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. 2025 Aug 22;25:1114. doi: 10.1186/s12870-025-07187-1

Effects of planting date and zinc oxide nano fertilizer on growth and yield of lentil (Lens culinaris L.) in two agroecological zones

Muthanna Abdulbasit Ali 1,✉, Mojtaba Kordrostami 2,✉, Fereshteh Mohamadhasani Javar 3, Mehdi Rahimi 4
PMCID: PMC12372281  PMID: 40846902

Abstract

This study examined how using zinc oxide, time, and place of planting influence important biochemical and physiological characteristics that affect crop yield. Zinc is an essential micronutrient that increases enzyme activity, regulates plant hormones, and enhances stress tolerance under varying environmental conditions, so it is important to supplement with zinc. The results of the study found that the optimum planting time (October), seed yield is highest with moderate zinc oxide levels (2.5 ppm) and structural growth characteristics such as the number of nodes and pods per plant, etc. On the other hand, zinc oxide concentration is higher (5 ppm), improving various characteristics such as root length and plant height, and the growing situation at the end of the period demonstrates efficiency. Although this will have a limited impact on overall productivity. Hierarchical clustering and principal component analysis revealed different efficacy patterns between treatments. Highlighting the important interactions between nutrient management, planting time, and location, correlation analysis revealed strong relationships between seed yield and traits such as site germination rate and number of nodes. This emphasizes the physiological interdependence that drives productivity. These findings provide practical insights into optimizing zinc oxide use and planting strategies to increase plant growth and resilience under various conditions.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12870-025-07187-1.

Keywords: Zinc oxide supplementation, Crop yield, Physiological characteristics, Planting time appropriately, Resilience to stress in plants

Introduction

Lentil (Lens culinaris L.) is an important leguminous crop widely cultivated for its protein-rich seeds, which serve as an important dietary component in many regions worldwide. Lentil seeds contain 22–26% protein, 50–55% carbohydrates, approximately 2% oil, 2.5–4% minerals, dietary fiber, and vitamins, making them an excellent alternative protein source in regions where livestock products are scarce or expensive [1, 2]. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), lentils rank fourth among pulses globally, following beans, peas, and chickpeas, due to their high nutritional value and nitrogen-fixing capacity, highlighting their role in human nutrition and sustainable agriculture [3].

The planting date is a critical agricultural practice that significantly affects lentil production. Optimal planting times align crop growth with favorable environmental conditions, enhancing yield and crop quality [4–9]. Delays in planting often result in reduced plant growth, fewer pods, and ultimately lower yield [10–12]. The interaction between genotype and planting date has also been well documented, with different genotypes exhibiting varying yield performances across planting times [13]. Therefore, strategically determining planting dates is essential for maximizing lentil productivity [14, 15].

In addition to planting time, adequate micronutrient availability, particularly zinc (Zn), is crucial for optimal lentil growth and productivity. Zinc plays essential roles in numerous physiological and biochemical processes, including enzyme activation, photosynthesis, and reproductive development [16, 17]. Zinc deficiency typically results in reduced leaf area, impaired photosynthesis, and decreased biomass and seed yield [18–21]. Recent advances in nanotechnology have led to the development of zinc oxide nano-fertilizers, which significantly improve zinc bioavailability and reduce micronutrient deficiency in crops [4, 22–24]. The application of zinc oxide nanoparticles has been demonstrated to enhance germination, root development, and overall yield performance in lentils and other legumes [4, 22–24].

Although previous studies have independently evaluated the impact of planting dates and zinc supplementation on lentil growth and yield [25–28], there is limited information on their combined effects, especially under varying agroecological conditions. Moreover, existing studies rarely investigate the specific responses of lentils to different zinc oxide nano-fertilizer concentrations across multiple planting dates, creating a knowledge gap regarding integrated management strategies for planting date and nano-zinc fertilization under variable climatic conditions.

This study offered a novel contribution by evaluating the combined and interactive effects of zinc oxide (ZnO) nano-fertilizer concentrations and planting dates on lentil performance across two distinct agroecological zones under field conditions. While previous research has independently explored zinc oxide supplementation or optimal sowing times in lentils, the integration of both variables in a split-plot design across Erbil and Rashidiya provides a comprehensive understanding of how these factors interact to influence physiological traits and yield components. Moreover, the study applies a multi-trait analytical framework, including principal component analysis (PCA), correlation matrices, and cluster-based treatment selection, to identify optimal management combinations. This integrative, cross-location field analysis addressing real-time planting decisions under climate variability makes the study particularly relevant for sustainable pulse production in semi-arid regions.

In terms of practical application, the study suggests that moderate ZnO application (2.5 ppm) during optimal planting time (October) results in the highest seed yield with minimal resource input. Based on local market values, foliar application of ZnO nanoparticles at 2.5 ppm costs approximately $4–6 per hectare, making it an economically viable strategy for smallholder farmers. In contrast, higher ZnO concentrations (5 ppm), while beneficial under late planting conditions, did not consistently outperform moderate doses in terms of yield per investment. Therefore, the findings support a cost-effective, environmentally safe, and location-adaptable ZnO-based fertilization strategy for improving lentil productivity.

