | 143 | Single site hospital intensive care unit | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Burnout and social support |
| Li et al. (2022) | China | Cross‐sectional | 318 | Multisite hospital and aged care palliative care units | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Self‐efficacy, social support, coping style, burnout, compassion satisfaction and compassion fatigue |
| Li et al. (2023) | China | Cross‐sectional | 552 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Anxiety, depression and self‐efficacy |
| Li et al. (2024a) | China | Cross‐sectional | 1613 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Workplace psychological violence and empathy |
| Li et al. (2024b) | China | Cross‐sectional | 389 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Chinese translation) | Social support and mindful self‐care |
| Li et al. (2024c) | China | Longitudinal | 258 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Chinese translation) | Emotional regulation and coping |
| Li et al. (2024d) | China | Cross‐sectional | 1774 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Chinese translation) | Perceived cognitive deficits, anxiety, depression, childhood trauma, social support, loneliness, sleep quality, suicidal ideation and non‐suicidal self‐injury |
| Li et al. (2024e) | China | Cross‐sectional | 252 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Transition shock, professional identity and self‐efficacy |
| Liao et al. (2019) | China | Cross‐sectional | 597 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Psychological distress, post‐traumatic stress disorder and post‐traumatic growth |
| Liao et al. (2024) | China | Cross‐sectional | 1774 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Chinese translation) | Loneliness, anxiety and burnout |
| Liat et al. (2024) | Israel | Cross‐sectional | 200 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Hebrew translation) | Exposure to threatening events, adjustment disorder, psychological distress, positive affect and perceived social support |
| Lin et al. (2019) | China | Cross‐sectional | 390 | Multisite hospital | Resilience Scale for Adults (Chinese translation) | Work frustration and intent to stay |
| Lin et al. (2021) | America | Cross‐sectional | 120 | Multisite community long‐term care and rehabilitation settings | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Sleep quality, burnout, compassion satisfaction and compassion fatigue |
| Lin et al. (2022) | China | Cross‐sectional | 345 | Multisite hospital gastroenterology | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Burnout, emotional labour and work‐related characteristics |
| Liu et al. (2020) | China | Cross‐sectional | 996 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Fatigue, extrinsic effort and reward and perceived organisational support |
| Liu et al. (2021) | China | Cross‐sectional | 200 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson 10‐item Resilience Scale (Chinese translation) | Post‐traumatic growth, perceived professional benefit and intent to stay |
| Liu et al. (2023a) | China | Cross‐sectional | 612 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Depression and family functioning |
| Liu et al. (2023b) | China | Cross‐sectional | 418 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Rumination and post‐traumatic growth |
| Liu et al. (2023c) | China | Cross‐sectional | 224 | Snowball sampling of Registered Nurses undertaking postgraduate studies | Connor‐Davidson 10‐item Resilience Scale (Chinese translation) | Perceived stress, loneliness and interpersonal security |
| Liu et al. (2023d) | China | Cross‐sectional | 200 | Multisite hospital oncology settings | The Brief Resilience Scale (Chinese translation) | Perception of professional benefit, practice environment and transition shock |
| Liu et al. (2024a) | China | Cross‐sectional | 828 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson 10‐item Resilience Scale (Chinese translation) | Alexithymia and distress disclosure |
| Liu et al. (2024b) | China | Cross‐sectional | 1032 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Occupational benefit, sense of professional mission and work engagement |
| Liu et al. (2024c) | China | Cross‐sectional | 719 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Occupational benefit |
| LoGiudice and Bartos (2021) | America | Mixed methods (observational) | 47 | Multisite hospital | Brief Resilient Coping Scale | Qualitative data on experiences of working as a nurse during the COVID‐19 pandemic |
| Lu et al. (2023) | China | Cross‐sectional | 13 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Depression and burnout |
| Luo et al. (2022) | China | Cross‐sectional | 458 | Multisite hospital | Resilience Scale 25‐Item | Organisational support, leadership skills and burnout |
| Lyu et al. (2020) | China | Cross‐sectional | 216 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Work engagement and organisational identity |
| Magtibay et al. (2017) | America | Quasi‐experimental | 50 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 2‐item | Happiness, stress, anxiety, mindfulness and burnout |
| Majrabi et al. (2021) | Saudi Arabia | Cross‐sectional | 219 | Single site hospital mental health | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Burnout and attitude towards safety culture |
| Mallon et al. (2023) | Northern Ireland | Cross‐sectional | 56 | Multisite community older adult setting | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Nil |
| Manzano García and Ayala Calvo (2012) | Spain | Cross‐sectional | 200 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Burnout and emotional annoyance |
| Mao et al. (2021) | China | Randomised controlled trial | 103 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Emotional intelligence and stress |
| Mao et al. (2023) | China | Cross‐sectional | 784 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Perceived social support, self‐efficacy and post‐traumatic stress |
| Mao et al. (2024) | China | Cross‐sectional | 784 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Anxiety, depression, insomnia, post‐traumatic stress, perceived social support, self‐efficacy and burnout |
