Physical exercise and depression in university students with psychological resilience as mediator and family support as moderator

Abstract

Physical exercise is associated with depression in university students, yet the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. This study examines the mediating role of psychological resilience and the moderating effect of family support in this relationship. A survey of 1,112 Chinese university students measured physical exercise, depression, psychological resilience, and family support. Descriptive statistics and correlation analyses were conducted, and a moderated mediation model was applied to explore these associations. Physical exercise correlated with lower depression levels and greater psychological resilience and family support. Depression negatively correlated with both resilience and family support, while resilience and support showed a positive association. Psychological resilience served as a mediator between exercise and depression, with family support moderating its effect. These findings provide insights into the psychological pathways linking physical exercise and depression in university students. Psychological resilience plays a key mediating role, while family support buffers its impact on depression. This study underscores the importance of resilience and social support in mitigating depression, offering practical guidance for intervention strategies targeting university students.

Introduction

Depression is a psychological condition marked by prolonged sadness and a reduced enthusiasm for routine activities¹, affecting approximately 5% of the global adult population². It significantly impacts cognitive processes, behavioral patterns, emotional responses, and overall well-being³. Individuals with depression experience a marked reduction in pleasure and motivation, often losing interest in previously enjoyable activities⁴.In recent years, the rate of depression among college students has been on the rise, even exceeding that of the general population. This trend has drawn considerable global public health attention⁵. Research highlights the alarming prevalence of depression in this demographic, emphasizing its urgency. A longitudinal study conducted among Chinese university students found that 20–40% of undergraduates experience varying degrees of depression, anxiety, and stress, with approximately 35% exhibiting depression levels higher than those of the general population⁶. Similarly, a large-scale study across six Southeast Asian countries, including Vietnam and Thailand, reported a median depression prevalence of 29.4%, with 7–8% of students having attempted suicide. Despite these high rates, students generally exhibit a reluctance to seek professional psychological help⁷. Similarly, a North American study revealed that 53% of respondents had experienced depressive symptoms since entering university⁸. Notably, multiple studies have identified the COVID-19 as a stressor exacerbating the mental health burden on university students, increasing the severity of depressive symptoms worldwide^9,10.

University life represents a critical transitional period from late adolescence to early adulthood, characterized by identity shifts, role adaptations, and multiple challenges from family and society. Compared to adolescents and older adults, university students face an elevated risk of mental health issues¹¹. Depression significantly impacts students across multiple domains. Academically, it impairs attention, memory, and decision-making, leading to declining academic performance and an increased risk of dropout¹². Psychologically, it fosters helplessness, low self-esteem, and social withdrawal, negatively affecting interpersonal relationships and social adaptation¹³. Physiologically, depression often coexists with sleep disturbances, weakened immune function, and various physical discomforts, further diminishing quality of life¹⁴. Moreover, depression during university years may have long-term adverse effects on future career development and personal well-being. Given that this period is crucial for establishing professional identity and career trajectories, untreated depression may hinder a smooth transition to adulthood, compromising employability, career advancement, and life satisfaction¹⁵. Given the high prevalence of depression and its far-reaching consequences among university students, it is imperative to explore relevant influencing factors and develop effective prevention and intervention strategies to mitigate its impact.

Physical exercise and depression

Extensive research has a strong link connecting physical exercise and mental health¹⁶. As an essential component of daily life, physical exercise encompasses a wide range of activities, from high-intensity exercises such as running and swimming to low-intensity movements such as standing, walking, and posture changes during learning and work. According to the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM), physical exercise refers to any intentional movement of the body driven by skeletal muscles, leading to energy consumption, covering a spectrum from routine physical activities to structured and planned exercise regimens across all intensities and durations^17,18. Studies indicate that physical exercise plays a pivotal role in promoting a healthy lifestyle by enhancing cardiovascular, respiratory, neurological, and musculoskeletal functions while maintaining energy balance. Additionally, it exerts significant regulatory effects on emotional states, strengthens psychological resilience, and reduces the risk of chronic diseases associated with unhealthy lifestyles¹⁹. Conversely, insufficient physical exercise contributes to sedentary behavior, disrupts metabolic and immune function, and increases the likelihood of obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases. It is also linked to a decline in life quality and a higher prevalence of mental health issues²⁰.