Thus, the unique aspect of this study is the systematic evaluation of the combined effects of planting dates and zinc oxide nano-fertilizer concentrations on lentil growth and yield performance across two distinct agroecological zones. Specifically, this research aims to address the following objectives:

  • To evaluate the influence of different planting dates (October, November, December) on lentil growth, yield components, and seed productivity.

  • To investigate the response of lentil plants to varying concentrations of zinc oxide nano-fertilizer (0 ppm, 2.5 ppm, and 5 ppm) under different planting dates.

  • To determine the interaction effects between planting date and zinc oxide nano-fertilizer application on physiological traits and yield parameters across different agroecological zones.

Materials and methods

Plant material

In this study, lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.) cultivar ILC482 was used. This cultivar obtained from the Department of Field Crops, College of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Mosul, Mosul, Iraq. The seeds were formally identified by Dr. Muthanna Abdulbasit Ali from College of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Mosul and a voucher specimen has been deposited at Herbarium of Department of Field Crops under accession number UM101. The field study was conducted at two different Location (Erbil and Rashidiya (Mosul)).

Experimental site and duration

This study was conducted during the 2022–2023 growing season in two distinct locations within the Republic of Iraq. The first site was located in the Kurdistan region (Erbil; 36.2°N, 44.0°E, 410 m above sea level), approximately 83 km east of Mosul. The second site was situated in the Rashidiya region of Nineveh Province (35.5°N, 43.1°E, 225 m above sea level), about 5 km north of Mosul. Both sites experience a semi-arid climate. Key environmental data (mean temperature, rainfall, and humidity) during the experimental period are presented in Supplementary Table S1.

Soil samples were collected from both sites at a depth of 0–30 cm before sowing. Analyses included pH, electrical conductivity (EC), organic matter content, and macronutrient (N, P, K) levels (Supplementary Table S2). In addition to standard soil parameters (pH, EC, N, P, K), the baseline zinc concentration in the topsoil (0–30 cm) was measured using DTPA extraction followed by ICP-OES analysis. The zinc concentrations were 0.81 mg/kg in Erbil and 0.65 mg/kg in Rashidiya, both below the critical deficiency threshold of 1.0 mg/kg for legumes.

Experimental design

A split-plot experimental design based on a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replicates was employed. Planting dates served as the main plots, and zinc oxide (ZnO) nano-fertilizer concentrations were assigned to the sub-plots. The zinc oxide nanoparticles used in this study were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich (Product No. 1314-13-2), with an average particle size of 25–30 nm, a specific surface area of 30–45 m²/g, and a zeta potential of − 22 mV. The nanoparticles were suspended in deionized water using magnetic stirring before foliar application. No surfactants were used. Each plot consisted of four rows (3 m long and 25 cm apart), with approximately 10 plants per meter, totaling around 120 plants per plot. For each measured trait, 10 randomly selected plants per plot were used for data collection. These values were averaged for statistical analysis, with the plot as the experimental unit. Treatments were arranged in a split-plot RCBD, with planting dates as the main plot factor and zinc oxide nano-fertilizer concentrations as the sub-plot factor, replicated three times. Blocking was implemented within each location to account for field variability. Within each block, treatment allocation to plots was randomized using a computer-generated random number sequence. Each replicate block included all combinations of planting date and zinc oxide treatment.

Treatments

The observer employed a split-plot design with two factors: planting dates and zinc oxide (ZnO) nano-fertilizer concentrations. The main plot consisted of three planting dates: 5 October (D1), 5 November (D2), and 5 December (D3). The sub-plot included three zinc oxide nano-fertilizer treatments: 0 ppm (control, where plants were sprayed with water only), 2.5 ppm (plants sprayed with 2.5 ppm zinc oxide nano-fertilizer), and 5 ppm (plants sprayed with 5 ppm zinc oxide nano-fertilizer). Zinc oxide nano-fertilizer was applied twice during the growing season: the first application occurred 30 days after germination, and the second was 60 days after germination, relative to the sowing date. A local lentil cultivar was used uniformly across all treatments and locations, ensuring consistency in genetic background for evaluating the effects of planting time and zinc oxide application. The selected concentrations of zinc oxide nano-fertilizer were informed by prior studies demonstrating their effects on various crops. For instance, a study by Prasad et al. [29] reported that treatment with nanoscale zinc oxide at 1000 ppm promoted seed germination and seedling vigor in peanuts. Another study highlighted a concentration-dependent response of lentil seedlings to zinc oxide nanoparticles, with optimal growth observed at 20 ppm, while higher concentrations inhibited growth [30]. These findings suggest that lower concentrations of zinc oxide nanoparticles can enhance plant growth without causing toxicity. The 2.5 ppm dose was selected based on prior lentil studies demonstrating positive growth responses at low nano-zinc oxide concentrations [30]. Additionally, Prasad et al. [29] reported enhanced seedling vigor in legumes at zinc oxide doses below 20 ppm. The 5-ppm treatment was chosen to assess potential concentration-dependent effects while remaining within environmentally safe thresholds. These doses also fall within safe environmental exposure limits.