| Martins et al. (2022) | Portugal | Cross‐sectional | 379 | Online convenience sample | Resilience Scale 25‐Item (Portuguese translation) | Depression, anxiety, stress and burnout |
| McCoy, Sauer, and Sha (2023) | America | Cross‐sectional | 345 | Nurses registered with the State Board of Nursing | Resilience Scale 25‐item and Resilience Scale 14‐item | Bullying, stress and quality of life |
| Mealer et al. (2012) | America | Cross‐sectional | 744 | Members of the American Association of Critical Care Nurses intensive care units | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Post‐traumatic stress, anxiety, depression and burnout |
| Mealer et al. (2014) | America | Randomised controlled trial | 29 | Single site hospital intensive care units | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Post‐traumatic stress, anxiety, depression and burnout |
| Mealer et al. (2016) | America | Cross‐sectional | 744 | Members of the American Association of Critical Care Nurses intensive care units | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Post‐traumatic stress |
| Mehdizadeh et al. (2024) | Iran | Cross‐sectional | 224 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Persian translation) | Perceived social support and perceived organisational support |
| Mei et al. (2022) | China | Cross‐sectional | 470 | Newly graduated nurses healthcare setting not specified | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Chinese translation) | Mental health |
| Meng et al. (2023) | China | Cross‐sectional | 356 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Career identity, work‐related quality of life and work engagement |
| Mensah et al. (2024) | Ghana | Cross‐sectional | 343 | Multisite hospital | Brief Resilience Scale | Sexual harassment, psychological well‐being and conflict resolution |
| Mersi et al. (2022) | Iran | Cross‐sectional | 91 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Persian translation) | Mental and spiritual distress |
| Meyer and Shatto (2018) | America | Longitudinal (observational) | 17 | Direct Entry Accelerated Master's in Nursing graduates | Resilience Scale 25‐Item | Education satisfaction and graduate nurse experience |
| Mills et al. (2017) | Australia | Cross‐sectional | 161 | Multisite hospital and community | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Nurse self‐concept, practice environment and nurse retention |
| Min et al. (2023) | South Korean | Cross‐sectional | 235 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Korean translation) | Burnout, depression, anxiety and perceived stress |
| Mintz‐Binder et al. (2021) | America | Quasi‐experimental | 77 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Stress levels and sources of stress |
| Mohammad et al. (2023) | Egypt | Cross‐sectional | 285 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Arabic translation) | Authentic leadership and self‐efficacy |
| Moisoglou et al. (2024) | Greece | Cross‐sectional | 963 | Multisite hospital and community | The Brief Resilience Scale (Greek translation) | Perceived social support and COVID‐19 burnout |
| Montgomery et al. (2022) | America | Cross‐sectional | 56 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Work environment, burnout and intent to leave |
| Montgomery and Patrician (2024) | America | Mixed methods (observational) | 57 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | COVID stress |
| Mousavi et al. (2023) | Iran | Cross‐sectional | 300 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson 25‐Item Resilience Scale (Persian translation) | Fear of COVID‐19, job‐related stress, turnover intention, mental health, mental workload and work–family conflict |
| Muir et al. (2022) | America | Quasi‐experimental | 97 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Questionnaire regarding intervention quality |
| Nantsupawat et al. (2024) | Thailand | Cross‐sectional | 394 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Thai translation) | Intention to leave, burnout and work engagement |
| Nassar et al. (2024) | Jordan | Cross‐sectional | 161 | Single site hospital | Resilience at Work Scale (Arabic translation) | Compassionate care |
| Nijland et al. (2021) | Netherlands | Quasi‐experimental | 86 | Single site hospital intensive units | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Stress |
| Nikmanesh and Khosravi (2020) | Zahedan | Quasi‐experimental | 38 | Singe site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Psychological well‐being |
| Norful et al. (2024) | America, Saudi Arabia, Philippines | Cross‐sectional | 2864 | International online snowball sample | The Brief Resilience Scale | Burnout, depression, anxiety, intention to leave and job satisfaction |
| Norouzinia et al. (2022) | Iran |
Mixed methods (observational) |
254 | Single site hospital emergency department | Emergency Nurse’ professional resilience tool | Nil |
| Nourollahi‐Darabad et al. (2021) | Iran | Cross‐sectional | 387 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Emotional demand, leadership quality, work–family conflict, burnout, stress and job satisfaction |
| Öksüz et al. (2019) | Turkey | Cross‐sectional | 242 | Multisite hospital | Resilience Scale for Adults (Turkish translation) | Social support and job satisfaction |
| Ou et al. (2021) | China | Cross‐sectional | 92 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Psychological health |
| Owens et al. (2023) | America | Quasi‐experimental | 77 | Multisite hospital mental health setting | Resilience Scale 14‐item | Stress and coping |
| Ozbek et al. (2022) | Turkey | Cross‐sectional | 202 | Single site hospital | Brief Resilience Scale (Turkish translation) | Traumatic stress symptoms |
| Pachi et al. (2024) | Greece | Cross‐sectional | 441 | Members of professional nursing associations | Brief Resilience Scale (Greek translation) | Insomnia and anger reactions |
| Pachi et al. (2024) | Greece | Cross‐sectional | 433 | Members of professional nursing associations | Brief Resilience Scale (Greek translation) | Nightmare distress and insomnia |
| Pallesen et al. (2022) | Denmark | Cross‐sectional | 59 | Single site hospital | Brief Resilience Scale | Burnout |
