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. 2025 Aug 22;11(5):e70524. doi: 10.1002/vms3.70524

Effects of Dietary Rumen‐Protected Choline on Stress Alleviation, Antioxidant Modulation, and Haematological, Immunological, and Offspring Performance in Transitioning Goats

Mohammad Asadi 1, Mostafa Bokharaeian 1,✉, Homa Mohammadi Fard 2
PMCID: PMC12372611  PMID: 40844758

ABSTRACT

The transition period is a crucial time for dairy animals, marked by significant physiological changes. This study investigated the effects of supplementing rumen‐protected choline (RPC) on oxidative stress, immune function, liver health and performance in periparturient Saanen goats and their offspring. Forty pregnant goats were used, with the research starting 5 weeks pre‐partum and continuing until 5 weeks post‐partum. The experimental treatments included the following: (1) control—no RPC supplement; (2) choline—treatment receiving 6 g/day of RPC. Blood samples were collected at parturition to analyse antioxidant status, haematology, liver enzymes, immunoglobulins and other parameters. The growth performance of kids was monitored until 30 days of age. RPC increased antioxidant capacity in dams, indicated by higher superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and total antioxidant status (TAS) compared to control (p < 0.05). RPC also elevated immunoglobulin G and M (IgG and IgM) levels in goats and kids (p < 0.05), though tumour necrosis factor‐alpha (TNF‐α) and insulin‐like growth factor 1 (IGF‐1) remained unaffected. Haematological parameters, such as red blood cells (RBCs), haemoglobin (Hb) and haematocrit (HCT), were improved with RPC supplementation, whereas liver enzyme levels remained unchanged. RPC‐supplemented kids had greater birth weights and body weights at 10, 20 and 30 days compared to control (p < 0.05). Additionally, average milk intake (AMI) remained constant between both groups (p > 0.05). Overall, RPC demonstrated partial yet promising effects on antioxidant status, immunity and performance in periparturient goats and their kids without affecting liver enzymes. Although some parameters within these domains were not significantly improved, the findings suggest that RPC may contribute to mitigating metabolic stress during the transition period. Further research is needed to clarify its long‐term effects on lactation performance and reproductive efficiency.

Keywords: antioxidant status, immune function, oxidative stress, rumen‐protected choline, transition period

Rumen‐protected choline (RPC) supplementation during the transition period improved antioxidant capacity, immune function, haematological status and early growth performance in Saanen goats and their offspring, without affecting liver enzymes. These findings highlight RPC as a promising nutritional strategy to support periparturient health and productivity in dairy goats.

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1. Introduction

The transition period is a crucial stage for health, performance and fertility (Zhou et al. 2016). Numerous physiological changes affecting the immune system and reproductive capabilities occur during this period (Leiva et al. 2015). These changes ensure the dynamic adaptation of the foetus and mammary glands (Liotta et al. 2021). This period marks a critical physiological adaptation to heat and oxidative stress, as well as the trauma and tissue damage associated with parturition and the initiation of lactation, with the primary objective of restoring homeostasis (Trevisi and Bertoni 2008). Hepatic production of acute‐phase proteins is a key component of these responses (Petersen et al. 2004). Therefore, the acute‐phase reaction and its hepatic products are necessary for the proper restoration of homeostasis after calving and the start of lactation (Silvestre et al. 2011). These physiological periods of pregnancy and lactation are characterized by significant metabolic changes that cause a negative energy balance and extensive nutrient mobilization from tissues (Iriadam 2007).

Non‐esterified fatty acids (NEFAs) constitute the primary fat component released into the bloodstream, sourced from adipose tissue for energy utilization (Humer et al. 2019). Specifically, an excess of NEFA inhibits hepatic oxidation, inducing a ketotic state characterized by heightened synthesis and release of ketone bodies, notably beta‐hydroxybutyrate (BHB). Elevated NEFA and BHB levels escalate oxidative stress and inflammatory responses and compromise immune function, heightening susceptibility to infectious diseases and impairing fertility (Shahsavari et al. 2016). The transitional period is pivotal for lactation success, impacting overall offspring welfare. Thus, dietary interventions aimed at bolstering metabolism, mitigating inflammation or reducing disease risk are anticipated to enhance productive efficiency (Bokharaeian et al. 2024b; Bollatti et al. 2020).