A substantial body of empirical research underscores the role of physical exercise as an effective intervention for common mental health conditions among university students, particularly in reducing depression and anxiety-related issues²¹. Numerous studies have consistently revealed an inverse association between physical exercise levels and depression risk^22,23. Notably, individuals with higher levels of physical exercise exhibit a 21% lower likelihood of developing depression compared to those with lower activity levels²⁴. Comprehensive reviews indicate that low physical exercise levels and poor cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) are strongly linked to and susceptibility to depression of depression, highlighting the close relationship between physical fitness and mental well-being among university students²⁵. Physical exercise alleviates depression through multiple biological and psychosocial mechanisms. Biologically, it promotes the secretion of neurotrophic factors, enhances neuroplasticity, and activates the HPA axis, thereby improving the function of brain regions closely related to depression and enhancing neural regulation²⁶. On the psychosocial level, factors including confidence, perceived competence, and interpersonal support interact with these biological mechanisms to further reinforce the mood-enhancing benefits of exercise, aiding individuals in coping with environmental stressors and challenges²⁷. Based on this review, our assumption is that physical exercise acts as a notable inverse factor for depression.

Psychological resilience as a mediator between physical exercise and depression

The role of psychological resilience in the interaction of physical exercise to depression is noteworthy. An individual’s capacity to adjust well in response to adversity, trauma, or life stressors defines psychological resilience²⁸. According to the American Psychological Association, it involves successfully adjusting to adversity and considerable stress^29,30. Broadly, psychological resilience encompasses the capacity to handle stress and recover rapidly from adversity. It helps individuals enhance their psychological and behavioral resources to resist the negative effects of stress, thereby preventing long-term adverse outcomes³¹. College students often encounter various psychological stressors, including academic pressure, relationship adjustments, career concerns, and potential traumatic experiences³². Psychological resilience is coping with and overcoming these stressors while fostering personal growth, ultimately contributing to stress relief and overall well-being³³. Empirical findings indicate that physical exercise is positively linked to psychological resilience³⁴. Studies suggest that engaging in physical exercise enhances psychological resilience, with greater participation leading to higher resilience levels³⁵. Additionally, engaging in consistent physical activity enhances both physical strength and mental health, contributing to greater psychological resilience and overall happiness³⁶. Biological mechanism studies indicate that physical activity enhances psychological resilience by promoting the release of neurotransmitters such as serotonin, dopamine, and endorphins in the brain, which in turn improve neural plasticity and stress regulation capacity³⁷.

Growing evidence also supports the critical psychological resilience in the development of depression³⁸. As a positive psychological trait, psychological resilience enables individuals to better adapt to stressors and adverse environments, thereby reducing the risk of depression³⁹. Research has found a significant correlation between psychological resilience and depression in college students⁴⁰. This suggests that individuals with higher resilience are better equipped to regulate their emotions in response to stress or setbacks, reducing the likelihood of depression. Moreover, previous studies indicate that psychological resilience not only serves as a protective factor but also acts as an important mediating variable between stress and depression. One study underscoring its role in mitigating stress and depression⁴¹. Psychological resilience has also been shown to significantly buffer the negative effects of depression, promoting mental health maintenance⁴².

According to the psychological resilience process model⁴³, when individuals face stressors or adverse life events that exceed their coping capacity, their psychological resilience may decline, leading to imbalances in their psychological defense system and, consequently, depression. This model highlights that psychological resilience is not only linked to intrinsic personal resources but also involves an individual’s dynamic ability to adapt under stressful conditions. Lower psychological resilience more sensitive to interpersonal relationships and are more vulnerable to peer rejection, which may increase social withdrawal, interpersonal tensions, and depressive symptoms⁴⁴. Therefore, insufficient psychological resilience may heighten susceptibility to depression, while enhancing resilience could serve as an effective strategy for alleviating anxiety. Based on this review, the present study hypothesizes that psychological resilience mediates the relationship between physical exercise and social depression.

Family support as a moderator in the relationship between psychological resilience and depression

However, the relationship between these variables may be moderated by certain individual characteristics, among which family support is a key factor. As a critical component of social support, family support is generally defined as the degree of care, understanding, assistance, and acceptance perceived by individuals from their family members. It also reflects an individual’s psychological sense of belonging and recognition within their familial network⁴⁵. Family support is multidimensional, encompassing emotional support (understanding, encouragement), informational support (advice, guidance), companionship support (shared activities, social interactions), and material support ( financial assistance, caregiving)⁴⁶.