| Parizad et al. (2022) | Iran | Cross‐sectional | 233 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Nil |
| Partridge et al. (2024) | America | Cross‐sectional | 618 | Multisite site hospital and community | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Hope and work effectiveness |
| Park and Jung (2021) | South Korea | Cross‐sectional | 200 | Multisite site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Korean translation) | Nursing professionalism and job stress |
| Park and Park (2021) | South Korea | Cross‐sectional | 340 | Single site hospital oncology | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Korean translation) | Work‐related characteristics, attitude towards dignified death, compassion competence and occupational stress |
| Pehlivan and Güner (2020) | Turkey | Randomised controlled trial | 125 | Multisite hospital oncology and haematology | Resilience Scale for Adults (Turkish translation) | Stress, burnout, compassion satisfaction and compassion fatigue |
| Peñacoba et al. (2021) | Spain | Cross‐sectional | 308 | Multisite hospital intensive care units | Resilience Scale 14‐item | Stress and self‐efficacy |
| Peng et al. (2022) | China | Cross‐sectional | 493 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Chinese translation) | Workplace bullying and compassion fatigue |
| Phillips et al. (2022) | Canada | Cross‐sectional | 4425 | Multisite hospital and community | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Health‐related quality of life and perceptions of the work environment |
| Pintus et al. (2024) | Italy | Cross‐sectional | 29 | Multisite hospital | Resilience Scale 14‐item (Italian translation) | Burnout, work engagement, depression, anxiety, stress and mindful awareness |
| Prodromou et al. (2023) | Cyprus | Cross‐sectional | 470 | Nurses registered with the Cyprus Nursing and Midwifery Association | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Greek translation) | Burnout |
| Pu et al. (2024) | China | Cross‐sectional | 1402 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Perceived organisational support and intention to stay |
| Qi et al. (2022) | China | Cross‐sectional | 839 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Work–family conflict and anxiety |
| Qin et al. (2023) | China | Cross‐sectional | 709 | Online snowball sample | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Chinese translation) | Emotional intelligence, self‐efficacy and life satisfaction |
| Rahmat et al. (2023) | Indonesia | Cross‐sectional | 101 | Single site hospital mental health | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Stress and anxiety |
| Rashidi et al. (2023) | Turkey | Cross‐sectional | 158 | Multisite hospital intensive care and palliative care settings | Resilience Scale for Adults (Turkish translation) | Thanatophobia |
| Ren et al. (2018) | China | Cross‐sectional | 1356 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Self‐efficacy, coping style and job stress |
| Reyes et al. (2024) | America | Quasi‐experimental | 60 | Online snowball sample | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Post‐traumatic stress disorder, experiential avoidance, rumination, mindfulness, intervention satisfaction and system usability |
| Rhéaume and Breau (2022) | Canada | Mixed methods (observational) | 236 | Multisite hospital intensive care units | Brief Resilience Scale | Burnout, experience during Covid‐19, moral distress and intent to leave |
| Rhoden et al. (2021) | Brazil | Longitudinal (observational) | 53 | Single site hospital | Resilience Scale 14‐item (Portuguese translation) | Occupational stress and osteomuscular pain |
| Rhoden et al. (2022) | Brazil | Longitudinal (observational) | 53 | Single site hospital | Resilience Scale 14‐item (Portuguese translation) | Stress |
| Rivas et al. (2021) | Spain | Cross‐sectional | 101 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Spanish translation) | Burnout |
| Roberts et al. (2021) | United Kingdom | Cross‐sectional | 255 | Online convenience sample | Resilience Scale 14‐item | Anxiety and depression |
| Roberts et al. (2022) | United Kingdom | Cross‐sectional | 161 | Online convenience sample | Resilience Scale 14‐item | Anxiety and depression |
| Rogers et al. (2022) | Global | Cross‐sectional | 928 | Online snowball sample | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Mental well‐being and spiritual well‐being |
| Rosa‐Besa et al. (2021) | America | Cross‐sectional | 25 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Work stressors |
| Ruhabad et al. (2022) | Iran | Cross‐sectional | 299 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Coping strategies |
| Rushton et al. (2015) | America | Cross‐sectional | 114 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Burnout, moral distress, stress, perceived meaningfulness of work and hope |
| Rushton et al. (2021) | America | Quasi‐experimental | 415 | Multisite hospital | Brief Resilience Scale | Ethical confidence, moral sensitivity/moral decision‐making, moral competence, moral distress, empathy, work engagement, burnout, turnover intention, psychiatric symptoms and mindful attention and awareness |
| Rushton et al. (2023) | America | Quasi‐experimental | 245 | Multisite hospital | Brief Resilience Scale | Ethical confidence, moral competence, work engagement, mindful attention awareness, psychiatric symptoms, turnover intention, burnout, emotional empathy, moral sensitivity and moral distress |
| Sacgaca et al. (2023) | Saudi Arabia | Cross‐sectional | 763 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Mental well‐being, stress and coping strategies |
| Saez‐Ruiz et al. (2024) | Spain | Cross‐sectional | 201 | Multisite hospital and community | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Nurse–patient therapeutic communication |
| Salam et al. (2023) | Lebanon | Cross‐sectional | 240 | Multisite hospital | Resilience Scale 25‐Item | Perceptions of transformational leadership |
| Sampaio et al. (2022) | Portugal | Cross‐sectional | 247 | Online convenience sample | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Portuguese translation) | Quality of life, workplace well‐being, stress, social support, job satisfaction and personal identification |