Choline, a crucial nutrient, facilitates the transfer of fatty acids, necessary for maintaining a healthy liver fat concentration (Bokharaeian, Toghdory, et al. 2025; McGuffey 2017). It also plays a vital role in tissue structure, contributing significantly to cellular function and structure. Furthermore, choline contributes to the metabolism of fatty acids in the liver (Zeisel and da Costa 2009). Previous research has indicated that choline supplementation can enhance the immune system and reduce oxidative stress in rodents, fish and humans (Miller et al. 2005; Wu et al. 2013). However, the specific effects of dietary choline supplementation, particularly RPC, on antioxidant levels and immunological performance in transition dairy animals remain unclear (Osorio et al. 2013). Recent studies have shown that adding RPC to the diet can accelerate the formation of glutathione, an important antioxidant peptide, thereby improving the antioxidant capacity of transition ruminants. Additionally, by reducing circulating levels, this supplementation indirectly mitigates the negative impact of adverse fatty acids, such as BHB and NEFA, on the immune system, lymphocytes and the antioxidant system (Esposito et al. 2014; McArt et al. 2013).

Therefore, the hypothesis of the current study was that supplementing RPC would enhance antioxidant status, improve haematological parameters, regulate liver enzymes and boost immune performance in pregnant Saanen goats during the transition period, as well as in their newborn kids. Accordingly, the objective of this study was to investigate the effects of RPC supplementation on antioxidant status, haematological parameters, liver enzymes and immune performance in pregnant Saanen goats during the transition period and their newborn kids.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Design of the Experiment

The study was conducted at the Saanen Goat Center in Golestan, Iran (36°49′23″ N, 54°19′33″ E). Forty pregnant Saanen goats, aged 3 years, during their transition period (5 weeks pre‐ and post‐partum), were chosen for the study. Each goat was individually housed in separate pens under standardized conditions and provided with a balanced diet formulated to meet the daily nutritional requirements of dairy goats, following the guidelines outlined in the National Research Council (NRC 2007). The ingredients and chemical composition of the diets are presented in Table 1. The experimental treatments comprised the following: (1) control—without RPC supplementation; (2) choline—supplemented with 6 g of RPC per day in accordance with previous studies in dairy goats (Pinotti et al. 2008; Supriyati et al. 2016). The RPC supplement was administered once daily by top‐dressing it onto each goat's individual morning feed to ensure complete consumption. Feed intake was closely monitored to confirm full ingestion of the supplement. The supplementation period extended from 5 weeks before the expected kidding date to 5 weeks post‐partum, thereby encompassing the entire transition period from late gestation through early lactation.

TABLE 1.

Ingredients and chemical composition of goats’ diet.

Ingredients Pre‐partum Post‐partum
Alfalfa hay, %DM 32.0 30.0
Corn silage, %DM 30.0 34.0
Corn grain, %DM 18.5 19.8
Soybean meal, %DM 7.2 7.8
Wheat straw, %DM 5.7 0.0
Wheat bran, %DM 2.9 2.7
Fat powder, %DM 1.5 2.8
Beet pulp sugar, %DM 1.0 2.0
Calcium carbonate, %DM 0.7 0.4
Common Salt, %DM 0.3 0.3
Min–Vit premix, %DM 0.2 0.2
Chemical composition Pre‐partum Post‐partum 
ME, Kcal/kg 2.4 2.5
CP, % 14.4 14.4
CF, % 4.1 5.2
NFC, % 32.8 32.1
NDF, % 44.2 40.9
ADF, % 24.8 21.3
Starch, % 21.6 25.0
Ash, % 7.9 8.4
Calcium, % 1.4 0.9
Phosphorus, % 0.7 0.5
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Note: The Min–Vit premix composition per kg includes vitamin A (1,000,000 U), vitamin D3 (250,000 U), vitamin E (3000 U), Mg (32,000 mg), Mn (10,000 mg), Zn (10,000 mg), Cu (300 mg), Se (100 mg), Ca (100 mg), Fe (3000 mg), Co (100 mg), P (30,000 mg), monensin (1500 mg), and antioxidant (100 mg).

Abbreviations: ADF, acid detergent fibre; CF, crude fat; CP, crude protein; DM, dry matter; ME, metabolizable energy; NDF, neutral detergent fibre; NFC, non‐fibrous carbohydrates.