Crop management

Standard agricultural practices were followed at both sites to ensure consistent plant growth. Land preparation included plowing, harrowing, and leveling. Seeds were manually sown on the designated planting dates. Planting plots were kept weed-free through periodic hand weeding. Zinc oxide nano-fertilizer was applied as a foliar spray using a hand-held sprayer fitted with a flat-fan nozzle (0.3 mm orifice), delivering a spray volume of 300 L/ha. Applications were conducted early in the morning to minimize evapotranspiration losses. No surfactants were added. Zinc oxide nano-fertilizer was applied at two growth stages: 30 and 60 days after emergence. In addition, pest and disease management practices were uniformly implemented across all treatments to minimize the effects of biotic stress.

Data collection

To evaluate the effect of treatments on plant performance, data were collected 20 days after the second zinc oxide application, unless otherwise noted. Germination percentage (%) was measured by counting the number of germinated seedlings and expressing it as a percentage of all sown seed nodes. The number of main branches per plant was determined by counting the branches arising from the main stem of each plant. Plant height (cm) was recorded from the soil surface to the tip of the main stem using a ruler. Root length (cm) was measured from the base of the stem to the tip of the longest root after carefully removing the soil and washing the roots. The total number of pods per plant was counted, and each sample was opened to determine the average number of seeds per pod. The 1,000-seed weight (g) was measured using an analytical balance. Average pod weight (g) was calculated by weighing individual pods and determining the mean. Finally, seeds harvested from each plot were weighed and converted to kilograms per hectare (kg·ha⁻¹) to calculate the seed yield.

Statistical analysis

All recorded data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) appropriate to split plot arrangement in RCBD using SAS software (version 9.2). Before conducting ANOVA, data were checked for homogeneity of variance using Levene’s test and for normality using the Shapiro–Wilk test. Traits not meeting assumptions were log- or square-root transformed prior to analysis. Post hoc comparisons were performed using Duncan’s multiple range test at p < 0.05. The comparison of treatments was at 5% using Duncan’s multiple-range test significance level. Statistical calculations were performed using R software packages. Principal Component Analysis performed using prcomp() function in R. Hierarchical clustering using Ward’s method and Euclidean distance. Correlation analysis conducted using the ‘corrplot’ package in R. Interaction effects between planting date and zinc oxide concentration were also assessed. Effect sizes (partial eta-squared, η²) were calculated to assess the magnitude of treatment effects. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was performed using R software after data standardization (mean = 0, SD = 1). The first principal component (PC1) explained 78% of the total variance, while the second principal component (PC2) explained 19%, totaling 97% cumulative variance. These two components captured the major variability in agronomic traits across treatments. Raw data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

This experimental design and methodology allowed us to evaluate how different planting dates and zinc oxide nano fertilizer levels affected lentil seed growth, development, and yield under environmental conditions in Erbil and Rashidiya. A combined analysis of variance was conducted for the evaluated traits in a split-plot arrangement (main plots: dates, subplots: ZnO levels) within a randomized complete block design across two environments.

Results

The combined analysis of variance revealed that planting date had a statistically significant effect on nearly all evaluated agronomic traits (Supplementary Table 3), including field emergence rate (F = 43.02, p < 0.001), plant height, root length, number of nodes, pod number, and seed yield. Zinc oxide (ZnO) concentration also significantly influenced key traits such as seed yield, plant height, and pod characteristics, with moderate F-values and p-values often near or below the 0.05 threshold. Notably, the interaction between planting date and zinc oxide concentration (Date × zinc oxide) was significant for many traits, including field emergence (F = 4.92, p = 0.027), plant height, and seed yield, indicating that the effect of zinc oxide application varied depending on the sowing time. In contrast, location (Erbil vs. Rashidiya) had limited influence across most traits, suggesting that treatment effects were generally consistent across the two agroecological zones. These findings emphasize the critical role of sowing time and zinc oxide dosage, both individually and interactively, in modulating lentil growth and productivity under semi-arid field conditions.

