Abstract
Background:
Binge-watching refers to watching multiple television series episodes in one sitting. The concept of narratives and the immersive nature of the storyline are highlighted in the binge-watching phenomenon. Binge-watching has been compared with the addiction model, which impacts both mental and physical health. Different studies in the West have come up with different binge-watch profiles, but in India, the literature on binge-watching is scarce.
Aim:
The present study aims to explore the prevalence of binge-watching behavior and determine the relationship between binge-watching and the psychological correlates, namely, stress, depression, anxiety, coping styles, and personality traits.
Materials and Methods:
The current study was conducted online on a community sample consisting of 235 individuals. Binge-watching behavior was assessed through the Binge-Watching Engagement and Symptoms Questionnaire (BWESQ), and psychological correlates were assessed through DASS 21, Brief COPE, and Big Five Invenrory-2-Short (BFI-2-S).
Results:
A high prevalence rate (85%) for binge-watching has been found. Avoidance coping style increases binge-watching behavior. Conscientiousness personality trait decreases binge-watching, and extraversion increases it.
Conclusion:
Binge-watching is a prevalent phenomenon in the community and coping styles, and personality traits can influence binge-watching behavior in a bidirectional manner.
Keywords: Anxiety, binge-watching, coping, depression, personality traits
The word ‘binge’ first appeared in English in the mid-1800s to mean ‘to soak’. Around the time of World War I, the term ‘binge’ was used to refer to eating or drinking in excess. Before 2003, the concept of binge-watching prevailed in the form of watching back-to-back episodes of TV serials or movies on DVDs or video boxes. In the streaming age and with the modern binge model of consumption, the concept of television “flow” has been used by the networks to keep viewers glued to their screens from program to program watching for as long as possible creating the ideal consumer flow. This experience of being completely immersed in a story is known as transportation, which[1] indicates that the more a person is transported into a narrative, the more he or she will enjoy the narrative content and engage with the characters in the story.[2,3] A clear definition of what exactly constitutes binge-watching is still under discussion. The Oxford Dictionary simply defines binge-watching as viewing “multiple episodes of (a television program) in rapid succession”.[4] While some studies follow this rather vague definition,[5,6] other sources define specific cutoff points to allow differentiation between “regular” series use and binge-watching. Even though Netflix[7] as well as some other researchers[8,9] conclude that binge-watching begins when people watch two or more episodes of the same series in one sitting, the most frequent perspective is to define binge-watching from the third consecutive episode onward.[10,11,12,13,14]
Considering the neuroscience of binge-watching, it can be explained as sharing common neural pathways and processes like addiction. When engaged in an activity that is enjoyable, such as binge-watching, the brain continually produces dopamine, which gives the body a natural, internal reward of pleasure that reinforces continued engagement in that activity and the body experiences a drug-like high. It takes more and more of the same activity to give that same feeling of enjoyment, making binge-watching that much harder to stop, thus developing tolerance.
Binge-watching behavior and stress, depression, and anxiety may be related in both ways – either one may cause the other; for example, the presence of stress, anxiety, or depression may increase binge-watching behavior, and similarly, individuals with depression or anxiety or stress may also choose to binge-watch to disrupt their dysphoria as evident in previous studies.[15,16,17]
People often use binge-watching as a form of emotion-focused coping which provides them with a diversion from the problem situation. Previous studies have suggested it to be an easy way to escape reality and avoid negative emotions, which leads to a decrease in choosing other adaptive coping methods and might tend to engage in excessive binge-watching as a coping approach.[17,18]
Personality patterns are shaped by both innate temperamental characteristics and environmental exposures, and it might be important to ascertain if there is a personality profile that might lead to binge-watching; for example, people high on neuroticism dimension experience more negative emotions and there might be a propensity for these individuals to engage in binge-watching as a coping mechanism to alleviate stress and get hooked on the behavior.[18] Previous studies show significant coherence of binge-watching with conscientiousness, which emerged as a protective factor, as it was associated with less habitual binge-watching.[19,20]
Thus, the present study aims to explore the prevalence of binge-watching behavior and determine the relationship between binge-watching and the psychological correlates, namely, stress, depression, anxiety, coping, and personality traits.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The design of the study is cross-sectional. The sampling technique used was snowball sampling, and the data were collected online over 6 6-month duration (January–July, 2022). The total sample consists of 235 adults.