2.2. Blood Plasma Analysis

Blood samples were collected from the jugular vein of goats and their kids 7 days post‐partum to measure biochemical blood parameters. The samples were transferred into K2EDTA tubes (anticoagulant; Sarstedt Polska, Warsaw, Poland). Subsequently, the blood samples were centrifuged at 3000 × g for 15 m to obtain plasma, as already detailed in the study of Bokharaeian et al. (2024a). The plasma samples were stored at −20°C until analysis. Levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), creatine phosphokinase (CPK), ceruloplasmin (Cp), lactate dehydrogenase (LD) and creatinine (Cr) were measured using commercial kits (Pars Azmoun, Iran) with a photometric spectrometer (UV‐Vis model 365 LAMBDA, PerkinElmer, NY, USA), utilizing the specific emission wavelength for each parameter. Haematological parameters, including red blood cells (RBCs), haemoglobin (Hb), haematocrit (HCT), platelet count test (PLT), mean cell volume (MCV), mean corpuscular haemoglobin (MCH), mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration (MCHC), white blood cells (WBC), neutrophils (NEUT), eosinophils (EOS), lymphocytes (LYMPH) and monocytes (MONO), were measured using an automatic cell counter (Automatic Sysmex model NKX‐21) in the plasma of goats and their offspring. Additionally, total antioxidant status (TAS), activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) and concentrations of malondialdehyde (MDA) and BHB were measured using commercial kits (Pars Azmoun, Iran) with a photometric spectrometer (UV‐Vis model 365 LAMBDA) in the plasma of goats and their offspring as already detailed in the study of Asadi et al. (2022) and Bokharaeian, Kaki, et al. (2025). Furthermore, immunological parameters, including concentrations of tumour necrosis factor‐alpha (TNF‐α), immunoglobulin G (IgG), immunoglobulin M (IgM) and levels of insulin‐like growth factor (IGF‐1), were measured in plasma using commercial kits (Pars Azmoun, Iran) using enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA; ELX808, TEX‐Bio, BioTek Instruments, Frankfurt, Germany).

2.3. Statistical Analysis

The data were analysed using the PROC GLM procedure of SAS (version 9.4, SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA). The experimental design was a completely randomized design with two treatments and 20 replicates per treatment. The model included the fixed effect of treatment. Duncan's multiple range test was applied for post hoc comparison of means, with significance set at a probability level of 0.05. All data were checked for normality and homogeneity of variance prior to analysis. Results are presented as mean values and their corresponding standard error of the mean (SEM). Differences were considered statistically significant at p < 0.05.

3. Results

3.1. Plasma Antioxidant Status

Figure 1 shows the effect of dietary RPC supplementation on plasma antioxidant indicators in goats during their transition period and in their offspring. Supplementing the goats’ diet with RPC led to elevated levels of TAS and increased activities of CAT and SOD in dams’ plasma, along with enhanced SOD activities in the blood plasma of their newborn kids (p < 0.05). However, there were no differences observed in plasma concentrations of MDA and BHB between the choline and control groups for both dams and kids (p > 0.05).

FIGURE 1.

FIGURE 1

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The effect of dietary RPC supplementation on plasma antioxidant indicators in goats during their transition period and in their offspring. Mean values with different superscript letters (a and b) differ significantly (p < 0.05). Tick bars represent the standard error of means (SEM). BHB, beta‐hydroxybutyrate; CAT, catalase; MDA, malondialdehyde; SOD, superoxide dismutase; TAS, total antioxidant status.

3.2. Blood Haematological Parameters

Table 2 presents the effect of dietary RPC supplementation on haematological parameters in goats during their transition period and in their offspring. Plasma concentrations of RBC, Hb and HCT significantly increased in goats supplemented with dietary RPC during the transition period, as well as in their offspring (p < 0.05). However, other haematological parameters, including PLT, MCV, MCH, MCHC, WBC, NEUT, EOS, LYMPH and MONO, did not exhibit significant differences between the choline and control groups in both goats and their kids (p > 0.05).

TABLE 2.

The effect of dietary rumen‐protected choline (RPC) supplementation on haematological parameters in goats during their transition period and in their offspring.

