Gender gap in physical activity and sport participation across the lifespan in Australia between 2016 and 2023

Abstract

Background

The primary aim of this study was to examine the gender gap in specific types of leisure-time physical activity (including sport and active recreation) in Australians across the lifespan from 2016 to 2023. The secondary aim of this study was to examine trends in participation in specific types of leisure-time physical activity from 2016 to 2023.

Methods

This repeated cross-sectional study included sport and active recreation data from Ausplay (2016–2023) from a representative sample of participants aged five years and above in Australia. Gender inequalities in all leisure-time physical activity, active recreation, sport (team and individual), and walking were examined using prevalence ratios (relative inequalities) and mean differences (absolute differences).

Results

Among the 168,678 participants, the prevalence of all leisure-time physical activity, team sport, and walking remained consistent, while active recreation and individual sport participation increased between 2016 and 2023. The gender gap in each activity remained consistent across the eight years, with boys and men participating in higher levels of sport, especially team sport, while girls and women participating in higher levels of active recreation and walking.

Conclusions

Women and girls participate in lower levels of sport than men and boys across the eight years, possibly contributing to the gender gap in overall leisure-time physical activity levels. To address these disparities, there needs to be a comprehensive approach that creates inclusive, flexible, and enjoyable sporting environments, while also further promoting active recreation to cater to diverse needs encouraging long-term participation.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12889-025-24011-5.

Background

Regular physical activity provides health benefits across the lifespan, including supporting healthy growth and development, enhancing physical and mental wellbeing, cognitive function, and reducing the risk of noncommunicable diseases [1]. To achieve these benefits, the World Health Organisation (WHO) recommends that adults should undertake at least 150 min of moderate-intensity activity, or 75 min of vigorous-intensity (or an equivalent combination of both) per week [1]. For children (5–17 years), the WHO recommends on average 60 min of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity per day.

People can be active in different domains, including active transport, domestic, occupational and leisure-time physical activity which includes sport. While all domains contribute towards overall physical activity levels, evidence suggests that certain domains are more health-promoting than others. For example, leisure-time physical activity (i.e. physical activity that an individual chooses to participate in their free time, such as sport, active recreation and going for a walk) [2] has been found to provide better health benefits compared to other domains such as domestic or occupation duties [3, 4]. There is also evidence that sport, especially team sport is associated with improved psychosocial health compared to individual activities, due to the social nature of participation [5].

Global surveillance data indicates a gender gap in overall physical activity, with 34% [30–38%] of women being insufficiently active compared with 29% [25–33%] of men [6] and 85% [83–88%] of girls being insufficiently active compared with 78% [76–80%] of boys [7]. Similarly, in Australia, 27% [18–38%] of women are inactive compared with 24% [16–33%] of men [6], and 91% [90–93%] of girls are inactive compared with 87% [85–89%] of boys [7]. Addressing the gender gap offers an opportunity to not only improve equity in population physical activity but also enable countries to get closer to achieving the WHO’s target of reducing physical inactivity worldwide by 15% by 2030 [8]. For example, it has been estimated that reducing the proportion of women and girls who are insufficiently active by 5%, would be sufficient to achieve the WHO target [9].

There is limited understanding of the specific types of physical activities that drive the gender gap, although sport has been identified as an underutilised contributor to women and girls’ physical activity [8]. For example, a recent study found an increase in the gender gap in sport participation in adults across 28 European countries from 2009 to 2022 [10]. Another study investigated changes in sport participation across sports in Victoria, Australia and found a small increase in participation for women and girls, and a slight narrowing of the gender gap in sport from 2015 to 2019 [11].

Understanding which types of sport and recreation may be contributing to the gender gap in overall levels of physical activity could inform opportunities to help address this gap. The primary aim of this study was to examine the gender gap in specific types of leisure-time physical activity (including sport and active recreation) in Australians across the lifespan from 2016 to 2023. The secondary aim of this study was to examine trends in participation in specific types of leisure-time physical activity from 2016 to 2023.