Criteria for binge-watching
Watching more than 2 episodes in one sitting,[21,22] the hours consumed in one sitting were recorded following the below category: less than 2 hours, 2–4 hours, 4–6 hours, and more than 6 hours; the frequency of weekly consumption of binge-watching was recorded following the below categories: less than once a week, 1–3 days, 4–7 days, working days, and weekends (including Friday evening).
Inclusion criteria
The age range of the participants included was between 20 and 50 years, comprising both males and females, with a minimum educational qualification of graduation and the ability to read and understand English.
Exclusion criteria
Participants with chronic physical illness and psychiatric disorders have been excluded.
Tools used
Sociodemographic data and other details: It contains questions about demographics and binge-watching.
Binge-Watching Engagement and Symptoms Questionnaire (BWESQ)[21]: It is a 40-item scale assessing binge-watching engagement and features and consists of seven scales: engagement, positive emotions, pleasure preservation, desire/savoring, binge-watching, dependency, and loss of control. Items are scored on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree), with an average score calculated for each subscale. The internal consistency measured by Cronbach’s alpha varies between 0.75 and 0.96 for the whole sample and has good convergent validity.
Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS-21)[23]: It is a 21-item self-report questionnaire to assess depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms. Total scores are calculated by summing the scores into seven items and then multiplying by 2. Total scores range between 0 and 42. Cronbach’s alphas for the DASS-21 subscales were 0.94 for depression, 0.87 for anxiety, and. 91 for stress and high concurrent validity.
Brief COPE[24]: It is a 28-item (short version of the original 60-item COPE scale) self-report questionnaire designed to measure effective and ineffective ways to cope with a stressful life event. The scores for both domains range from 1 to 48. The Cronbach’s alpha for the overall Brief COPE was 0.70, indicating good consistency among the items with adequate discriminant validity.
Big Five inventory-2-short (BFI-2-S)[25]: This scale consists of 30 items aimed to assess the big five domains of extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, negative emotionality, and open-mindedness. Items are scored on a 5-point Likert scale, where 1 = Disagree strongly and 5 = Agree strongly. Fifteen items are scored directly, and 15 items are scored in a reverse manner. Alpha reliabilities of the BFI-2-S domain scales averaged from 0.77 in each sample (total range = 0.73 to 0.83) with adequate content and external validity.
Procedure
The questionnaires including the consent form were typed in Google form. A brief description along with the purpose of the study was provided with the consent form, and confidentiality of the responses was maintained. The Google forms were circulated online through social media groups, WhatsApp, and telegram based on simple random sampling. After agreeing to the consent, participants were directed to the questionnaires following the order of sociodemographic details and details related to OTT platforms. The questions for the OTT platform details were framed along a self-made form which consists of items like preferred device, preferred genre, and mostly watched content. The participants were then directed to a binge-watching engagement and symptoms questionnaire and the rest of the questionnaires, namely, DASS-21, brief COPE, and big five inventory-2-short proceeded. After collecting the data, necessary calculations were done.
Statistical analysis
The data obtained were analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences version 21.[26] For the sociodemographic variables, frequency, percentage, mean, and standard deviation were computed. For the variables under study, mean, standard deviation, correlation, and multiple regression were used to analyze the data. For all the statistical analyses, the level of significance was held at 0.05 and 0.01.