Items Goats Kids
Control Choline SEM p value Control Choline SEM p value
RBC, 1012/L 9.19 a 12.01 b 1.212 <0.001 9.06 a 10.94 b 1.444 <0.001
Hb, mmol/L 8.12 a 11.49 b 0.989 0.021 8.69 a 9.91 b 0.871 <0.001
HCT, L/L 0.31 a 0.42 b 0.021 0.001 0.34 a 0.42 b 0.041 0.001
PLT, g/L 697.0 714.8 28.50 0.488 703.0 729.8 32.56 0.545
MCV, fl 32.28 31.18 2.496 0.699 29.19 30.08 2.006 0.778
MCH, fmol 0.72 0.74 0.048 0.894 0.64 0.64 0.008 0.994
MCHC, g/L 21.55 22.14 1.248 0.488 21.22 21.54 1.277 0.602
WBC, 109/L 8.79 9.00 0.089 0.487 8.89 9.01 0.012 0.769
NEUT, % 8.41 8.52 0.849 0.6891 8.12 8.17 0.048 0.475
EOS, % 31.41 32.28 2.002 0.4789 28.88 29.28 3.011 0.696
LYMPH, % 2.21 2.29 0.048 0.4891 3.14 3.02 0.218 0.676
MONO, % 52.55 51.99 2.469 0.7481 52.21 51.09 2.081 0.499
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Note: Means in column with different superscripts (a,b) differ significantly (p < 0.05).

Abbreviations: EOS, eosinophils; Hb, haemoglobin; HCT, haematocrit; LYMPH, lymphocytes; MCH, mean corpuscular haemoglobin; MCHC, mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration; MCV, mean cell volume; MONO, monocytes; NEUT, neutrophils; PLT, platelet count test; RBC, red blood cells; SEM, standard error of means; WBC, white blood cells.

3.3. Liver Enzyme Activities

Figure 2 illustrates the effect of dietary RPC supplementation on liver enzyme activities in goats during their transition period and in their offspring. The results indicate that supplementing the diet of goats with RPC did not significantly affect the levels of AST, ALT and ALP in the blood plasma of both the goats and their offspring (p > 0.05).

FIGURE 2.

FIGURE 2

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The effect of dietary RPC supplementation on plasma liver enzymes in goats during their transition period and in their offspring. Mean values without any superscript letters indicate no statistical significance (p > 0.05). Tick bars represent the standard error of means (SEM). ALP, alkaline phosphatase; ALT, alanine aminotransferase; AST, aspartate aminotransferase.

3.4. Immunological Parameters

Table 3 presents the effect of dietary RPC supplementation on immunological parameters in goats during their transition period and in their offspring. The concentrations of IgG and IgM in the blood plasma of both goats and their offspring significantly increased with RPC supplementation compared to the control group (p < 0.05). However, other parameters such as IGF‐1 and TNF‐α did not exhibit significant differences between the choline and control groups (p > 0.05).

TABLE 3.

The effect of dietary rumen‐protected choline (RPC) supplementation on immunological parameters in goats during their transition period and in their offspring.

Items Goats Kids
Control Choline SEM p value Control Choline SEM p value
IGF‐1 (ng/mL) 48.81 47.55 3.129 0.479 48.50 49.19 4.001 0.578
TNF‐α (pg/mL) 117.2 119.0 9.83 0.290 111.7 117.6 12.88 0.335
IgG (mg/mL) 11.08 a 15.97 b 0.977 <0.001 10.11 a 12.62 b 1.001 <0.001
IgM (mg/mL) 0.64 a 0.82 b 0.042 <0.001 0.62 a 0.78 b 0.033 <0.001
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Note: Means in column with different superscripts (a,b) differ significantly (p < 0.05).

Abbreviations: IGF‐1, insulin‐like growth factor 1; IgG, immunoglobulin G; IgM, immunoglobulin M; SEM: standard error of means; TNF‐α, tumour necrosis factor‐alpha.

3.5. Plasma Metabolic Panel

Figure 3 demonstrates the effect of dietary RPC supplementation on the plasma metabolites in goats during their transition period and in their offspring. CPK, LD, Cr and Cp did not exhibit significant differences between the choline and control groups (p > 0.05).

FIGURE 3.