Materials and methods

Data source

We conducted a repeated cross-sectional study using data from Ausplay from January 2016 to June 2023 [12]. Ausplay commenced in October 2015 and is an ongoing national survey about leisure-time physical activity and sport participation of Australian residents. The Ausplay survey aims to support evidence-based decision-making for governments, sports organisations, and policymakers by tracking participation trends, understanding contextual influences, and informing strategic investment and program development. Randomly selected Australian residents aged 15 years and over were interviewed directly using computer assisted telephone interviews. Interviews were conducted continuously over each year. Verbal informed consent to the questionnaire was indicated by participants agreement to participate in the telephone interview. Following the adult interview, they were asked if they were the parent/guardian of any children in their household and were interviewed about one randomly selected child. Between January 2016 and June 2019, participants were sampled using random digit dialling from a dual overlapping frame (landline and mobile), and from July 2019 onwards, participants were sampled from a single mobile frame. The data were weighted to account for the probability of participant selection and post-stratified to match the population distribution for age, gender, and state. The response rate for Ausplay gradually decreased over time starting at 23% for landlines and 28% for mobiles in 2016-17 and dropping to 7% in 2022-23. A more detailed description of the Ausplay survey and methodology can be found elsewhere [12].

The reporting of our study follows the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology statement (see Supplementary Table 1).

Measures

Adult participants were asked “In the last 12 months, which sports or physical activities have you done? Please start with the ones you have spent most time doing.” For each activity, the participant was asked “How many times in total have you done [activity] in the last 12 months?”. Adult participants who also completed the interview on behalf of a child were asked “In the last 12 months, what organised sports or physical activities has [child] participated in outside of school hours?” and “Approximately, how many organised sessions of [activity] has [child] participated in, in total, outside school hours, during the last 12 months?” The number of times per week was calculated by dividing the number of times during the last 12 months by 52. We used sessions per week, rather than multiplying by average session duration as people tend to have difficulty recalling and tend to overestimate the duration of activities more than frequency, making frequency-based measures more reliable [13].

We removed activities classified as light intensity (< 3.0 metabolic equivalents, e.g., darts, bowls, shooting) [14] because they do not contribute to meeting the WHO physical activity guidelines.

Activities were classified as: (1) leisure-time physical activity, which included all activities; (2) active recreation, (i.e., not sport) which included activities that do not have an National Sporting Organisation (NSO) categorisation (e.g., Dance); (3) sport, defined as activities that have an NSO (e.g., Football); (4) team sport, defined as sports that can be participated in on a team (e.g., Basketball); (5) individual sport, defined as sports that are most generally participated as an individual (e.g., Athletics); and (6) walking.

Regular participation in each type of activity was defined as at least three times per week over the last year. It is likely that three times per week of any type of activity would result in meeting the WHO recommendations. However, given that (1) sport is often vigorous intensity and thus, fewer minutes are required to meet recommendations, (2) sport is often seasonal, an additional definition of regular participation was used for sport variables: at least once per week over the last year [15].

Demographic characteristics were collected including age (in years) and gender (male or female).

Analyses

We calculated descriptive statistics, including unweighted frequencies and weighted proportions for demographic characteristics by year. Gender differences in activity types over time were examined using multivariable logistic and log-Poisson regression models. Each model included year as a categorical variable, gender, and an interaction term between year and gender. Year was included as a categorical variable to account for the non-linear trends and changes in activity patterns or policies [16], including the COVID-19 pandemic. For multivariable log-Poisson regression models, results are presented as prevalence ratios (PR, a measure of relative inequalities) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs), and for multivariable logistic regression models, results are presented as prevalence differences (PD, a measure of absolute differences) with 95% CIs. We used both PR and PD to provide a complete picture of inequality. PRs are presented as the main results in the manuscript, while PDs are provided in the supplementary materials. Analyses were stratified by age groups (5–11, 12–14, 15–17, 18–24, 25–44, 45–64, and 65 + years) and participants with missing data were excluded. There were n = 138 (0.08%) incomplete cases in the data (all missing age), contributing to a total of < 0.01% missing information. Data were weighted to ensure nationally representative estimates and analyses were conducted in SAS Enterprise Guide 9.4 (SAS Institute, Cary, NC, USA).

Sensitivity analyses

We repeated the regression models which examined the gender differences in sport participation over time using the additional definition of regular sport participation (at least once per week over the last year).

Results

 Sample

The total number of participants in Ausplay from 2016 to 2023 included in this study was 168,678 (Table 1). Each year, approximately 17% of the sample were children and adolescents (aged 5–17 years). The gender representation was stable across the study period with 49–50% being male.