Field germination rates varied significantly across locations, planting dates, and zinc oxide treatments (Fig. 1). Control treatments (0 ppm zinc oxide) generally performed well under favorable conditions. For example, Erbil-November with 0 ppm zinc oxide recorded the highest germination rate (94.89%), followed by Rashidiya-November at 0 ppm (92.59%), indicating that November sowings benefited from optimal climatic conditions conducive to germination. Zinc oxide treatment significantly enhanced field emergence under stress-prone conditions. For instance, Rashidiya-October with 5 ppm zinc oxide recorded 93.2% germination, compared to the control (0 ppm: 87.6%; p < 0.05). Notably, Rashidiya-October at 5 ppm exhibited a high germination rate (93.23%), underscoring the potential of zinc oxide to alleviate environmental stress. In contrast, December plantings consistently showed reduced germination, with Erbil-December at 0 ppm zinc oxide recording the lowest rate (87.60%). This trend suggests that late sowing negatively impacts germination, likely due to suboptimal temperature or moisture conditions. However, the application of zinc oxide partially mitigated this reduction. The best-performing treatment overall was Erbil-November at 0 ppm, underlining that when environmental conditions are favorable, zinc oxide supplementation may not be necessary.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

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Effect of Zinc Oxide and planting date on field emergence rate (%), Number of main branches, Plant height, Root length, and No. nodes/plant across two locations (Erbil and Rashidiya)

The number of main branches per plant showed a clear response to both zinc oxide application and planting time. Control treatments resulted in fewer branches, particularly in December plantings. For instance, Erbil-December at 0 ppm zinc oxide produced the lowest number of branches (3.3), while Rashidiya-December at 0 ppm showed a slightly higher value (3.85). Treatment with 5 ppm zinc oxide significantly increased branch production, especially under November planting conditions. Rashidiya-November with 5 ppm zinc oxide recorded the highest number of branches (7.53), indicating a strong positive response to zinc oxide under moderate environmental conditions. October plantings with 5 ppm zinc oxide also demonstrated good performance, reinforcing the benefit of early planting. These results underscore the importance of combining early planting with zinc oxide application, which proved particularly effective in enhancing branch development under less favorable conditions. Rashidiya-November with 5 ppm zinc oxide emerged as the most effective treatment for maximizing branch production, highlighting the role of nano-zinc in promoting vegetative growth.

Plant height exhibited significant variation across planting dates and zinc oxide treatments. December plantings generally resulted in taller plants, likely due to extended vegetative growth periods under cooler conditions. Shorter plants were recorded in control treatments, such as Erbil-November with 0 ppm zinc oxide (21.67 cm) and Rashidiya-November with 0 ppm zinc oxide (32 cm). In contrast, zinc oxide at 5 ppm in December plantings significantly increased plant height. The tallest plants were observed in Rashidiya-December with 5 ppm zinc oxide, reaching up to 51.65 cm (p < 0.05), indicating a strong promotive effect of zinc under late planting conditions. October and November plantings resulted in moderate plant height, with only a slight positive effect from zinc oxide application. These findings suggest that a combination of late planting and higher zinc oxide levels is optimal for enhancing plant height. Therefore, Rashidiya-December with 5 ppm zinc oxide emerged as the most effective treatment for maximizing vertical growth under the experimental conditions.

Root length was significantly influenced by both zinc oxide application and planting time. Control treatments generally resulted in moderate root lengths, with Rashidiya-October at 0 ppm zinc oxide (10.39 cm) and Erbil-November at 0 ppm zinc oxide (8.95 cm) performing relatively well under favorable conditions. However, under December planting with 5 ppm zinc oxide, the longest roots were observed. Rashidiya-December at 5 ppm zinc oxide recorded the highest root length (10.8 cm), followed by Erbil-December at 5 ppm zinc oxide (10.4 cm). These results suggest that slow plant development combined with adequate zinc supplementation may promote deeper rooting, particularly under stress-prone conditions. Zinc oxide application enhanced root development, especially where nutrient availability may have been limited. In contrast, the shortest roots were recorded in Erbil-October with 2.5 ppm zinc oxide (7.12 cm), emphasizing the importance of both zinc concentration and planting date in optimizing root growth. Therefore, Rashidiya-December with 5 ppm zinc oxide emerged as the most effective treatment for promoting root length, demonstrating the potential of nano-zinc to support root development under suboptimal conditions.

The number of nodes per plant was highest in December plantings (Fig. 2), particularly when treated with 5 ppm zinc oxide, indicating a strong positive response to this treatment. Rashidiya-December with 5 ppm zinc oxide recorded the highest number of nodes (16.75), followed by Erbil-December with 5 ppm zinc oxide (15.15), both showing enhanced performance. Control treatments generally resulted in fewer nodes, such as Rashidiya-November with 0 ppm zinc oxide (8.29) and Erbil-November with 0 ppm zinc oxide (7.67). These results suggest that higher zinc oxide concentrations promote node development, especially under late planting conditions. Early plantings with low zinc oxide concentrations produced a moderate number of nodes, reflecting the interaction between environmental factors and micronutrient availability. Overall, Rashidiya-December with 5 ppm zinc oxide was the most effective treatment for maximizing node number per plant.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

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Effect of Zinc Oxide and sowing time on the number of pods per plant in lentil plants

The number of pods per plant was influenced by both the planting period and zinc oxide application. Control treatments performed well under optimal planting conditions, with Rashidiya-October at 0 ppm zinc oxide recording the highest number of fruits (47.76). However, late planting combined with 5 ppm zinc oxide also demonstrated strong performance, as seen in Rashidiya-December at 5 ppm zinc oxide (42.3). This indicates that zinc oxide application can enhance fruit production, particularly under suboptimal environmental conditions. Treatment with 2.5 ppm zinc oxide was generally less effective, suggesting that higher concentrations are necessary to maximize fruit set. Overall, Rashidiya-October at 0 ppm zinc oxide emerged as the most effective treatment for increasing the number of fruits per plant under favorable conditions.