FIGURE 3

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The effect of dietary RPC supplementation on the plasma metabolic panel in goats during their transition period and in their offspring. Mean values without any superscript letters indicate no statistical significance (p > 0.05). Tick bars represent the standard error of means (SEM). CPK, creatine phosphokinase; Cp, ceruloplasmin; Cr, creatinine; LD, lactate dehydrogenase.

3.6. The Growth Performance of Offsprings

Table 4 presents the effect of dietary RPC supplementation of goats on the growth performance of their offspring. The supplementation of goats’ diet with RPC led to a significant increase in the weight of kids at birth and on Days 10, 20 and 30, as well as their overall body weight gain (p < 0.05). However, throughout the trial, RPC supplementation showed no effect on the kids’ average daily gain (ADG), overall ADG and AMI (p > 0.05).

TABLE 4.

The effect of dietary rumen‐protected choline (RPC) supplementation of goats on the growth performance of their offspring.

Items1 Control Choline SEM p value
ILBW, kg 2.71 a 3.18 b 0.082 <0.001
LBWd10, kg 4.72 a 5.29 b 0.216 0.001
LBWd20, kg 6.90 a 7.59 b 0.119 <0.001
LBWd30, kg 9.10 a 9.89 b 0.186 <0.001
Total BWG, kg 6.39 a 6.71 b 0.061 0.031
ADGd1–10, g/day 201.4 211.6 9.90 0.487
ADGd11–20, g/day 218.6 230.0 14.17 0.275
ADGd21–30, g/day 220.1 229.9 16.78 0.478
Total ADG, g/day 213.0 223.7 18.79 0.190
AMI, g/day 561.1 588.8 26.74 0.741
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Note: Means in column with different superscripts (a,b) differ significantly (p < 0.05).

Abbreviations: ADG, average daily gain; AMI, average milk intake; BWG, body weight gain; ILBW, initial live body weight; LBW, live body weight; SEM, standard error of means.

1LBWd10, LBWd20 and LBWd30 indicate live body weights on Days 10, 20 and 30, respectively; ADGd1–10, ADGd11–20 and ADGd21–30 indicate average daily gains between Days 1 and 10, 11 and 20 and 21 and 30, respectively.

4. Discussion

The metabolic characteristics of ruminants during the transition phase differ significantly from those at other times (Roche et al. 2013). Most livestock diseases are usually diagnosed at the beginning of lactation and are often due to insufficient nutrient intake and an unregulated immune response, which are linked to increased inflammation (Zenobi et al. 2018). Choline plays several roles in mammalian metabolism, including the formation of phospholipids, essential components for cell membrane synthesis. Additionally, it helps maintain digestive barrier integrity by preserving tissue structure (Braun et al. 2009) and is crucial for the absorption of fatty acids and fat‐soluble molecules (Kvidera et al. 2017). Improving nutrient absorption and preventing the entry of microbial antigens that cause inflammatory and immune reactions are two benefits of enhancing the intestinal barrier, which may aid ruminant animals during the transition phase (Zenobi et al. 2018). In a study, when dry cows under feed restriction received increasing amounts of choline ions, their plasma triacylglycerol levels rose in response to a fat challenge, indicating the impact of phospholipids on tissue integrity (Zenobi et al. 2018). Choline also helps reduce oxidative stress during the transition phase (Miller et al. 2005).

During the transition period, the body mobilizes lipid and protein reserves to adapt to the unique physiological conditions of nutritional insufficiency (Pires et al. 2013; Weber et al. 2013). Adipose tissue releases significant amounts of NEFA into the bloodstream, which are then transported to the liver for further metabolism to provide energy. NEFA undergoes incomplete oxidation to create ketone bodies (mainly BHB) or re‐esterification to produce triglycerides (TGs) (Gross et al. 2013; Liu et al. 2014). The buildup of TGs in the liver and elevated plasma levels of BHB can cause fatty liver and ketosis, leading to impaired fertility and other metabolic diseases (Walsh et al. 2007). Consequently, BHB plasma concentration is considered an effective measure of energy status during the transition period (Krempaský et al. 2014). Our results showed no impact of RPC supplementation on BHB levels, consistent with previous studies (Guretzky et al. 2006; Zom et al. 2011). However, other research reported that RPC supplementation decreased BHB levels (Elek et al. 2013).