Table 1.

Demographic characteristics of participants in ausplay by year

	2016 n (%)	2017 n (%)	2018 n (%)	2019 n (%)	2020 n (%)	2021 n (%)	2022 n (%)	2023 n (%)
All	22,889	22,999	23,624	22,912	22,776	22,818	22,762	7,898
Gender
Male	11,012 (50)	11,292 (50)	11,527 (50.1)	11,781 (50)	12,186 (49.5)	12,451 (49.4)	12,452 (49.5)	4,292 (49.6)
Female	11,877 (50)	11,707 (50)	12,097 (49.9)	11,131 (50)	10,590 (50.5)	10,367 (50.6)	10,310 (50.5)	3,606 (50.4)
Age group
5–11 years	1,842 (10.1)	1,606 (10.1)	1,589 (10.1)	1,492 (9.8)	1,724 (9.4)	1,739 (9.4)	1,718 (9.2)	608 (9.2)
12–14 years	1,025 (3.8)	888 (3.7)	983 (3.8)	891 (3.8)	1,038 (3.9)	1,052 (3.9)	1,023 (3.9)	371 (3.9)
15–17 years	495 (3.4)	576 (3.6)	521 (3.3)	564 (3.5)	628 (3.7)	531 (3.7)	520 (3.8)	164 (3.9)
18–24 years	1,646 (10.3)	1,803 (9.9)	1,553 (10.1)	1,922 (10)	2541 (9.9)	2,351 (9.8)	2,274 (9.6)	832 (9.6)
25–44 years	5,010 (30.2)	4,897 (30.2)	4,534 (30.1)	5,330 (30.1)	6,260 (30.4)	6,208 (30.5)	6,334 (30.7)	2,145 (30.6)
45–64 years	7,127 (26.2)	7,125 (26.1)	7,214 (26)	6,827 (25.8)	6,536 (25.6)	6,606 (25.3)	6,527 (25.1)	2,271 (25.0)
65 + years	5,744 (16.1)	6,104 (16.4)	7,230 (16.6)	5,886 (16.9)	4,049 (17.2)	4,331 (17.4)	4,366 (17.6)	1,507 (17.8)
Outcomes (regular participationa)	% (95% CI)	% (95% CI)	% (95% CI)	% (95% CI)	% (95% CI)	% (95% CI)	% (95% CI)	% (95% CI)
All leisure time physical activity	54.9 (54.1, 55.8)	58.7 (57.9, 59.6)	58.2 (57.4, 59.1)	59 (58.2, 59.8)	58.1 (57.4, 58.8)	56.4 (55.7, 57.1)	56.5 (55.8, 57.2)	56.3 (54.9, 57.6)
Active recreation	29.7 (29, 30.5)	30.9 (30.1, 31.7)	32.1 (31.3, 32.9)	33.8 (33.1, 34.6)	35.7 (35.1, 36.4)	36 (35.3, 36.7)	36.5 (35.8, 37.2)	37.6 (36.3, 38.9)
Sport	36.0 (35.2, 36.8)	38 (37.2, 38.9)	37.6 (36.8, 38.4)	39.3 (38.5, 40)	40.2 (39.5, 40.9)	39.6 (38.9, 40.3)	39.9 (39.2, 40.6)	39.4 (38.1, 40.8)
Team sport	13.8 (13.2, 14.4)	14.6 (14, 15.3)	13.4 (12.8, 14)	14.6 (14, 15.2)	13.8 (13.3, 14.3)	14.0 (13.5, 14.5)	15.4 (14.9, 16)	14.5 (13.6, 15.5)
Individual sport	30.7 (29.9, 31.4)	32.1 (31.3, 32.9)	32 (31.2, 32.8)	33.4 (32.7, 34.2)	35.7 (35, 36.3)	35.4 (34.7, 36.1)	35 (34.3, 35.7)	35.1 (33.8, 36.4)
Walking	29.8 (29.1, 30.5)	29.4 (28.6, 30.1)	30.7 (29.9, 31.4)	29.7 (29, 30.3)	32.8 (32.2, 33.5)	33.1 (32.4, 33.7)	30.1 (29.4, 30.7)	29.3 (28.1, 30.5)

Frequencies are unweighted and proportions are weighed

^aRegular participation is at least three times per week

Leisure-time physical activity

Overall, the prevalence of regular leisure-time physical activity participation remained stable across the 8 years (55% in 2016 and 56% in 2023) (Supplementary Figs. 1 and 2). There was no gender gap in leisure-time physical activity for most age groups over the 8 year period (Fig. 1). However, among the 45–64 year age group, females participated in higher levels of leisure-time physical activity in each year except 2023.