RESULTS
The prevalence of binge-watching for the sample was 85%; out of 235 individuals, 200 individuals fulfilled the criteria for binge-watching, suggesting it to be prevalent in the normative sample. The mean age of the sample is 32.53, and the standard deviation is 7.48. Among the 200 participants, the majority were 126 females (f = 126; % = 63), were married (f = 134; % = 67), had education of majorly postgraduation (f = 105; % = 52), were employed (f = 139; % = 70), belonged to the middle-income group (i.e., between 30,000–60,000/- per month, f = 80; % = 40), and hailed from the nuclear family (f = 91; % = 45).
The majority of the sample used both mobile data and Wi-Fi (f = 167; % = 83). In terms of mobile data, the majority preferred using an unlimited data pack (f = 158; % = 79), overall spending between Rs 1500/- and 3000/- in a month (f = 120; % = 60), and reported spending time on the Internet for more than 6 hours (f = 111; % = 55.5). In terms of OTT App characteristics, the majority of the sample suggested mobile be their most preferred device (f = 182; % = 90.5). Among the most watched apps, Amazon Prime has been reported to be watched by the majority (f = 126; % = 62.7) and web series as their most watched content (f = 188; % = 93.6). The majority of the sample reported watching more than six episodes at a stretch (f = 68; % = 33.8) on any day of the week (f = 115; % = 66.5). Table 1 indicates the mean of positive emotion (mean = 2.85) to be the highest, followed by desire/savoring (mean = 2.82) and binge-watching (mean = 2.66) among the domains of binge-watching. The majority of the sample did not report any prominent depressive, anxiety, and stress symptoms. Hence, further statistical computations like correlation have not been proceeded with.
Table 1.
Mean and standard deviation of the domains of binge-watching of the sample
| Binge-watching domains | n | Mean | Std. Deviation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Engagement | 200 | 2.36 | 0.48 |
| Positive Emotion | 200 | 2.85 | 0.54 |
| Desire/Savoring | 200 | 2.82 | 0.61 |
| Pleasure Preservation | 200 | 2.56 | 0.62 |
| Binge-Watching | 200 | 2.66 | 0.71 |
| Dependency | 200 | 2.42 | 0.60 |
| Loss of Control | 200 | 2.21 | 0.55 |
The mean of avoidance coping (mean = 35.15) is higher among the other coping styles, reflecting that the majority of the sample uses the approach type of coping style for any type of stressful situation faced in their life [Table 2]. The mean of the extraversion personality trait is the highest, followed by conscientiousness and agreeableness [Table 3]. Table 4 indicates that the approach coping style has been negatively correlated with engagement (r = -0.22) and positive emotion (r = -0.30), and avoidance style of coping has been positively correlated with engagement (r = 0.15), positive emotion (r = 0.22), desire/savoring (r = 0.21), binge-watching (r = 0.30), dependency (r = 0.27), and loss of control (r = 0.17) domains of binge-watching. Conscientiousness is negatively correlated with engagement (r = -0.24), positive emotion (r = -0.34), binge-watching (r = -0.35), dependency (r = -0.36), and loss of control (r = -0.23) dimensions of binge-watching. Extraversion was found to be positively correlated with positive emotion (r = 0.29) and binge-watching (r = 0.25) dimension. Dependency was found to be negatively correlated with agreeableness (r = -0.17).
Table 2.
Mean and standard deviation of the coping styles of the sample
| Variable | Approach | Avoidance | Humour | Religious |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean | 24.1 | 35.15 | 2.65 | 3.92 |
| Standard Deviation | 4.59 | 8.5 | 1.29 | 1.63 |
Table 3.
Mean and standard deviation of the personality traits of the sample
| Variables | Extraversion | Agreeableness | Conscientiousness | Negative Emotionality | Open-mindedness |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean | 4.33 | 3.67 | 3.87 | 2.56 | 3.16 |
| Standard Deviation | 0.84 | 0.56 | 0.82 | 0.83 | 0.61 |
Table 4.
