Sexual harassment and job satisfaction among female workers at private sectors: Job stress as a mediator

Abstract

Background:

Female workers often face sexual harassment in the workplace. It places them under stress and reduces their job satisfaction.

Aim:

Understanding the mediating effect of job stress in relation to harassment and job satisfaction is the main objective of the study.

Materials and Methods:

This cross-sectional study focused on women workers in the private sector from the Kurdistan region of Iraq. We measured sexual harassment using the sex behavior and workplace questionnaire and assessed job stress using the job stress survey questionnaire. The researchers developed a job satisfaction scale. We analyzed the data using ANOVA, simple linear regression, and Sobel mediation.

Results:

Study sample consisted of 400 women workers who had experienced sexual harassment at work. The divorced/widowed had higher levels of harassment (M = 76.68), higher levels of job stress (M = 56.94), and worse job satisfaction (M = 50.16). We found a substantial positive link between sexual harassment and job stress and a large, significant negative correlation with job satisfaction. The indirect effect of sexual harassment through job stress accounts for 15% of the impact on job satisfaction.

Conclusion:

Among female workers, divorced or widowed, older, and lower levels of education are the main risk factors for sexual harassment.

Women’s economic empowerment and sustainability depend on their participation in the economy. One consequence of this increasing representation of women in the workplace is the greater opportunity for conflict based on gender differences.[1] One issue that stands out is the growing problem of workplace sexual harassment.[2] “Sexual harassment” is defined as “any unwanted, sexually determined physical, verbal, or nonverbal conduct.”[3] Sexual harassment refers to unwelcome sexual approaches, requests for favors, and sexual conduct that interferes with job performance or creates a hostile work environment.[4] Sexual harassment is a behavior that can occur anywhere and, in any culture, not confined to a specific culture.[5] In the past decade, the subject of sexual harassment has gained prominence. As the number of reported cases increases, many countries have adopted a more aggressive legal approach to recognize sexual harassment as an offensive behavior, prevent the conduct from worsening, and punish the harasser.[6]

Serious workplace sexual harassment has caused many victims to leave their existing jobs, leading to consequences such as low productivity, career changes, low job satisfaction, and emotional stress.[2] Sexual harassment in the workplace has a negative impact on the psychology of women’s employees, so these adverse effects often appear on the one hand in the form of work stress and, on the other hand, cause dissatisfaction with work.[7] However, individuals of harassment or physical harassment frequently report a range of psychological effects and emotional symptoms, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), sadness, anxiety, substance misuse, thoughts of suicide, and harming oneself. Sexual trauma may also have an impact on one’s job.[8] These psychosocial working conditions are classified as current circumstances that an individual is exposed to at work and experiences job stress.[9]

Job stress refers to situations of uncertainty that an individual experiences due to the burdens of their work or those around them.[10] It plays an important mediating role between sexual harassment and job satisfaction among employees.[11] The study aims to identify risk factors for sexual harassment among women in the private sector, understand the impact of predicting harassment on job stress and job satisfaction, and understand the mediating role of job stress in relation to sexual harassment and job satisfaction.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Design and setting

The study specifically designed the survey to focus on women workers in the private sector who had experienced sexual harassment from male colleagues and managers in the Kurdistan region of Iraq.

Participants and sample size calculation

The study utilized a nonrandom purposive sampling technique, selecting 400 female employees from the private sector in Erbil Province as the appropriate sample. This method suits a population where obtaining research samples is challenging.[12]

Measurements

In addition to the socio-demographic variables, including age, educational level, and marital status. The following three scales are used:

Sex Behavior and Workplace Questionnaire: Fitzgerald et al. (1995)[13] designed the Sex Behavior and Workplace Questionnaire to assess sexual harassment experiences. It consists of 17 items. The grading system was straightforward, with a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 to 5, with 1 being never and 5 being very often.

Job Stress Survey Questionnaire: To assess work stress, we used the job stress survey questionnaire from Parker and DeCotiis (1983), which consists of 13 question items. The scale uses five Likert scales, ranging from 1 to 5, with 1 representing strong disagreement and 5 representing strong agreement.[14]

Three psychologists translated sexual harassment and job satisfaction scales from English to Kurdish, then back to English, and then compared the translated scales to ensure appropriate translation-level scores.

The researchers developed a job satisfaction scale by analyzing literature and incorporating Abraham Maslow’s humanistic approach, drawing from previous studies in the field.[15,16,17,18,19,20] Then eleven experts evaluated the scale for face validity, revealing 98% face validity. We conducted principal component analysis (PCA) and found the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy to be 0.904 (sig. = 0.000). The results of PCA suggest that the scale has a single component, and the cross-loading of all items exceeded 0.55. Finally, the scale consists of 27 items with answers ranging from 1 to 5, with 1 strongly disagreeing and 5 strongly agreeing. Alpha has a 0.92 reliability rating.