Fig. 1.

Prevalence ratios (male/female) for at least three times a week participation in all leisure time physical activity by year Note. A prevalence ratio > 1 indicates higher participation of males than females; a prevalence ratio < 1 indicates higher participation of females than males; a prevalence ratio = 1 indicates equal participation among males and females. The grey band represents the 95% confidence intervals. p-values for year by sex interactions: 5–11 years = 0.65; 12–14 years = 0.57; 15–17 years = 0.85; 18–24 years = 0.41; 25–44 years = 0.78; 45–64 years = 0.66; 65 + years = 0.24 (a) 5–11 years (b) 12–14 years

Fig. 2.

Prevalence ratios (male/female) for at least three times a week participation in active recreation by year Note. A prevalence ratio > 1 indicates higher participation of males than females; a prevalence ratio < 1 indicates higher participation of females than males; a prevalence ratio = 1 indicates equal participation among males and females. The grey band represents the 95% confidence intervals. p-values for year by sex interactions: 5–11 years = 0.12; 12–14 years = 0.09; 15–17 years = 0.38; 18–24 years = 0.31; 25–44 years = 0.16; 45–64 years = 0.93; 65 + years = 0.17 (a) 5–11 years (b) 12–14 years

Active recreation

The prevalence of regular active recreation participation increased from 30 to 38% from 2016 to 2023. This increase was greatest among 15–17 year olds, increasing from 28% in 2016 to 42% in 2023. The increase in regular active recreation among 15–17 year olds was driven by an increase in fitness/gym participation, which increased from 20 to 31% from 2016 to 2023 (Supplementary Fig. 3). Between 2016 and 2021, there was a persistent gender gap for 5–14 year olds, with females reporting higher levels of active recreation than males. This gap persisted in 2022-23 for the younger group, but not in those aged 12–14 years (Fig. 2). Among 15–24 year olds, males and females participated in similar levels of active recreation. However, for adults aged 25 years and older, females consistently reported higher levels of active recreation than males.

Fig. 3.

Prevalence ratios (male/female) for at least three times a week participation in sport by year Note. A prevalence ratio > 1 indicates higher participation of males than females; a prevalence ratio < 1 indicates higher participation of females than males; a prevalence ratio = 1 indicates equal participation among males and females. The grey band represents the 95% confidence intervals. p-values for year by sex interactions: 5–11 years = 0.78; 12–14 years = 0.61; 15–17 years = 0.93; 18–24 years = 0.13; 25–44 years = 0.60; 45–64 years = 0.09; 65 + years = 0.019 (a) 5–11 years (b) 12–14 years

Sport

Between 2016 and 2023, regular sport participation increased from 36 to 39%. There was no gender gap in regular sport participation for children aged 5–17 years (Fig. 3). There was evidence of a persistent gender gap for participants aged 18 + years, with males participating in higher levels of sport across all years (except COVID affected years– 2020–2021). There was no evidence that the gender gap in sport participation changed over time (p for interactions ranged from 0.09 to 0.93), except for the 65 + year age group, where there was a slight decrease in the gender gap over time (p for interaction = 0.019).

Team sport

Regular team sport participation remained stable from 14% in 2016 to 15% in 2023. For all age groups, the gender gap remained stable over the study period, with males participating in higher levels of team sport than females (Fig. 4). For 5–11 years, there was evidence of a consistent gender gap over the study period. For 12–17 years, there was some evidence of a gender gap over the study period. For the 18 + years age group, there was evidence of a consistent gender gap across the study period (p for interactions ranged from 0.20 to 0.94). The exception to this was for the 65 + year age group, where there was a slight decrease in the gender gap over time and no gender gap in 2020–2021 (p for interaction = 0.003).

Fig. 4.