Correlation between domains of binge-watching and coping style, personality traits
| Variables | Cope-Avoidance | Cope-Approach | Extraversion | Agreeableness | Conscientiousness |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| BW - Engagement | 0.15* | -0.22** | 0.18 | -0.01 | -0.24** |
| BW – Positive Emotion | 0.22** | -0.30** | 0.29** | 0.04 | -0.34** |
| BW – Desire/Savoring | 0.21** | 0.21 | 0.16 | -0.05 | 0.23 |
| BW – Pleasure Preservation | 0.20 | 0.32 | 0.28 | -0.13 | 0.34 |
| BW – Binge Watching | 0.23** | 0.30 | 0.25** | -0.11 | -0.35** |
| BW – Dependency | 0.23** | 0.27 | 0.28 | -0.17* | -0.36** |
| BW – Loss of Control | 0.17* | 0.13 | 0.13 | -0.13 | -0.23** |
**Indicates correlation is significant at 0.01 level. *Indicates correlation is significant at 0.05 level
Table 5 shows the multiple regression analysis indicating that both avoidance style of coping and extraversion personality traits account for 15% (R2) of the increase in binge-watching. Regarding the contribution of the single variable (avoidance style of coping), the gradient of the regression line (Beta value = 0.99) reflects that if the predictor value is increased by 1 unit (avoidance style of coping), then the current model predicts a 0.99 percent increase in binge-watching. With the addition of another variable (extraversion personality trait), the gradient of the regression line (Beta value = 1.37) reflects that if the predictor value is increased by 1 unit (extraversion personality trait), then the current model predicts a 1.37 percent increase in binge-watching.
Table 5.
Multiple Regression Analysis: Coefficients relating to change in binge-watching
| Model | Unstandardized Coefficients |
Standardized Coefficients | t | Sig | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| B | Standard Error | Beta | |||
| 1. (Constant) | |||||
| 2. Avoidance Coping Style | 15.08 | 5.68 | 0.35 | 3.79 | 0.00 |
| 3. Extraversion | 0.99 | 0.35 | 0.21 | 2.78 | 0.05 |
| 4. Personality Trait | 1.37 | 0.36 | 0.24 | 3.73 | 0.00 |
Dependent Variable: Binge-watching
DISCUSSION
The prevalence of binge-watching for the current sample has been obtained to be 85%, suggesting that binge-watching is a phenomenon prevalent in the normative sample. This high prevalence rate might be explained in light of the advent of technological advancement generating new forms of entertainment, ease, and affordability of engagement into the behavior, their reinforcing properties, and also current socioeconomical circumstances.
Positive emotion in binge-watching has been indicated to be the highest dimension among the sample, which suggests that people engage in watching web series to derive emotional benefits, which further result in a desire for and appreciation of watching OTT platforms leading to excessive watching and maintenance of binge-watching. As noted by the transportation theory, a particular web series or the storyline also makes the engagement happen, where the individuals become hooked and remain immersed in a particular web series until its completion. The findings also indicate that binge-watching might be series-specific. Here, it is also important to note that the authors of the scale reported the components of engagement, desire/savoring, pleasure preservation, and positive emotion as nonproblematic, resulting in emotional enhancement and promoting the pursuit of leisure activities,[21,22] and current findings also suggest that most of the present sample use binge-watching for emotional enhancement.