On the other hand, the number of seeds per pod increased with higher zinc oxide concentrations (Fig. 3). Control treatments generally produced fewer seeds, such as Erbil-November with 0 ppm zinc oxide (1.37). The highest seed numbers were observed in December plantings treated with 5 ppm zinc oxide, with Erbil-December at 5 ppm (1.80) and Rashidiya-December at 5 ppm (1.75) showing the best performance. These results demonstrate the effectiveness of zinc oxide in enhancing seed set, particularly under late planting conditions. Therefore, the application of 5 ppm zinc oxide in Erbil-December appears to be the most effective treatment for maximizing seeds per pod.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

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Comparison of the number of seeds per pod under different Zinc Oxide and sowing date combinations

For the 1,000-seed weight (Fig. 4), only moderate differences were observed among treatments. Control treatments performed well under optimal planting conditions, with Rashidiya-October at 0 ppm zinc oxide recording the highest weight (27.16 g). Treatment with 2.5 ppm zinc oxide produced comparable results, while 5 ppm zinc oxide did not lead to a sustained increase in seed weight. These findings suggest that zinc oxide application may not significantly influence seed weight, especially when environmental conditions are already favorable. Therefore, Rashidiya-October with 0 ppm zinc oxide appears to be the optimal treatment for maximizing the 1,000-seed weight.

Fig. 4.

Fig. 4

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Pod weight, 1000-seed weight (g), and seed yield (kg/ha) under various treatments of Zinc Oxide and planting dates

Seed yield was significantly influenced by both sowing time and zinc oxide concentration (Fig. 4). In October plantings, moderate zinc oxide levels produced the highest yields. Specifically, Rashidiya-October with 2.5 ppm zinc oxide recorded the highest yield (907.79 kg/ha). Erbil-November with 0 ppm zinc oxide also performed well, yielding 849.91 kg/ha. December plantings with 5 ppm zinc oxide showed improved yields, but these did not exceed those achieved in earlier plantings with 2.5 ppm zinc oxide. This indicates that while higher zinc oxide concentrations enhance yield under late planting conditions, moderate zinc levels are more effective under optimal sowing dates. Rashidiya-October with 2.5 ppm zinc oxide emerged as the most effective treatment for maximizing seed yield, demonstrating the importance of synchronizing fertilizer input with appropriate planting time.

Hierarchical cluster analysis

Hierarchical cluster analysis grouped the 18 treatments based on their efficacy across key agronomic traits, including planting time (Fig. 5). The dendrogram of zinc oxide concentration and location revealed three distinct clusters, reflecting the similarities and differences among treatments. The first cluster comprised treatments that generally exhibited moderate performance in traits such as germination rate, plant height, and seed yield. Most treatments in this group were associated with October and November plantings at both sites, particularly those with 0 ppm or 2.5 ppm zinc oxide. For example, Erbil-November with 0 ppm zinc oxide demonstrated a balanced profile, combining a high field germination rate (94.88%) with a respectable seed yield (849.91 kg/ha). Treatments in Cluster 1 were characterized by stable responses under favorable environmental conditions, suggesting that moderate zinc oxide concentrations or control treatments can maintain performance during early to mid-season plantings.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 5

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Hierarchical clustering of treatments based on agronomic traits (germination, yield, morphology)

Treatments in Group 2 were characterized by high efficacy across several traits, particularly seed yield and germination rate. For instance, Rashidiya-October with 2.5 ppm zinc oxide and Rashidiya-October with 0 ppm zinc oxide recorded seed yields of 907.79 kg/ha and 617.23 kg/ha, respectively. The results highlight the benefits of October planting combined with moderate zinc oxide application for maximizing seed yield. Group 2 treatments consistently outperformed others, especially in terms of seed productivity, emphasizing the critical importance of optimal planting time and targeted zinc supplementation. Group 3 primarily included treatments from December sowings, which exhibited poor performance in most agronomic parameters. Specifically, Erbil-December with 0 ppm zinc oxide recorded the lowest germination rate (87.60%) and a moderate seed yield (803.2 kg/ha). This group illustrates the challenges associated with late planting, even when zinc oxide is applied. Although higher zinc oxide levels (e.g., 5 ppm) improved certain traits such as root length and plant height, they did not result in a significant increase in overall productivity under late planting conditions. The dendrogram effectively visualizes the grouping of treatments based on key agronomic characteristics, reinforcing the critical role of planting time and zinc oxide concentration in determining treatment success. Cluster 2 treatments—particularly Rashidiya-October with 2.5 ppm zinc oxide—emerged as the most effective in maximizing grain yield and overall farm productivity, providing a strategic framework for improving lentil cultivation under varying conditions.