| Sani et al. (2020) | Iran | Cross‐sectional | 118 | Multisite hospital emergency departments | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Workplace violence |
| Santos et al. (2024) | Brazil | Randomised crossover trial | 32 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Emotional intelligence, mindfulness |
| Sauer and McCoy (2017) | America | Cross‐sectional | 345 | Nurses registered with the State Board of Nursing | Resilience Scale 25‐Item | Workplace bullying, mental health, physical health and stress |
| Sawalma et al. (2024) | Palestine | Cross‐sectional | 273 | Multisite hospital critical care settings | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Depression, anxiety, stress, work engagement |
| Sawyer et al. (2022) | America | Mixed methods (interventional) | 16 | Multisite hospital | Brief Resilience Scale | Self‐compassion, psychological empowerment, self‐reflection, self‐insight post‐traumatic growth, burnout, job satisfaction and stress |
| Sawyer et al. (2023) | America | Randomised controlled trial | 30 | Multisite hospital | Brief Resilience Scale | Post‐traumatic growth, burnout, compassion satisfaction, compassion fatigue, self‐reflection, self‐insight, self‐compassion, psychological empowerment, self‐efficacy, stress and job satisfaction |
| Selvi and Yilmaz (2023) | Turkey | Cross‐sectional | 189 | Multisite hospital | Resilience Scale for Adults (Turkish translation) | Authenticity |
| Senturk et al. (2024) | Turkey | Cross‐sectional | 76 | Single site hospital | Resilience Scale for Adults (Turkish translation) | Sleepiness, sleep disturbance and depression |
| Sexton et al. (2024) | America | Cross‐sectional | 79 | Multisite hospital paediatric emergency settings | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Moral distress |
| Shahrbabaki et al. (2023) | Iran | Cross‐sectional | 300 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Job satisfaction |
| Shen et al. (2023) | China | Cross‐sectional | 178 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Life satisfaction and depression |
| Shen et al. (2024) | China | Cross‐sectional | 298 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Thriving at work and work performance |
| Shi et al. (2018) | China | Cross‐sectional | 396 | Single site hospital | Brief Resilient Coping Scale | Workplace incivility, anxiety and burn‐out |
| Shi et al. (2024) | China | Cross‐sectional | 361 | Multisite military hospitals | Workplace Resilience Scale | Infectious disease emergency response capacity |
| Shin and Choi (2023) | South Korea | Cross‐sectional | 120 | Single site hospital intensive care unit | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Korean translation) | Burnout, compassion satisfaction, compassion fatigue and post‐traumatic stress |
| Siami et al. (2023) | Iran | Cross‐sectional | 623 | Multisite hospital | Brief Resilience Scale | Safety, leadership and personal hope |
| Sikioti et al. (2023) | Greece | Cross‐sectional | 153 | Multisite hospital | Brief Resilience Scale | Burnout, stress, consequences experienced by healthcare professionals in COVID‐19 referral hospitals |
| Soltanian et al. (2023) | Iran | Cross‐sectional | 78 | Multisite hospital neonatal intensive care units | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Self‐awareness, positive beliefs and belonging |
| Son and Ham (2020) | South Korea | Cross‐sectional | 438 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Korean translation) | Insomnia, job satisfaction and work–life balance |
| Stanton et al. (2015) | America | Quasi‐experimental | 7 | Single site hospital | Resilience Scale 25‐Item | Compassion fatigue, stress and empathy |
| Suazo et al. (2024) | Spain | Cross‐sectional | 1013 | Multisite hospital and community | Resilience Scale 14‐item (Spanish translation) | Burnout, general health |
| Sukut et al. (2022) | Turkey | Cross‐sectional | 100 | Single site hospital mental health | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Turkish translation) | Burnout, compassion satisfaction and compassion fatigue |
| Sullivan et al. (2019) | America |
Mixed methods (observational) |
59 | Single site hospital paediatric oncology | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 2‐item | Burnout, compassion satisfaction, compassion fatigue and coping skills |
| Sun et al. (2022) | China | Cross‐sectional | 340 | Multisite hospital intensive care units | Brief Resilient Coping Scale | Job calling, thriving at work and ethical leadership |
| Ta'an et al. (2024) | Jordan | Cross‐sectional | 100 | Multisite hospital | Brief Resilience Scale (Arabic translation) | Depression, anxiety, stress and nursing performance |
| Tabakakis et al. (2019) | New Zealand | Cross‐sectional | 480 | Registered Nurses randomly selected from the New Zealand Nurses Organisation | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Practice environment and workplace bullying |
| Taghighi et al. (2019) | Australia | Cross‐sectional | 1495 | Registered and Enrolled Nurses who were members of the Queensland Nurses and Midwives Union | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Depression, anxiety, compassion satisfaction, compassion fatigue and intention to leave |
| Talebian et al. (2022) | Iran | Cross‐sectional | 144 | Multisite hospital intensive care units | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Moral distress |
| Tang et al. (2022) | China | Cross‐sectional | 709 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Chinese translation) | Personality traits, grit and life meaning |
| Tang et al. (2024) | China | Cross‐sectional | 118 |
Single site hospital emergency setting |
Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Chinese translation) | Professional quality of life, family care and organisational support |
| Tseng et al. (2018) | Taiwan | Cross‐sectional | 83 | Single site hospital burns unit | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Stress, secondary traumatic stress, burnout and compassion fatigue |
| Tsouvelaz et al. (2022) | Greece | Cross‐sectional | 222 | Online convenience and snowball sample hospital and community | Brief Resilience Scale | Secondary traumatic stress and coping |