The avoidance coping style is the major coping style used by the present sample, which is considered to be an unhealthy coping style; it reflects that the present sample commonly uses this when they believe they are unable to control change or improve a stressful situation and get involved in binge-watching to escape or avoid the stressor.[27]
Extraversion is the most prevalent personality trait of binge-watchers. Extraverts feel energized by interacting with others, and binge-watching might give them a topic for conversation with others.[28,29] Previous studies emphasize that people with high extraversion traits binge-watch new TV series as soon as possible because they do not want to experience fear of missing out and seek a high level of sensation-seeking, another characteristic of the extraverts, by binge-watching because of the constant search for arousing and exciting stimuli.[21,22]
When coping style is considered, the avoidance style of coping is positively correlated with dimensions of binge-watching (engagement, positive emotion, desire/savoring, binge-watching, dependency, loss of control) and the approach style of coping has also been found to be a negatively correlated with engagement and positive emotion dimensions of binge-watching. The present findings support the existing literature,[18,29] which indicates that task-oriented (approach) coping tends to engage less in binge-watching behavior, whereas people who engage in escape (avoidance) coping from negative emotions such as stress, loneliness, sadness, boredom, or personal challenges tend to engage more in binge-watching where individuals distract themselves and achieve temporary relief from their emotional issues by immersing themselves in the stories of web shows or movies which can sometimes lead to negative psychological outcomes, such as feelings of guilt, shame, or emotional numbness after the activity.
Further findings also indicate that avoidance coping style can predict binge-watching, suggesting that binge-watching can be used as a coping mechanism that can provide a way to deal with the stressful situations of life supported by previous research.[12]
While considering the personality traits, it has been observed that extraversion is positively correlated with the positive emotion and binge-watching dimension of binge-watching. For extroverts, binge-watching provides a pathway to connect to people, providing them with a topic that can be the focus of conversation and thus help them connect with others in society. Also, due to changes in socioeconomic circumstances and lifestyle, extroverts having less opportunity to interact with others in their physical world might replace their social activities with binge-watching as evident in a few previous studies.[21,22] Conscientiousness is negatively correlated with engagement, positive emotion, binge-watching, dependency, and loss of control dimension of binge-watching, indicating more conscientious people engage in less binge-watching as they tend to control impulses and act in goal-directed behavior.[30] The finding is supported by previous literature.[18,31] Agreeableness is negatively correlated with only the dependency dimension of binge-watching. Agreeableness is a construct that concerns how well people get along with others and encompasses behaviors that are sympathetic, cooperative, warm, and considerate, and it is highly unlikely for people high on agreeableness to become dependent on binge-watching.
Findings also suggest extraversion trait is a predictor of binge-watching, particularly when it is done as a social activity such as watching web shows with friends or participating in online communities that discuss the shows as a form of social bonding to seek high levels of stimulation which may lead them to choose highly engaging, fast-paced web shows, or movies offering them a form of instant gratification and entertainment.
Limitations and future directions
A small sample might have affected the generalizability of the findings, differences in the number of males and females might have compromised the true representativeness of the population, and the risk of biases due to the use of self-reported measures could not be overcome.
Scope for further research includes using a larger sample, exploration of gender-based differences, other variables such as impulsivity, emotional regulation, and role of narratives in binge-watching.
CONCLUSION
The current study findings suggest that binge-watching is highly prevalent in the current sample. Not only binge-watching is rewarding in itself because of the storyline and presentation but also the availability and affordability of the Internet enhance the behavior of binge-watching. While the current findings do not report any association of depression, anxiety, or stress with binge-watching, they suggest coping patterns and personality dimensions interplay with binge-watching and how these can predict binge-watching. It is an intriguing phenomenon in society, growing day by day, and is establishing itself as a separate entertainment mode in its own right. Henceforth, individuals need to maintain balance by setting healthy boundaries around screen time so that it remains an enjoyable and mindful activity rather than a detrimental one.
Author’s contribution
Concept, design, and writing of the paper: MS, AM, MK.
The manuscript has been read and approved by all authors.
Data availability
Data can be made available on reasonable request.
Ethical considerations
Approval from the institutional Ethics Committee was taken (Memo No. IPGME&R/IEC/2021/555 dated 25/09/2021. All subjects gave informed consent.
Conflicts of interest
There are no conflicts of interest.
Funding Statement
Nil.
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Associated Data
This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.
Data Availability Statement
Data can be made available on reasonable request.