PCA analysis of treatment and symptoms

Principal Component Analysis (PCA) revealed distinct patterns among treatments (Fig. 6). Agronomic traits and locations provided valuable insights into the relationships between traits and treatment performance, highlighting differentiated responses. The first two principal components (PC1 and PC2) explained the majority of the variance in the dataset. Principal Component 2 (PC2) captured variation primarily associated with the number of main branches and germination rate, indicating these traits contributed significantly to treatment differentiation. Traits such as plant height, root length, and seed yield were closely aligned in the PCA space, suggesting a strong positive correlation and a collective contribution to overall productivity. On the other hand, traits such as node number per plant and number of fruits per plant exhibited distinct yet correlated patterns, indicating moderate but specific influences on treatment separation. Meanwhile, 1,000-seed weight and number of seeds per pod formed separate vectors, reflecting their unique and less dominant impact on total performance.

Fig. 6.

Fig. 6

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Principal component analysis (PCA) biplot showing relationships among agronomic traits and treatment combinations

Treatments were grouped according to location, zinc oxide concentration, and planting time. Erbil treatments, particularly those planted in October and November with higher zinc oxide concentrations, were closely associated with traits that promote higher seed yield and field germination rates. This suggests that superior yields under these conditions—even with high seed yield at 0 ppm zinc oxide—are closely aligned with the co-expression of high-performance traits. In contrast, Rashidiya treatments exhibited more variability, reflecting a broader range of responses to both planting time and zinc oxide concentration. For example, Rashidiya-December treatments were associated with traits such as plant height and root length, indicating good performance in late planting situations. This highlights an increase in vegetative growth traits, even under stress conditions. Rashidiya treatments demonstrated potential for enhanced growth-related characteristics in suboptimal environments, such as late sowing, showing that location-specific responses play a critical role in determining treatment efficacy. This PCA analysis emphasizes the importance of location, management practices, and environmental interactions in driving agricultural performance. The PCA biplot provides a comprehensive visualization of these relationships, offering a clear framework for optimizing zinc oxide application and planting strategies to enhance growth and yield under varying agroecological conditions.

Correlation analysis

Correlation analysis revealed significant relationships among the measured agronomic traits (Fig. 7), providing valuable insight into trait interdependence. Seed yield was strongly positively correlated with germination rate (r > 0.7) and number of nodes per plant (r > 0.6), emphasizing their critical role in determining overall yield. Plant height exhibited a moderate positive correlation with root length (r > 0.5), suggesting that taller plants tend to develop deeper root systems, potentially enhancing resource absorption and resilience under stress. Additionally, the number of fruits per plant showed a strong positive correlation with the number of nodes per plant (r > 0.7), reflecting the structural link between nodal development and fruit production.

Fig. 7.

Fig. 7

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Heatmap of correlation coefficients among key agronomic traits in lentil under different treatments

In contrast, traits such as 1,000-seed weight showed weak correlations with most other traits, indicating a relatively independent contribution to yield components. Pod weight exhibited a moderate positive relationship with traits such as the number of seeds per pod and seed yield (r ≈ 0.4), suggesting that while it influences productivity, its impact is secondary to more dominant traits like the number of nodes per plant. Interestingly, the number of primary branches was negatively correlated with traits such as field germination rate and seed yield (r < − 0.4), indicating a potential trade-off between increased vegetative growth and reproductive efficiency. This suggests that excessive branching may divert resources away from yield-forming components. Meanwhile, traits such as plant height and root length contribute indirectly to productivity by supporting overall plant vigor and structural resilience. These findings underscore the complex interactions among agronomic traits, offering a valuable framework for identifying key selection targets in breeding programs aimed at enhancing overall yield performance.

Radar (spider) chart for selection of the best treatments

Cluster-based evaluation and multivariate comparison of agronomic traits across 18 treatment-location combinations revealed distinct performance patterns. Radar charts were constructed using Z-score normalization of trait data (mean-centered and scaled by standard deviation), ensuring comparability across variables with different units. Trait scores were then averaged to rank treatment combinations: field emergence rate, number of main branches, plant height, root length, number of nodes per plant, number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod, 1000 seed weight, pod weight, and seed yield. This method of multi-trait integration and visualization follows standard agronomic data synthesis procedures [31] (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8.

Fig. 8

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Radar chart comparing top five treatments based on overall agronomic performance scores

The top five performing treatments were identified as: (1) Rashidiya-December-Zinc Oxide 5 ppm, (2) Rashidiya-December-Zinc Oxide 2.5 ppm, (3) Erbil-December-Zinc Oxide 5 ppm, (4) Rashidiya-November-Zinc Oxide 2.5 ppm, and.