Ethical considerations

Participants signed consent forms, and their answers were kept private. Researchers only had access to the documents, which were destroyed after publication. Participants had the right to withdraw at any time. The Human Subject Committee approved the research scales and objectives.

Data analysis

For this study (SPSS version 27 for Windows) was used. We used one-way ANOVA and LSD to identify statistical differences between age, marital status, and literacy level. Additionally, we conducted a Pearson correlation coefficient analysis to uncover the relationship between sexual harassment, job stress, and job satisfaction. We utilized the simple linear regression analysis to determine the role of sexual harassment in predicting job stress and job satisfaction. Lastly, we used the Sobel test to test the significance of a mediation effect of job stress.

RESULTS

Participant characteristics

The entire sample consists of 400 women workers who have experienced sexual harassment in the private sector. The majority of the sample, 57.25%, consisted of single women workers, while 45.25 percent of them were between the ages of 25 and 31. Table 1 displays all the results.

Table 1.

Demographic variable of the participants

Demographics	Frequency	Percentage
Marital status
Married	121	30.25%
Single	229	57.25%
Divorced/Widowed	50	12.5%
Age
18-24	106	26.5%
25-31	181	45.25%
32-38	87	21.25%
39-45	26	6.5%
Literacy level
Illiterate	27	6.75%
Only read and write with a high school degree	87	21.75%
Diploma	106	26.5%
Undergraduate	172	43%
Master or PhD	8	2%

Sexual harassment, job stress, and job satisfaction

Table 2 displays the statistically significant differences in sexual harassment based on marital status, age, and literacy level, as determined by a one-way ANOVA. Based on marital status, the LSD results revealed that individuals who were divorced or widowed reported higher levels of sexual harassment. Moreover, regarding the age groups, LSD findings indicate that ages 39–45 were more sexually harassed than the other age groups. The study also included literacy level as a variable, and the results showed that illiterate participants reported higher levels of sexual harassment.

Table 2.

Sexual harassment, job stress, and job satisfaction according to demographic variables

Demographics	Sexual Harassment				Job Stress				Job Satisfaction
	M	SD	F	Sig.	M	SD	F	Sig.	M	SD	F	Sig.
Marital status
Married	65.37	8.24	28.35	0.00	52.60	4.01	16.57	0.00	56.69	8.23	9.59	0.00
Single	67.5	9.71			52.58	5.21			55.82	9.78
Divorced/Widowed	76.68	7.76			56.94	5.99			50.16	8.41
Age
18-24	65.72	10.5	5.16	0.00	51.77	5.70	5.52	0.00	57.43	10.86	3.63	0.00
25-31	67.87	9.14			53.08	5.03			55.24	8.56
32-38	69.59	9.35			54.24	4.46			54.28	8.67
39-45	72.92	8.18			55.34	4.90			51.53	8.99
Literacy level
Illiterate	71.37	6.04	3.96	0.00	55.62	4.03	3.63	0.00	49.70	6.79	4.54	0.00
Only read and write with a high school degree	70.86	10.09			54.26	5.28			53.72	9.97
Diploma	66.69	10.73		52.35	4.87		55.74	8.53
Undergraduate	66.82	8.89		52.68	5.36		56.92	9.63
Master or PhD	68.37	8.36			52.62	3.85			54.37	5.47

Regarding job stress, LSD results showed that divorced and widowed reported a higher level of job stress, and they are statistically different from other marital status groups. In addition, ages between 39 and 45 experienced higher job stress than the other age groups. Similarly, participants who are illiterate report higher levels of job stress compared to those who are literate [Table 2].

Finally, the dependent variable was job satisfaction. LSD results showed that divorced and widowed are less satisfied with their jobs than other marital status groups. Moreover, regarding the age groups, LSD findings indicate that ages 39–45 experienced lower job satisfaction than the other age groups. Like other variables, illiterate participants indicated less job satisfaction than other literacy-level groups [Table 2].

Correlation between sexual harassment, job stress, and job satisfaction

Table 3 shows a strong link between sexual harassment, job stress, and job satisfaction. The outcome of a Pearson correlation analysis reveals a substantial positive relationship between sexual harassment and job stress (r = .562). In addition, there was also a strong negative connection between sexual harassment and job satisfaction (r = -.547). Finally, there was a strong negative correlation between job stress and job satisfaction (r = -.491).

Table 3.