Prevalence ratios (male/female) for at least three times a week participation in team sport by year Note. A prevalence ratio > 1 indicates higher participation of males than females; a prevalence ratio < 1 indicates higher participation of females than males; a prevalence ratio = 1 indicates equal participation among males and females. The grey band represents the 95% confidence intervals. p-values for year by sex interactions: 5–11 years = 0.94; 12–14 years = 0.32; 15–17 years = 0.67; 18–24 years = 0.34; 25–44 years = 0.20; 45–64 years = 0.99; 65 + years = 0.003 (a) 5–11 years (b) 12–14 years

Individual sport

The prevalence of regular individual sports participation increased from 31% in 2016 to 35% in 2023. For 5–11 year olds, there was no evidence of a gender gap across the study period (Fig. 5). For 12–14 year olds, there was some evidence of a gender gap, where females participated in higher levels of individual sport than males. For 15–44 year olds, males and females participated in similar levels of individual sport across the study period. For 45–64 year olds, there was evidence of a gender gap between 2016 and 2019 where males participated in higher levels of individual sport, while between 2020 and 2023 males and females participated in similar levels of individual sport. For the 65 + year age group, there was evidence of a decreasing gender gap across the study period, although males still participated in higher levels of individual sport than females (p for interaction = 0.039).

Fig. 5.

Prevalence ratios (male/female) for at least three times a week participation in individual sport by year Note. A prevalence ratio > 1 indicates higher participation of males than females; a prevalence ratio < 1 indicates higher participation of females than males; a prevalence ratio = 1 indicates equal participation among males and females. The grey band represents the 95% confidence intervals. p-values for year by sex interactions: 5–11 years = 0.81; 12–14 years = 0.50; 15–17 years = 0.74; 18–24 years = 0.11; 25–44 years = 0.83; 45–64 years = 0.07; 65 + years = 0.039 (a) 15–17 years (b) 18–24 years

Walking

Between 2016 and 2023, the prevalence of regular walking remained stable (30% and 29%, respectively). For 15–17 year olds, there was some evidence of a gender gap, with females participating in higher levels of walking than males (Fig. 6). For participants that were 18–64 years, there was evidence of a consistent gender gap across the study period, with females participating in higher levels of walking. For 65 + year olds, there was evidence of a small gender gap between 2016 and 2022, but in 2023, older males and females participated in similar levels of walking. There was no evidence that these gender gaps changed over time (p for interactions ranged from 0.14 to 0.93).

Fig. 6.

Prevalence ratios (male/female) for at least three times a week participation walking by year Note. A prevalence ratio > 1 indicates higher participation of males than females; a prevalence ratio < 1 indicates higher participation of females than males; a prevalence ratio = 1 indicates equal participation among males and females. The grey band represents the 95% confidence intervals. p-values for year by sex interactions: 15–17 years = 0.34; 18–24 years = 0.93; 25–44 years = 0.14; 45–64 years = 0.60; 65 + years = 0.32

Results of the sensitivity analysis which examined once a week participation were consistent with the main results (Supplementary Figs. 4–8). Results presented as prevalence differences are also consistent with the main results (Supplementary Figs. 9–14).

Discussion

This study examined the gender gap in participation in specific types of sport and active recreation in Australians across the lifespan from 2016 to 2023. Overall, males participated in higher levels of sport (especially team sport) than females, and females participated in higher levels of active recreation and walking than males. Girls participated in higher levels of individual sport than boys, but men participated in higher levels than women. These gender gaps persisted across the eight-year period which may reflect preferential or motivational differences or existing cultural norms that reinforce traditional gender identities that lead some gender and age groups choosing to participate in certain activities over others, and perhaps some of the challenges faced by the sport and recreation sector in terms of maintaining their appeal or attracting diverse participants at different stages of life.

It is noted that between 2016 and 2023, Australia has implemented a series of national strategies and campaigns to promote physical activity and sport participation, with a focus on increasing overall participation and addressing inequalities, including gender disparities. In 2016, the Department of Health launched the “Girls Make Your Move” campaign to encourage girls aged 12–19 years to participate in more sport and active recreation [17]. In 2018, the first National Sport 2030 Plan was introduced with a vision for Australia to be the most active sporting nation and the specific target of reducing physical inactivity among all Australians by 15% by 2030 [16]. Also in 2018, Sport Australia launched the “Move It AUS” campaign to encourage all Australians to find 30 min a day to be physically active. The National Preventive Health Strategy 2021–2030 [18] released in 2021 and aligned with the National Obesity Strategy 2022–2032 [19], reinforced these goals by monitoring progress and establishing benchmarks for increased activity across the population. In 2023, the “Play Well” Sport Participation Strategy was introduced, focusing on creating inclusive, welcoming, and lifelong opportunities for all Australians to benefit from sport and active recreation [20]. Collectively, these policies reflect a sustained national effort to increase participation, reduce inequalities, and foster environments that support participation for all Australians. However, the findings suggest that such initiatives have not yet closed the gender gap in participation and may require more time to show measurable effects or that challenges in policy design and implementation may be limiting their impact.