| Turan and Canbulat (2023) | Turkey | Quasi‐experimental | 122 | Single site hospital | Resilience Scale for Adults | Depression |
| Turan (2020) | Turkey | Quasi‐experimental | 32 | Single site hospital intensive care unit | Resilience Scale for Adults (Turkish translation) | Positive and negative affect |
| Turunç et al. (2024) | Turkey | Cross‐sectional | 228 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Turkish translation) | Burnout |
| Uzar‐Ozcetin et al. (2019) | Turkey | Cross‐sectional | 61 | Multisite hospital oncology | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Turkish translation) | Burnout and psychological well‐being |
| Uzar‐Ozcetin and Budak (2024) | Turkey | Cross‐sectional | 118 | Multisite hospital oncology settings | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Turkish translation) | Work‐related rumination, attitudes towards death |
| Villa et al. (2021) | Switzerland | Cross‐sectional | 548 | Multisite hospital | Brief Resilience Scale | Ethical conflict during COVID‐19 pandemic and psychological distress |
| Vogt et al. (2024) | United Kingdom | Mixed methods (interventional) | 84 | Multisite hospital and community | Brief Resilience Scale | Coping with adverse events, knowledge of resilience, burnout, depression and intention to leave |
| Walpita et al. (2020) | Sri Lanka | Cross‐sectional | 230 | Multisite hospital | Resilience at Work Scale (Sinhala translation) | Nursing performance |
| Walpita et al. (2022) | Sri Lanka | Cross‐sectional | 855 | Multisite hospital | Resilience at Work Scale (Sinhala translation) | Nil |
| Wang and Dela Rosa (2022) | China | Cross‐sectional | 152 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Coping style |
| Wang et al. (2018) | China | Cross‐sectional | 747 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | General self‐efficacy and social support |
| Wang et al. (2022) | China | Cross‐sectional | 838 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Nil |
| Wang et al. (2023) | China | Cross‐sectional | 355 | Multisite hospital intensive care units | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Psychological distress, occupational coping and self‐efficacy |
| Wang et al. (2024a) | China | Cross‐sectional | 212 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) |
Meaning of life and death attitudes |
| Wang et al. (2024b) | China | Randomised control trial | 99 | Single site hospital mental health setting | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Mindfulness, burnout |
| Wang et al. (2024c) | China | Cross‐sectional | 1202 | Multisite hospital mental health setting | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Post‐traumatic growth, empathy, coping with patient aggression and post‐traumatic stress |
| Wang et al. (2024d) | Sierra Leone | Cross‐sectional | 360 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Caring behaviours, job satisfaction and anxiety |
| Waterworth et al. (2021) | New Zealand | Cross‐sectional | 197 | Single site hospital paediatrics | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Burnout |
| Wei et al. (2014) | China | Cross‐sectional | 244 | Multisite hospital | Personal Resilience Tool | Physiological needs satisfaction, organisational socialisation, conscientiousness, worry, Chinese values, future orientation and career success |
| Welden et al. (2023) | America | Cross‐sectional | 859 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Physical, mental and social health |
| Welden et al. (2021) | America | Cross‐sectional | 859 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | General physical and mental health |
| Williams et al. (2016) | Canada | Cross‐sectional | 130 | Aged care | Resilience Scale for Adults | Absenteeism, personhood in dementia, organisational empowerment and quality of care |
| Wu et al. (2024) | China | Cross‐sectional | 246 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Social support and anxiety |
| Xia et al. (2022) | China | Cross‐sectional | 1582 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Chinese translation) | Work pressure, burnout, compassion satisfaction and compassion fatigue |
| Xiaoyi et al. (2021) | China | Cross‐sectional | 496 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Work engagement, compassion fatigue and turnover intention |
| Xu et al. (2024) | China | Cross‐sectional | 471 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) |
Work fatigue |
| Xue et al. (2022) | China | Cross‐sectional | 2266 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Career success and craftsmanship |
| Yan et al. (2022a) | China | Cross‐sectional | 1536 | Multisite hospital infectious disease departments | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Occupational stress and quality of life |
| Yan et al. (2022b) | China | Cross‐sectional | 845 | Multisite hospital infectious disease departments | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Social support and quality of life |
| Yan et al. (2023) | China | Cross‐sectional | 1224 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Social support and quality of life |
| Yan et al. (2024) | China | Cross‐sectional | 941 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Competency, mindfulness |
| Yang et al. (2018) | China | Cross‐sectional | 536 | Multisite hospital transplant services | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Burnout |
| Yang et al. (2022) | China | Cross‐sectional | 2101 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Chinese translation) | Presence of skin lesions, anxiety, depression and fear |
| Yang et al. (2023a) | China | Cross‐sectional | 196 | Nurses completing a Master of Nursing Specialist degree | Connor‐Davidson 10‐item Resilience Scale (Chinese translation) | Self‐regulated learning and mindful agency |
| Yang et al. (2023b) | China | Cross‐sectional | 330 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Moral courage, ethical climate and moral distress |
| Yao et al. (2023) | China | Cross‐sectional | 1512 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Professional identity, organisational support and post‐traumatic growth |
| Yazdanirad et al. (2024) | Iran | Cross‐sectional | 300 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Persian translation) | Fear of COVID‐19, job stress, turnover intention, general mental health, work–family conflict and mental workload |