Correlation between sexual harassment, job stress, and job satisfaction

	Sexual Harassment	Job Stress	Job Satisfaction
Sexual harassment
Pearson correlation	1
Sig. (2-tailed)
N	400
Job stress
Pearson correlation	0.562**	1
Sig. (2-tailed)	0.000
N	400	400
Job satisfaction
Pearson correlation	-0.547**	-0.491**	1
Sig. (2-tailed)	0.000	0.000
N	400	400	400

**P < 0.05

Regression analysis was performed to examine the impact of sexual harassment on job stress and job satisfaction. The results show that sexual harassment is a predictor of job stress and job satisfaction. Sexual harassment accounts for 31% of job stress, while job satisfaction accounts for 29%. Tables 4 and 5 contain the complete findings on regression analysis.

Table 4.

Sexual harassment experience and job stress: A regression analysis

Sexual Harassment
Job Stress	Standardized Coefficient	t
	0.562	13.551
	Sum of squares	F
Regression	3384.211	183.623
Residual	7335.226
Total	10719.438
Summary of sexual harassment with job stress  R=0.562a  R2=0.316  Adjusted R2=0.314

Predictor: Sexual harassment. Dependent Variable: Job stress

Table 5.

Sexual harassment experience and job satisfaction: A regression analysis

Sexual Harassment
Job Satisfaction	Standardized Coefficient	t
	-0.547	-13.042
	Sum of squares	F
Regression	10490.676	170.091
Residual	24547.321
Total	35037.998
Summary of sexual harassment with job stress  R=0.547a  R2=0.299  Adjusted R2=0.298

Predictor: Sexual harassment. Dependent Variable: Job satisfaction

Job stress as a mediator

Figure 1 and Table 6 utilize mediation analysis to identify the direct and indirect relationships between independent, mediated, and independent variables. The results indicate that there is a 0.53 direct prediction of sexual harassment for job satisfaction. Then the sexual harassment will decrease accordingly. With the predictive value of sexual harassment for job stress, the data reported that sexual harassment leads to a 0.56 increase in job stress. Furthermore, the results indicate a 29% decrease in job satisfaction due to sexual harassment. Finally, the prediction of sexual harassment using both job stress and job satisfaction variables falls within the 15% range.

Figure 1.

Standardized the regression coefficient for the relationship between sexual harassment affecting job satisfaction mediated by job stress

Table 6.

Predictive levels of variables mediated by job stress

Testing Paths	Coefficient	SE	95% CI	P
Sexual harassment → job satisfaction	-0.531	0.041	-0.611, -0.451	0.000
Sexual harassment →job stress	0.562	0.022	0.258, 0.345	0.000
Job stress →job satisfaction	-0.269	0.089	-0.660, -0.311	0.000
Sexual harassment, → job stress, → job satisfaction	-0.151

DISCUSSION

Risk factors for sexual harassment among female workers

The high levels of sexual harassment reported by women workers, predominantly among divorced/widowed, older women, and those with lower literacy levels, support the existing literature highlighting vulnerable groups facing higher risks of workplace harassment.[21,22,23,24] The results of Molina’s (2000) study show that divorced female employees feel more job stress;[23] moreover, Adikaram (2018), in a study on the relationship between marital status and gender to workplace harassment, shows that female employees with divorced marital status were more likely to experience sexual harassment.[22] Sexual harassment has been extending the traditional and inferior roles of females in work[24]; correspondingly, females working in male-dominated industries are at greater risk of sexual harassment.[5,25] Men perceive divorced women as objects of their masculine authority,[5,22,24,25] and social processes also foster and uphold stereotypes and prejudices that portray divorced women as sexual, available, and less deserving.[22]

Like the Reese and Lindenberg (2005) study, the age groups (39–45 years old) are more likely to experience sexual harassment.[26] This is because females over 40 are more likely than other age groups to report experiencing sexual harassment, possibly due to their tendency to perceive a wider range of activities as harassing.[26] Other studies have demonstrated that younger age groups are particularly vulnerable to sexual.[25,27,28,29,30] Herrmann et al. (2022)[28] found that younger age positively predicted exposure to all forms of harmful behavior, including sexual harassment; similarly, Mumford et al. (2020)[29] discovered that the odds of sexual harassment were two times higher for respondents aged 18–29 than for respondents aged ≥30. In 2023, a fifth (20%) of 16- to 19-year-olds and 20- to 24-year-olds in England and Wales reported experiencing at least one form of harassment within the last year, compared to only 8% of 35- to 44-year-old females.[30] This incontinence in our study can be attributed to various factors, including the fact that our study focused on women workers, whereas other studies focused on the general population[29,30] or private security workers.[28] Additionally, our sampling method was nonrandom purposive sampling, whereas other studies used probability-based samples[29] or national surveys.[30] Cultural variations play a significant role,[5] as evidenced by studies conducted in European countries[28,30] and the USA.[29] Moreover, older women employees are more likely to hold positions of authority or supervision, making them less susceptible to harassment.[26]