In our experiment, supplementing choline had no effect on MDA levels. In contrast, Sun et al. (2016) found that adding 15 g RPC to the diet decreased MDA content, indicating improved antioxidant capacity. Maintaining a balance between the production and breakdown of free radicals is critical in dairy animals. During the transition period, increased levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) are generated due to intensive hepatic NEFA oxidation following body fat mobilization, resulting in oxidative stress (Turk et al. 2013). Oxidative stress is characterized by a significant disturbance in the balance of oxidants and antioxidants due to increased ROS production from a greater need for nutrients and energy (Sordillo and Aitken 2009). The antioxidant system, including enzymatic antioxidants like CAT and SOD and non‐enzymatic antioxidants, forms the antioxidant barrier in animals (Han et al. 2015). In our experiment, RPC supplementation increased SOD activities in both dams and their kids, whereas its effect on CAT activity was observed only in the dams. This finding aligns with the study performed by Abdelmegeid et al. (2017), which demonstrated that choline can effectively control oxidative conditions, providing enhanced protection against oxidative stress and inflammation in neonatal Holstein calves. Conversely, Sun et al. (2016) found in their study that none of the experimental treatments significantly affected SOD or CAT activities.

During the transition phase, elevated oxidative stress exacerbates inflammation, hindering leukocyte responses. Choline supplementation may help mitigate these issues by enabling cells to produce sulphur‐containing antioxidants (Khan et al. 2022). Studies show that adding choline to the diet can enhance the immunometabolic condition, increase the phagocytic ability of blood polymorphonuclear leukocytes and improve the anti‐inflammatory response to infections. The choline supplementation has also been shown to boost the antioxidative capacity of pre‐partum cows (Abdelmegeid et al. 2017). In our experiment, WBC—including NEUT, EOS, LYMPH and MONO—showed no significant changes in the experimental groups. Reduced NEUT and MONO phagocytic capability and oxidative burst activity in response to pathogens indicate an impaired immune response, increasing the host's risk of bacterial infections (Zhou et al. 2016). Peripartal dairy ruminants typically have a compromised immune system during parturition (Loor et al. 2013). Choline supplementation has been shown to enhance NEUT phagocytosis and oxidative burst in cows (Zhou et al. 2016), suggesting potential benefits for innate immune cells through choline metabolism (Keogh et al. 2011). Garcia et al. (2018) found that genes associated with choline metabolism and inflammatory responses in NEUTs and MONOs of lactating cows were upregulated with RPC supplementation. Blood parameters like RBC, Hb and HCT can indicate health and nutritional status, especially during critical periods like parturition or early lactation, where reduced feed intake negatively affects these parameters (Manat et al. 2023). Increasing RBC, Hb and HCT can reduce stress during the transition period (Dalto and Matte 2017). In our experiment, RPC supplementation significantly affected these parameters.