This study found that the prevalence of regular leisure-time physical activity remained stable and there was no gender gap over the eight years. This was consistent with data from New Zealand, which also reported stable regular leisure-time physical activity between 2017 and 2023, with no gender gap across the time period [21]. In Brazil, between 2004 and 2021, the prevalence of regular leisure-time physical activity also remained stable, but there was a gender gap which remained stable and males reported a prevalence on average 10% points higher than females [22]. In contrast, in the United States, the prevalence of regular leisure-time physical activity increased between 2013 and 2018, with a consistent gender gap of an average of 5% points [23]. These findings suggest that, while stability in leisure-time physical activity is common internationally, the presence and size of gender gaps vary by country and context.

The prevalence of regular active recreation increased over the study period and there was a consistent gender gap for young people in which young girls and adult women participated in higher levels of active recreation. The persistent gender gap in young children is likely explained by the large number of young girls participating in dance, and for adults, the large number of women participating in yoga and Pilates [24]. The increase in regular active recreation was greatest among 15–17 years, and this increase was driven by an increase in regular fitness/gym participation. There has been increasing evidence that there have been societal changes, particularly with children and adolescents moving away from traditional competitive club-based sport to less competitive, recreation-based activities [25]. Fitness and gym activities are generally more flexible in terms of the times that individuals can be active, and they do not require sport-specific skills nor others to participate with, making these activities accessible. Specifically, previous studies have demonstrated an increase in adolescents participating in fitness activities over the last decade [26].

From adolescence, there was a persistent gender gap for overall sport and team sport participation in which boys and men participated in higher levels than women and girls. This is consistent with extensive previous research which demonstrates that sport participation is popular among children, followed by considerable dropout during adolescence, especially for girls [27–29]. Reasons for this dropout during adolescence include the increase in competing priorities (e.g., study, employment, and social life), and the increased focus during adolescence on competitive sport, winning and on elite pathway development [30, 31]. This dropout may also be linked to differing motivations among boys and girls, and men and women. Boys and men tend to be more motivated by competition and achievement, which underpins competitive sport, while girls and women tend to be motivated by physical health, fitness, and social interactions [32, 33]. It is also possible that cultural norms in Australia still reinforce behaviours that align with traditional identities of masculinities and femininities. Sport is traditionally masculine, valuing strength and aggression [34]. These perceptions have and may still influence the support, visibility and funding that women and girls in sport receive compared to men and boys. Efforts to challenge these norms and increase women and girls’ participation have increased in recent years, with many state and national gender equality frameworks, investments and policies focusing on increasing participation among women and girls [16, 35, 36]. Whilst there was some evidence of increased participation in sport for women and girls in line with State Government and health policies and strategies in Victoria, Australia over a five-year period [11], it seems more broadly these policy efforts have not closed the gender gap in sport participation.

While most activity types remained stable over the eight years, there were increases in individual-based activities. This trend may be partly explained by the impact of COVID-19 restrictions, as Australia experienced major lockdowns and restrictions in 2020 (March-May national lockdown, with additional lockdowns in Victoria) and shorter state-based restrictions in 2021, that limited group and team activities and led to a shift towards individual-based activities, a pattern also observed in previous studies [37].