However, when it comes to the demographic variable of literacy, a lower literacy level correlates with a higher level of sexual harassment. This means that individuals with simple literacy or only a high school degree are more likely to experience sexual harassment, experience job stress, and have lower levels of job satisfaction than others. A descriptive review study revealed that a high literacy level is associated with less sexual harassment.[27] Therefore, one of the primary causes of sexual harassment among women is the lack of awareness and information about the harassment policy among most employees.[21]

Correlation between job stress and satisfaction with sexual Harassment

These groups (widowed/divorced, age 39–45, low literacy level) also report considerably increased job stress, which in turn leads to lesser job satisfaction. Numerous studies confirm the correlation between sexual harassment, job stress, and job satisfaction.[2,7,11,21,24] Rostami et al. (2022)[24] found that male employees experience job stress and lower job satisfaction due to sexual harassment. Furthermore, our findings indicate that sexual harassment predicts both job stress and job satisfaction, with higher levels of sexual harassment leading to a 31% increase in job stress and a 29% reduction in job satisfaction. The result is in line with the findings of the Hutagalung and Ishak (2012)[7] study, which found that sexual harassment leads to 17% higher job stress levels and 33% lower job satisfaction levels.

Job stress as a mediator

The mediation analysis further highlights the serious role of job stress as a mediator. The outcomes show that sexual harassment increases job stress, which consequently reduces job satisfaction. This result supports the stressor-strain model, which posits that exposure to stressors such as sexual harassment creates emotional strain, manifesting in job dissatisfaction and burnout.[2,11,31,32] Job stress and job satisfaction have a 0.56 and 0.53 relationship, respectively, with sexual harassment. Moreover, the fact that job stress mediates 15% of the association between sexual harassment and job satisfaction shows that addressing job stress can partially mitigate the undesirable impact of harassment on job satisfaction. Workers who perceive their jobs to be confusing, high-pressure, terrifying, and hassled were at increased risk of occupational injuries, illnesses, and assaults.[31] Malik and Farooqi (2014) found that sexual harassment is the robust predictor for post-traumatic stress symptoms, which has a positive correlation with post-traumatic stress symptoms among female doctors (r = .49, *p < .01).[32] Besides, divorced and widowed women, as well as literate individuals, reported the highest levels of job stress, suggesting that these groups may have fewer coping resources and greater societal pressures, exacerbating the undesirable effects of harassment.

Other studies found job stress as a mediator between job satisfaction and stressors.[11,33]

Implications

To improve workplace well-being, study results have several implications, including:

1. Stress reduction strategies for victims of workplace sexual harassment: By identifying job stress as a mediator between sexual harassment and job satisfaction, it is recommended that interventions focused on reducing job stress could significantly mitigate the negative effects of harassment.[32,34]

2. Establish comprehensive anti-harassment policies to diminish the prevalence of workplace sexual harassment. Organizations and companies should use clear and complete policies against sexual harassment.[4,21,22,25,27]

3. Promoting mental health in industries: Policymakers and employers must emphasize emerging comprehensive anti-harassment programs that not only prevent harassment but also manage the psychological aftermath through support systems that moderate job stress.[24,26,28,34]

4. Specific interventions for vulnerable groups: The study findings underscore the need for targeted interventions for predominantly vulnerable groups, such as divorced or widowed women and those with lower literacy levels, who are more susceptible to both harassment and job stress.[24,26,28,35]

Strength and limitations

The study’s focus on female workers in Iraq’s private sector fills a gap in the literature on workplace harassment in non-Western contexts, making it an original work. Despite its strengths, it is vital to acknowledge the numerous limitations of the study. First, the cross-sectional method of the study limits the capacity to assume causality between sexual harassment, job stress, and job satisfaction. Second, the research relies on self-reported data, which could potentially introduce biases, such as social desirability bias or recall bias, where participants may underreport or misquote their experiences of sexual harassment and job stress. A third limitation is the use of nonrandom purposive sampling, which could limit the generalizability of the results.

CONCLUSION

The current study found that job stress serves as a crucial predictor in the relationship between sexual harassment and job satisfaction. Moreover, the divorced or widowed, older age, and lower level of education play a critical role in harassment and stress. These findings highlight the importance of addressing job stress and sexual harassment in the workplace to reduce the negative impacts on job satisfaction. In addition, this study proposed the need for companies to implement extensive and well-executed anti-sexual harassment policies to protect their employees.

Authors’ contributions

JO; contributed to concept, design, literature search, manuscript preparation, and manuscript editing and manuscript review. KK; contributed to concept, design, literature search, data analysis, and manuscript preparation. KS; contributed to concept, design, literature search, data acquisition, and manuscript preparation.

Data availability statement

Data will be made available on reasonable request.

Ethical statement

Written consent for participation was obtained, and the study protocol was approved by Soran University's scientific and ethical committee.

Conflicts of interest

There are no conflicts of interest.

Funding Statement

Nil.