| Yeh et al. (2024) | Taiwan | Cross‐sectional | 215 | Single site hospital | Resilience Scale 14‐item | COVID‐19‐related stress, coping strategies and compassion fatigue |
| Yi et al. (2023) | China | Cross‐sectional | 982 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Chinese translation) | Professional identity and self‐efficacy |
| Yildirim et al. (2024) | Turkey | Cross‐sectional | 230 | Single site hospital | Brief Resilience Scale (Turkish translation) | Burnout |
| Ying et al. (2021) | Malaysia | Cross‐sectional | 229 | Single site hospital adult, paediatric and neonatal intensive care units | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Perceptions of the work environment and future job plan |
| Yousefzadeh et al. (2024) | Iran | Randomised control trial | 27 | Single site hospital mental health setting | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Persian translation) |
Quality of work life and communication skills |
| Yu et al. (2018) | South Korea | Cross‐sectional | 371 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Work environment satisfaction, emotional labour and burnout |
| Yu et al. (2020) | New Zealand | Cross‐sectional | 93 | Multisite hospital intensive care units | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Physical activity |
| Yu et al. (2021) | Taiwan | Cross‐sectional | 272 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Social support, professional commitment and intention to stay in nursing |
| Yu et al. (2022) | China | Cross‐sectional | 358 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Mindfulness, anxiety, burnout, emotional regulation, stress perception, well‐being and loneliness |
| Yu‐Chin et al. (2023) | America | Cross‐sectional | 110 | Members of the American Association of Critical Care Nurses | Brief Resilience Scale | Trauma, anxiety, post‐traumatic stress, depression, organisation support, substance abuse, personality traits and cognitive control |
| Yun et al. (2022) | China | Time‐lagged (observational) | 845 | Multisite hospital | Resilience at Work Scale | High‐performance work systems, burnout and thriving at work |
| Yusefi et al. (2021) | Iran | Cross‐sectional | 312 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Hypochondriasis |
| Zahednezhad et al. (2021) | Iran | Cross‐sectional | 202 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Persian translation) | Burnout, positive and negative affect and quality of working life |
| Zakeri et al. (2021) | Iran | Cross‐sectional | 185 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Mental health and anxiety |
| Zeng et al. (2024) | China | Cross‐sectional | 378 | Multisite hospital | Resilience Scale 14‐item (Chinese translation) | Social support and post‐traumatic growth |
| Zhan et al. (2024) | China | Cross‐sectional | 1874 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Negative emotions and insomnia |
| Zhang et al. (2021a) | China | Cross‐sectional | 992 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Burnout, compassion satisfaction, compassion fatigue and self‐efficacy |
| Zhang et al. (2021b) | China | Cross‐sectional | 180 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Burnout and positive and negative affect |
| Zhang et al. (2022a) | China | Cross‐sectional | 319 | Multisite hospital palliative care | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Burnout, social support, self‐efficacy and coping style |
| Zhang et al. (2022b) | China | Cross‐sectional | 143 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Depression, anxiety and stress |
| Zhang et al. (2023) | China | Cross‐sectional | 319 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item | Burnout and social support |
| Zhang et al. (2024a) | China | Cross‐sectional | 879 | Multisite hospital infectious disease settings | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Risk perception, social support and quality of working life |
| Zhang et al. (2024b) | China | Cross‐sectional | 355 | Multisite hospital intensive care settings | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Career success and professional mission |
| Zhang et al. (2024c) | China | Cross‐sectional | 694 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 2‐item |
Insomnia, PTSD, fear of COVID‐19 and COVID‐19 burden |
| Zhang et al. (2024d) | China | Cross‐sectional | 11,827 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Burnout and general well‐being |
| Zhang et al. (2024e) | China | Cross‐sectional | 271 | Single site hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Belonging and presenteeism |
| Zhao and Hu (2023) | China | Cross‐sectional | 380 | Multisite hospital emergency departments | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item | Psychological distress |
| Zhao et al. (2020) | China | Cross‐sectional | 322 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Turnover intention, job satisfaction and social support |
| Zhao et al. (2022) | China | Cross‐sectional | 7231 | Multisite hospital | Resilience Scale 14‐item (Chinese translation) | Nil |
| Zheng et al. (2023) | China | Cross‐sectional | 2331 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 25‐item (Chinese translation) | Organisational trust and trust in patients |
| Zhou et al. (2024) | China | Cross‐sectional | 1279 | Multisite hospital | Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale 10‐item (Chinese translation) |
Anxiety and depression |
4.3. Critical Appraisal of Sources of Evidence
Across the n = 386 included studies, a total of 15 instruments were identified. All instruments available in English were critically appraised using the checklist developed for this scoping review. Each instrument was assessed and scored based on the key attributes and known factors that influence nurse resilience, with higher scores indicating a more robust measure of nurse resilience (Table 3). Where multiple versions of an instrument existed due to the instrument being directly translated into other languages, the English version of the instrument was used for critical appraisal.
TABLE 3.
Critical appraisal of instruments used to measure resilience.