5) Erbil-December-Zinc Oxide 2.5 ppm. While Erbil-December zinc oxide 5 ppm showed improved root and shoot traits under stress, it did not outperform October 2.5 ppm treatments in terms of final yield (e.g., Rashidiya-October zinc oxide 2.5 ppm: 907.79 kg/ha vs. Erbil-December 5 ppm: 803.2 kg/ha). Thus, early planting combined with moderate zinc oxide is more effective for maximizing yield. It particularly excelled in traits associated with reproductive growth and productivity, such as number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod, and seed yield. This treatment also exhibited enhanced vegetative parameters including root length and plant height, indicating a well-developed root system and overall vigor under Zinc Oxide application at 5 ppm during December sowing. Rashidiya-December-Zinc Oxide 2.5 ppm showed comparable performance, especially in number of nodes per plant, 1000 seed weight, and pod weight, suggesting that even a moderate dose of nano-zinc oxide under favorable planting conditions (December) could sustain high productivity without compromising seed quality. The Erbil-December-Zinc Oxide 5 ppm treatment also recorded high values in root length, plant height, and pod weight, positioning it as a competitive treatment for winter sowing in Erbil. Rashidiya-November-Zinc Oxide 2.5 ppm and Erbil-December-Zinc Oxide 2.5 ppm, while slightly trailing the top three treatments, still outperformed others in terms of balanced trait expression. These treatments were particularly effective in improving reproductive output, with marked increases in seed yield and seed quality parameters. Overall, the radar chart underscores the significant influence of planting date, location, and Zinc Oxide concentration on trait expression. Notably, December planting, particularly in Rashidiya, in combination with either 2.5 or 5 ppm of Zinc Oxide, was consistently associated with superior agronomic performance across most traits. This highlights the importance of environmental conditions and micronutrient management in maximizing the phenotypic expression of yield-contributing traits.

Discussion

This study demonstrates the important physiological and agronomic effects of zinc oxide (ZnO) nano fertilizer and planting date on lentil performance across two distinct agroecological zones. The significant interactions observed between zinc oxide levels and sowing dates highlight the potential of integrating micronutrient supplementation with climate-adaptive management strategies. Zinc, as an important micronutrient, is considered an important cofactor in various enzymatic activities such as protein synthesis, carbohydrate metabolism. Supplementation involving antioxidant and defense systems [32, 33] helps the field germination rate. Significantly improved under adverse conditions. This is likely due to Zn’s role in mitigating oxidative stress during seed germination by stabilizing cell membranes and enhancing antioxidant activity [34]. Zinc is essential for numerous physiological functions including enzyme activation, membrane integrity, and hormone biosynthesis [32, 33]. Its deficiency severely impairs growth, especially in legumes, which are sensitive to micronutrient imbalances. For example, in Rashidiya, the application of 5 ppm zinc oxide in October sowing led to a marked increase in germination percentage, indicating improved resilience against abiotic stressors such as temperature fluctuations and low soil moisture content [4].

Significant enhancement in vegetative traits—such as the number of main branches, plant height, and root length—was observed with zinc oxide application [35]. These traits contribute to photosynthetic efficiency and osmotic adjustment under stress [18, 36]. Positive response to elevated zinc oxide levels were shown on Rashidia-Dec at 5 ppm zinc oxide, which recorded the highest number of branches and nodes [37]. It may stabilize cell membranes and increase hormone signaling pathways. The ability of zinc to reduce postseason environmental stress was demonstrated. Moreover, zinc-mediated root length and plant height Improvements point to It plays an important role in enhancing the absorption of water and nutrients [4, 20, 38, 39]. The increase in these parameters, especially under late planting in Rashidiya, supports the role of Zn in auxin biosynthesis and hormonal regulation, facilitating structural adaptation and resource acquisition under suboptimal growing conditions.

Seed yield, which is the culmination of the interaction of several physiological characteristics. It shows a strong correlation with germination rate, number of nodes, and harvest per plant. It highlights the interplay of these traits in driving reproductive success and optimizing yield [12, 40]. Treatment with a moderate level of zinc oxide in the early stages of planting, such as 2.5 ppm Rashidia October Zinc oxide, results in the highest seed yield. This reflects favorable conditions for division, photosynthesis and reproductive organ development. On the contrary with high zinc oxide levels in slow growing shows the ability of Nutrients to reduce the effects of stress but it emphasizes their limited effectiveness when compared to optimum planting time. It shows that zinc oxide can increase stress resilience. But planting time remains an important determinant of yield [5, 19, 41].