It is recommended that the Australian government adopts a flexible and responsive approach to sports policy that accommodates the shifting preferences towards more individualised and less competitive forms of sport and physical activity. This strategic adjustment will align with current trends and promote a healthier, more active population in the long-term. There is an increasing consensus that the traditional model of community sport does not meet the needs of many adolescents, due to the focus on competition rather than on fun and enjoyment [38]. The recent Sport4Me model offers an alternative approach by prioritising flexibility, inclusivity, and equitable opportunities in sport participation. Specifically, Sport4Me shifts the focus from competition and elite pathways to enjoyment, social connection, and physical literacy, encouraging participation for friendships and fun. The model advocates a wider range of activity formats, including social sport, modified games, and non-competitive environments that allow participants to choose how they engage in sport. By catering to diverse motivations and reducing barriers associated with traditional competitive sport, Sport4Me aims to create a more welcoming environment, particularly for adolescents and girls, which could increase retention and help reduce the persistent gender gap in sport. The Sport4Me model is not intended to replace traditional competitive sport, but rather to complement it by providing additional pathways that better meet evolving societal needs and preferences.

The prevalence of regular walking remained stable, and there was a persistent gender gap for adults in which women participated in higher levels than men. This is consistent with a systematic review which found that women had a higher prevalence of walking during their leisure-time than men [39]. Women spend more of their leisure-time on unpaid work, including childcare, than men [40], and walking is an activity that they can participate in as part of incidental active living, or with their children. Another possible factor is the social nature of walking when participated in through walking groups. Women value the social aspect of physical activity [41], and walking groups provide an alternative non-competitive social activity to the traditional competitive sport model. Walking groups have become increasingly popular worldwide (e.g., Walking for Health in England and Heart Foundation Walking in Australia), and can have substantial reach and retention, especially among women [42, 43]. Walking is generally flexible, does not require sport-specific skills or special equipment and is non-competitive and may be aligned more closely with activity motivations and preferences for women than for men. The gender gap in older adults was smaller than in adults due to the gradual increase in walking with age among men. This is consistent with previous studies [39, 44] that have found that as men get older, they often replace high-intensity sport participation with walking for leisure.

Strengths of this study include the large representative sample of Australian children and adults with repeated cross-sectional data collected over eight years. Limitations include the use of self-report leisure-time physical activity and sport participation questions. These questions have not been validated and were self-reported which can be subject to social desirability and recall bias [45]. Further, the leisure-time physical activity and sport questions for children only capture activity done outside of school hours, which may underestimate total activity among children. However, as the primary aim of this study was to examine the gender gap in leisure-time physical activity and sport, this underestimation is likely to affect boys and girls similarly and therefore unlikely to impact the prevalence ratios or mean differences between them. Another limitation is the use of a binary gender variable. Inequalities do not exist for gender alone, gender intersects with other factors, such as ethnicity, socioeconomic status, disability, geographic location, gender identity and sexual orientation. Future studies should consider inequalities in sport and active recreation at the intersection between gender and these other factors.

Conclusions

This study highlights the persisting gender gap in sport and active recreation among Australians from 2016 to 2023. Boys and men continued to participate in higher levels of sport, especially team sport, while girls and women participated in higher levels of active recreation and walking. Girls participated in higher levels of individual sport than boys, but men participated in higher levels than women. Thus, the gender gap in sport, especially team sport across all ages and individual sport for adults, is likely contributing to the gender gap in overall physical activity levels. Despite many policy initiatives to increase women and girls’ participation in sport, traditional gender norms and differing motivations continue to influence the types of activities that both genders participate in. To effectively address these disparities, a comprehensive approach is needed that focuses on creating more inclusive, flexible, and enjoyable sporting environments, while also further promoting active recreation to cater to the diverse needs and interests of all participants and foster long-term participation.

Abbreviations

CI

Confidence intervals

NSO

National Sporting Organisation

NSW

New South Wales

PD

Prevalence Difference

PR

Prevalence Ratio

SEIFA

Socio-Economic Indexes for Areas

WHO

World Health Organisation

Authors' contributions

KBO conceived the study, performed the data analysis, participated in the interpretation of the results, and drafted the manuscript; PJC advised on the data analyses and participated in the interpretation of the results; RE participated in the interpretation of the results and helped draft the manuscript; DD, ML, TN, and LJR participated in the interpretation of the results; AB conceived the study and participated in the interpretation of the results. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Funding

None.

Data availability

The data are publicly available from the Australian Sports Commission upon request.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Ethics approval was granted for this secondary data analysis by the Human Research Ethics Committee of the Federation University, Australia (C13-007). Ausplay survey adult participants provided verbal informed consent to the questionnaire through agreement to participate in the telephone interview. Children participants were defined as less than 15 years, and the child questionnaire was completed by an adult parent, carer or guardian. This research was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.