| Instrument | Social support | Self‐efficacy | Work‐life balance | Self‐care | Humour | Optimism | Being realistic | Workplace conditions | Organisational philosophy | Management performance | Team factors | Score/11 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Adapted adult personal resilience scale | ✘ | ✔ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | 1 |
| Brief resilience scale | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | 0 |
| Brief resilient coping scale | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✔ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | 1 |
| Connor‐Davidson resilience scale 2‐item | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | 0 |
| Connor‐Davidson resilience scale 10‐item | ✘ | ✔ | ✘ | ✘ | ✔ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | 2 |
| Connor‐davidson resilience scale 25‐item | ✔ | ✔ | ✘ | ✘ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | 5 |
| Emergency nurse’ professional resilience tool | ✔ | ✘ | ✔ | ✔ | ✘ | ✔ | ✘ | ✔ | ✘ | ✘ | ✔ | 6 |
| Personal resilience tool | ✘ | ✔ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | 1 |
| Resilience at work scale | ✔ | ✘ | ✔ | ✔ | ✘ | ✘ | ✔ | ✔ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | 5 |
| Resilience at work team scale | ✔ | ✘ | ✔ | ✔ | ✘ | ✔ | ✘ | ✔ | ✘ | ✘ | ✔ | 6 |
| Response to stressful experiences scale | ✘ | ✔ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✔ | ✔ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | 3 |
| Resilience scale 14‐item | ✘ | ✔ | ✘ | ✘ | ✔ | ✘ | ✔ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | 3 |
| Resilience scale 25‐item | ✘ | ✔ | ✘ | ✘ | ✔ | ✘ | ✔ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | 3 |
| Resilience scale for adults | ✔ | ✔ | ✘ | ✘ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | 5 |
| Workplace resiliency inventory | ✔ | ✔ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✔ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | 3 |
| Number of times measured across instruments | 6 | 9 | 3 | 3 | 5 | 7 | 6 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 2 |
4.4. Results of Individual Sources of Evidence
The scores for the instruments critically appraised ranged from 0 to 6 out of a total possible score of 11 (Table 3). The highest scoring instruments were the Emergency Nurse Professional Resilience Tool (Norouzinia et al. 2022) and the Resilience at Work Team Scale (McEwen and Boyd 2018). Both included six of the known key attributes and factors that influence nurse resilience.
4.5. Synthesis of Results
4.5.1. Instrument Development
Of the 15 instruments identified only two instruments, the Emergency Nurse Professional Resilience Tool (Norouzinia et al. 2022) and the Personal Resilience Tool (Wei and Taormina 2014), were specifically developed to measure nurse resilience. The Emergency Nurse Professional Resilience Tool was developed to measure resilience in Iranian nurses working in emergency departments and was reported in a single study (Norouzinia et al. 2022). The Personal Resilience Tool was developed to measure resilience in hospital‐based Chinese nurses and administered in a single study (Wei and Taormina 2014). The other 13 instruments identified were developed using samples of patient populations (Connor and Davidson 2003; Friborg et al. 2003; Sinclair and Wallston 2004; Vaishnavi, Connor, and Davidson 2007), university students (Campbell‐Sills and Stein 2007; McLarnon and Rothstein 2013; Smith et al. 2008), general populations (Friborg et al. 2003; Wagnild 2009), employees in non‐specific workplaces (McEwen and Boyd 2018; Winwood, Colon, and McEwen 2013), community‐dwelling older adults (Wagnild and Young 1993), military personnel (Johnson et al. 2011) and rural doctors (Handoyo et al. 2021). The 13 instruments developed for other populations were later applied to samples of nurses in the studies included in this scoping review. Validity and reliability testing were reported in the development of all the instruments (File S4).
4.5.2. Instrument Features
Self‐efficacy was the most commonly included attribute, featuring n = 9 instruments (Table 3). Optimism (n = 7), being realistic (n = 6) and social support (n = 6) were the other most commonly included attributes. None of the instruments measured organisational philosophy or management performance. The Brief Resilience Scale (Smith et al. 2008) and the 2‐item version of the Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale (CD‐RISC) (Vaishnavi, Connor, and Davidson 2007) did not feature any of the known key attributes and factors that influence nurse resilience.
4.5.3. Application of Instruments
The majority of studies administered a single instrument to measure resilience. Exceptions to this were one study where three different instruments to measure resilience were applied (Connelly et al. 2023) and three studies that used two instruments (Connelly et al. 2024; Janzarik et al. 2022; McCoy, Sauer, and Sha 2023) (Table 2). The 25‐item CD‐RISC (Connor and Davidson 2003) was the most commonly applied instrument, applied in 45% (n = 175) of the included studies, followed by the abbreviated 10‐item CD‐RISC (Campbell‐Sills and Stein 2007) applied in 23% (n = 89) of studies (Table 4). Typically, other measures were collected alongside instruments to measure resilience including burnout, stress, depression and anxiety.
TABLE 4.
Frequency of instrument use.
| Instrument | Frequency |
|---|---|
| Adapted adult personal resilience Scale (Handoyo et al. 2021) | 1 |
| Brief resilience scale (Smith et al. 2008) | 53 |
| Brief resilient coping scale (Sinclair and Wallston 2004) | 9 |
| Connor‐davidson resilience scale 2‐item (Vaishnavi, Connor, and Davidson 2007) | 4 |
| Connor‐davidson resilience scale 10‐item (Campbell‐Sills and Stein 2007) | 89 |
| Connor‐davidson resilience scale 25‐item (Connor and Davidson 2003) | 175 |
| Emergency nurse’ professional resilience tool (Norouzinia et al. 2022) | 1 |
| Personal resilience tool (Wei and Taormina 2014) | 1 |
| Resilience at work scale (Winwood, Colon, and McEwen 2013) | 10 |
| Resilience at work team scale (McEwen and Boyd 2018) | 1 |
| Response to stressful experiences scale (Johnson et al. 2011) | 1 |
| Resilience scale 14‐item (Wagnild 2009) | 20 |
| Resilience scale 25‐item (Wagnild and Young 1993) | 10 |
| Resilience scale for adults (Friborg et al. 2003) | 14 |
| Workplace resiliency inventory (McLarnon and Rothstein 2013) | 2 |
| Total | 391 a |
Four studies used multiple resilience instruments.
5. Discussion
The aim of this scoping review was to identify and critically appraise instruments that have been used to measure nurse resilience. The volume of research including measures of nurse resilience has steadily increased from 2012 to 2020. In the context of the coronavirus pandemic, the number of studies measuring nurse resilience exponentially increased. This marked increase reflects growing concerns about global nursing shortages that have been worsened by the added pressures of the pandemic (Buchan, Catton, and Shaffer 2022). The wide range of countries from which studies originated, highlights international recognition of the importance of nurse resilience.