Erythrocytes, known for carrying oxygen, also play a role in innate immunity. They can bind to various cytokines, modulating the immune response (Anderson et al. 2018; Hotz et al. 2018). Haemoglobin and free haem are effective in innate immunity, countering bacterial ROS and promoting inflammatory responses (Anderson et al. 2018; Jiang et al. 2007). Haemoglobin binds to lipopolysaccharides (LPS), stimulating redox activity and synthesizing antimicrobial free radicals (Bahl et al. 2011). It also stimulates macrophage TNF, releasing pro‐inflammatory cytokines like TNF‐α (Yang et al. 2002). In our experiment, choline supplementation did not significantly affect AST, ALT and ALP levels, consistent with previous studies (Çetin et al. 2022; Rahmani et al. 2012; Zahra et al. 2006). These enzymes indicate liver condition. Habeeb et al. (2017) found no significant effects of dietary choline (20 g/day) on ALT and AST activities in goats. However, Sun et al. (2016) reported decreased plasma ALP activity with 15 g choline supplementation. Choline typically improves liver function post‐partum (Osorio et al. 2013; Sun et al. 2016). RPC reduces liver TGs and metabolic stress, enhancing immune and antioxidant functions (Zhou et al. 2018). Neumann et al. (2007) observed correlations between choline and immune‐related genes. Reduced feed intake in the last 2 weeks of pregnancy causes systemic inflammation and increased pro‐inflammatory cytokines like TNF‐α (Trevisi et al. 2012; Trevisi et al. 2015). These cytokines are produced by macrophages in various organs (Pascottini et al. 2020). TNF‐α modulates the immune system during inflammation and infection, helping recover immune cell functions during the transition period (Lima et al. 2012). Our experiment showed that TNF‐α levels remained unaffected by choline supplementation, consistent with findings reported in previous studies (Sun et al. 2016; Zenobi et al. 2020). IGF‐1 levels decrease during transition period due to negative energy balance, reducing hepatic expression of IGF‐1 and its binding proteins (Fenwick et al. 2008). In our experiment, choline supplementation pre‐ and post‐partum had no significant effect on IGF‐1, similar to Shahsavari et al. (2016) and Leiva et al. (2015), but contrasting with Çetin et al. (2022). Choline deficiency can cause disorders like increased serum CPK, leading to skeletal muscle dysfunction (da Costa et al. 2004). In our study, choline supplementation did not significantly alter plasma CPK activity, nor did it affect Cp concentrations—despite Cp being a well‑established acute‑phase protein that typically rises during inflammation such as parturition (Ceciliani et al. 2012). This discrepancy may reflect the timing and magnitude of the inflammatory response: By Day 7 post‐partum, CPK and Cp levels often have already peaked and begun to normalize, so a single sampling point could have missed transient elevations. Future studies employing more frequent sampling around parturition and dose–response trials would help clarify these dynamics. Dietary restrictions during pregnancy can restrict foetal growth, as 80% of foetal body growth occurs in the last 6 weeks (Che et al. 2017). Our study found that kids’ birth weights increased significantly with RPC supplementation, consistent with Ahmadzadeh‐Gavahan et al. (2023). However, Martín et al. (2013) found no detectable effect of dietary restriction on foetal weight, likely due to differences in timing, duration and maternal fat stores. Our findings also showed significant weight increase in offspring up to 30 days post‐partum, suggesting improved feed intake and nutrient digestibility with RPC supplementation (Pascottini et al. 2020; Sun et al. 2016). Abdel‐Wahed et al. (2023) also reported enhanced utilization of dietary fibre when additives are supplemented to ruminants’ diets. Choline's positive effect on energy utilization may contribute to weight gain in offspring, aligning with the studies of Li et al. (2015) and Smith et al. (2009) showing increased offspring birth weight with choline supplementation. King et al. (2017) also found increased foetal and placental weight with choline supplementation in pregnant mice, though with some low survival rates.

5. Conclusions

In summary, supplementing dairy goats with RPC during the transition period conferred multiple health and performance benefits in both does and their offspring. Choline increased plasma antioxidant defences—elevating SOD and TAS in does and kids and CAT activity in does—while also augmenting IgG and IgM concentrations, indicative of enhanced immune competence. Haematological profiles improved, with higher RBC counts, HCT and Hb levels observed in both generations. These physiological enhancements translated into accelerated early growth, as supplemented kids exhibited greater weight gain through 30 days of age. Collectively, our findings demonstrate that RPC effectively supports oxidative balance, immunity and haematopoiesis across the periparturient period, mitigating metabolic stress and promoting vigorous neonatal development.

Author Contributions

Mohammad Asadi: conceptualization, data curation, investigation, formal analysis, methodology, software, validation, supervision, writing – original draft. Mostafa Bokharaeian: conceptualization, software, investigation, validation, formal analysis, visualization, writing – original draft, writing – review and editing. Homa Mohammadi Fard: conceptualization, data curation, funding acquisition, resources.

Ethics Statement

All experimental procedures involving animals were conducted in compliance with the International Guidelines for research involving animals (Directive 2010/63/EU) and were approved by the Animal Welfare and Ethics Committee of Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Gorgan, Iran.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Peer Review

The peer review history for this article is available at https://www.webofscience.com/api/gateway/wos/peer‐review/10.1002/vms3.70524.

Asadi, M. , Bokharaeian M., and Fard H. M.. 2025. “Effects of Dietary Rumen‐Protected Choline on Stress Alleviation, Antioxidant Modulation, and Haematological, Immunological, and Offspring Performance in Transitioning Goats.” Veterinary Medicine and Science 11, no. 5: 11, e70524. 10.1002/vms3.70524

Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work.

Data Availability Statement

Data are available upon a reasonable request.

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