Multivariate analyses (PCA and hierarchical clustering) reinforced these conclusions. Treatments from Rashidiya under late sowing formed distinct clusters associated with improved root development and plant height, reflecting adaptation mechanisms. Meanwhile, treatments from Erbil, especially those with early sowing and moderate zinc oxide, were grouped with traits related to reproductive success and yield, emphasizing the role of favorable environmental conditions in maximizing productivity [4, 6, 38, 42].

Interestingly, traits such as 1000-seed weight and pod weight, though relevant to seed quality, showed weaker correlations with overall yield. This suggests that while zinc oxide may improve fruit characteristics, its impact on total yield is mediated more strongly through vegetative vigor and reproductive capacity. These findings support the notion that zinc supplementation should be combined with targeted agronomic practices to enhance both yield and quality traits [43].

Correlation analysis revealed strong associations between seed yield and early vigor traits (e.g., germination rate, number of nodes), highlighting the physiological linkage between early establishment and final productivity. Moderate correlations between plant height and root length suggest a coordinated growth strategy where aboveground and belowground structures develop synergistically to support water and nutrient acquisition under environmental stress [4, 8, 38].

From a biochemical perspective, zinc is known to activate antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase and catalase, reducing lipid peroxidation and enhancing cell membrane integrity under stress conditions [44]. These mechanisms are particularly critical in late sowing when abiotic stresses are intensified. Furthermore, zinc’s role in the synthesis of tryptophan—a precursor of the auxin hormone indole acetic acid (IAA)—may explain the increased branching and node formation observed in high-zinc oxide treatments [44].

These findings are consistent with similar studies on zinc oxide nanoparticle application in other crops. For example, Raliya et al. [45] reported enhanced biomass and nutrient uptake in tomato under zinc oxide nano treatments, while Prasad et al. [29] demonstrated improved germination and stress resilience in peanuts. In soybeans, Yusefi-Tanha et al. [46] observed that nano zinc improved yield attributes. Our findings align with and expand upon this literature by demonstrating site-specific and time-dependent responses in lentils.

Importantly, this study contributes to the growing body of knowledge on the use of nanofertilizers for climate-smart agriculture [47]. The results suggest that moderate zinc oxide concentrations (2.5 ppm) are optimal for enhancing yield under favorable planting dates, while higher concentrations (5 ppm) may be strategically used to mitigate late planting stress. These insights have direct applications in developing region-specific nutrient management recommendations for lentil growers in semi-arid environments [48]. Furthermore, the observed variability between Erbil and Rashidiya treatments suggests potential for breeding lentil varieties with enhanced responsiveness to zinc and greater adaptability to late planting [49].

The interaction between zinc oxide nanoparticle application and optimal sowing dates demonstrates a promising strategy to enhance lentil productivity under semi-arid conditions [50]. These findings contribute to sustainable crop management by optimizing micronutrient use and planting schedules in regions facing variable climatic patterns.

Conclusion

This study demonstrates the important role of zinc oxide application, planting time, and location in influencing key bio physiological characteristics that drive plant growth and yield. Characteristics such as root length Plant height and additional nodes, pods, and branches are greatly influenced by zinc oxide levels [51]. This sheds light on the important role zinc oxide plays in structural growth and reproductive development [52]. Overall, this study highlights the importance of integrating nutrient management into planting strategies to optimize growth and yield. These findings provide valuable insights for developing zinc supplementation methods in field-specific and time-sensitive crop production. Future research should focus on the molecular mechanisms underlying the physiological response to zinc. It allows for the development of plant varieties by increasing efficiency of nutrient use and stress resistance. To meet the challenges of the changing environment.

Supplementary Information

Supplementary Material 1. (20KB, docx)

Acknowledgements

The authors are very grateful to the University of Mosul/College of Agriculture and Forestry for their provided facilities, which helped to improve the quality of this work.

Reproducibility for the manuscript

To ensure reproducibility, all relevant metadata—including treatment combinations, environmental variables, ZnO characteristics, and statistical parameters—are reported in full. Supplementary files include annotated datasets to allow independent validation and secondary analysis by other researchers.

Authors’ contributions

M.A.A. conceived and designed. M.A.A., M.K., F.M.J., and M.R. projects, and wrote, edited, and reviewed the manuscript. All authors contributed to the article and read and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Funding

No funding was received for this work.

Data availability

All information required to conduct this study is contained in the manuscript.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

This study was conducted following the institutional and national guidelines of the Republic of Iraq. Ethical approval for the field trials and plant material collection was obtained from the Scientific Committee of the College of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Mosul. All experimental procedures, including sowing, sampling, and foliar applications, complied with established ethical standards and agronomic protocols were in compliance with Iraqi regulations and legislation.

Consent for publication

Not available.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Footnotes

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Contributor Information

Muthanna Abdulbasit Ali, Email: drmothanaalameri86@uomosul.edu.iq.

Mojtaba Kordrostami, Email: mkordrostami@aeoi.org.ir.

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Supplementary Materials

Supplementary Material 1. (20KB, docx)

Data Availability Statement

All information required to conduct this study is contained in the manuscript.

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