Whilst there is urgency in practice to find ways to sustain and retain nurses in the profession (Kim and Chang 2022), the vast majority of studies identified in the scoping review were observational in nature and did not measure workplace factors. The predominately cross‐sectional studies that were conducted provide some insight into nurse resilience however, this saturation of non‐interventional research has not addressed the pressing issues healthcare systems face as nursing shortages continue to increase globally (Buchan and Catton 2023). Coupled with how nurse resilience has been measured in research to date, this leaves substantial limitations in our understanding of nurse resilience and how to promote resilience to ensure safe patient care.
The critical appraisal of the 15 instruments used to measure nurse resilience in the studies included in the scoping review revealed significant deficits in the existing instruments. In keeping with the criticisms levelled at research investigating nurse resilience (Taylor 2019; Virkstis, Herleth, and Langr 2018) the instruments predominately focused on individual factors and largely failed to consider the impact of the work environment. In the post‐COVID era, the nursing workforce is stretched more thinly than ever, and the workplace is even more chaotic as a result. The instruments applied to measure nurse resilience do not account for the current context the nursing profession finds itself in. Nurse resilience now more than ever, is impacted by both individual and external factors. The failure to consider the impact of the work environment was particularly evident with none of the instruments measuring the effect of organisational philosophy or management performance on nurse resilience. Even the most robust of the instruments (Norouzinia et al. 2022) only captured 55% (n = 6) of the key attributes and factors that are known to influence nurse resilience. Most of the instruments applied (n = 13) were not specifically designed to measure nurse resilience, and therefore failed to capture the complexity of the attributes and factors of nurse resilience.
The two instruments that were specifically developed to measure resilience in samples of nurses did not outperform instruments developed for other populations (Norouzinia et al. 2022; Wei and Taormina 2014). The Personal Resilience Tool (Wei and Taormina 2014) had one of the lowest critical appraisal scores, whereas the Emergency Nurse Professional Resilience Tool (Norouzinia et al. 2022) was one of the more robust instruments. These limitations even in the nurse‐specific instruments seem to be reflective of an influence from the wider literature where resilience is largely considered an individual issue (Cooper, Brown, and Leslie 2021b). Despite reported attempts to create instruments specific to nurse resilience (Norouzinia et al. 2022; Wei and Taormina 2014), a comprehensive instrument that incorporates both internal and external factors is missing from the literature.
The inclusion of multiple instruments to measure nurse resilience in some recent studies (Connelly et al. 2023), represents an awareness by some researchers of the limitations of current measures of resilience. Administering multiple instruments appears to be an attempt to address the shortcomings of existing instruments and better measure nurse resilience. The combination of three instruments to measure resilience (Connor and Davidson 2003; McEwen and Boyd 2018; Winwood, Colon, and McEwen 2013) by Connelly et al. (2023) meant that nine of the 11 attributes and factors influence nurse resilience were captured. Combining two instruments led to seven of the 11 attributes of resilience being included in Connelly et al. (2024) study. Whilst combining the instruments addressed some shortcomings, administering three instruments to measure the same variable is burdensome and inefficient for researchers and research participants. The combination of two measures of resilience resulted in no net gain in terms of the number of attributes and factors that influence nurse resilience included in the Janzarik et al. (2022) and McCoy, Sauer, and Sha (2023) studies. Given that none of the appraised instruments feature organisational philosophy or management performance, no combination of these instruments would include all the key attributes and factors that influence nurse resilience, further highlighting the need for the development of a specific and comprehensive measure that includes all the key attributes of nurse resilience for application in one tool instrument in future research and practice.
5.1. Limitations
The scoping review methodology facilitated an exploration of how nurse resilience has been measured, however, there were some limitations to this review. In keeping with the methodology of a scoping review no critical appraisal was conducted regarding the quality of the included studies. However, a critical appraisal of the instruments used in the included studies was conducted. The instruments included in the review were limited to those available in English.
6. Conclusion
A variety of instruments have been used to measure resilience in samples of nurses. There are significant deficiencies in the instruments, identified through a critical appraisal approach. None of the instruments included all of the key attributes and factors that influence nurse resilience. Notably, instruments predominately focused on individual factors, did not consider the impact of the work environment and failed to capture the complexity of nurse resilience. Therefore, the existing instruments are ineffective in measuring nurse resilience and are unlikely to promote a full understanding of nurse resilience or support the development of optimal interventions to sustain nurse resilience. In the context of a growing interest in the phenomenon of nurse resilience in the post‐COVID era, a profession‐specific comprehensive measure of nurse resilience needs to be developed to address the current gaps identified in this scoping review.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Peer Review
The peer review history for this article is available at https://www.webofscience.com/api/gateway/wos/peer‐review/10.1111/jan.16769.
Supporting information
File S1.
File S2.
File S3.
File S4.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the St John of God Research Foundation for supporting this research. Open access publishing facilitated by Murdoch University, as part of the Wiley ‐ Murdoch University agreement via the Council of Australian University Librarians.
Funding: The completion of this scoping review was supported as part of an AUD$15,000 Early Career Researcher Grant awarded to AC from the St John of God Research Foundation.
Data Availability Statement
Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.
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Associated Data
This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.
Supplementary Materials
File S1.
File S2.
File S3.
File S4.
Data Availability Statement
Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.