A substantial body of research underscores the significant role of family support in promoting mental health, demonstrating its effectiveness in reducing negative emotional experiences such as depression and anxiety⁴⁷. Particularly in the face of academic stress, interpersonal conflicts, or other major life stressors, family support serves as a vital psychological resource that aids in emotional regulation, enhances coping abilities, and mitigates the adverse effects of stress on mental health⁴⁸. Beyond short-term stress relief, family support also exerts a long-term protective effect in chronic high-stress environments, such as during prolonged illness or major life transitions⁴⁹. Family support mitigates depression by reducing stress hormone levels, such as cortisol, and regulating the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis function, thereby alleviating chronic stress responses and decreasing the risk of depressive symptoms⁵⁰. For college students, family support not only directly reduces depressive symptoms but also fosters the development of positive psychological resources, such as enhancing psychological resilience and improving emotional regulation. These factors further strengthen an individual’s ability to cope with challenges and stress, ultimately improving overall mental health. Research suggests that family support helps college students manage emotions more effectively, alleviates anxiety, and provides practical solutions when facing academic or life difficulties, thereby lowering the risk of depression⁵¹. Thus, drawing from this review, we propose that family support serves as a moderator in the association between psychological resilience and depression.

Research framework

Overall, previous studies have examined the link between physical exercise and depression, as well as their predictive effects. However, the psychological processes underlying this association have not been fully clarified. To help address this gap, the present study has several distinctive aspects. First, it draws on a relatively large sample of Chinese university students from multiple regions, which may improve the applicability of the findings. Second, it considers both individual psychological resources (psychological resilience) and family-based social resources (family support) within the same analytical framework. Third, it employs a moderated mediation model to explore potential direct and indirect pathways linking physical exercise and depression. Building on these features, the study incorporates psychological resilience as a mediator and family support as a moderator, proposes the following hypotheses, and constructs a hypothesized path model (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1.

Hypothesized a mediation model.

H1: Physical exercise is negatively associated with depression among university students.

H2: Psychological resilience mediates the relationship between physical exercise and depression.

H3: Family support moderates the relationship between psychological resilience and depression.

Methods

Participants

This study was conducted in October 2024 using a convenience sampling method, recruiting 1,248 university students from the North China, Central China, and South China regions. Participants completed an online questionnaire distributed via class groups. The survey included a detailed description of its objectives, anonymity measures, data confidentiality, and intended use. Before participation, all students provided informed consent, and the questionnaire required approximately 10 min to finish. Ethical approval was granted by the Medical Ethics Committee of the author’s institution, ensuring adherence to relevant guidelines and legal requirements. This approval reinforced the study’s credibility and promoted participant confidence. To enhance data reliability, responses exhibiting uniform answer patterns, wave-like trends, or unusually brief completion times were considered invalid and excluded. After rigorous screening, 1,112 valid questionnaires remained, comprising 444 male and 668 female respondents. The mean participant age was 19.32 years (SD = 0.840). Detailed descriptive statistics of population variables are presented in Table 1.

Table 1.

Descriptive statistics of population variables.

Items		N	Percent
Gender	Boys	444	39.9%
	Girls	668	60.1%
Grade	Freshman	770	69.2%
	Sophomore	278	25.0%
	Junior	32	2.9%
	Senior	32	2.9%
Place of residence	Towns	586	52.7%
	Village	526	47.3%
Only child status	Yes	179	15.8%
	No	936	84.2%

Measures

Physical exercise

Physical exercise levels were measured using Liang Deqing’s Physical Activity Scale⁵², which evaluates exercise intensity, duration, and frequency through three items. Responses were rated on a five-point scale, with intensity and frequency ranging from 1 to 5, while duration was scored from 0 to 4. The overall score was obtained by multiplying the three components, with higher values reflecting greater engagement in physical activity. The Cronbach’s α of 0.638.

Depression

Depressive symptoms were assessed using the Depression subscale of the DASS-21, originally designed by Lovibond et al.⁵³ and later adapted for Chinese populations Gong et al.⁵⁴ for the Chinese population. This subscale includes seven items rated on a four-point Likert scale (1 = not at all, 4 = completely). The total score, ranging from 7 to 28, indicates depression severity, with higher values signifying greater symptom levels. Subscale exhibited a Cronbach’s α of 0.844.

Psychological resilience

Psychological resilience was measured using the Chinese version of the Resilience Scale-14 (RS-14), adapted by Niqian Yu⁵⁵. This scale consists of 14 items covering two aspects: personal competence (10 items) and positive cognition (4 items). Responses are rated on a seven-point Likert scale, yielding a total score between 14 and 98, with lower values reflecting weaker resilience. In this study, the RS-14 demonstrated a Cronbach’s α of 0.868.

Family support

Perceived family support was assessed using the Family Support subscale from the Perceived Social Support Scale (PSSS), initially developed by Zimet et al. (1988)⁵⁶ and revised by Huang Li et al.⁵⁷. This subscale includes four items, each rated on a seven-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (“strongly disagree”) to 7 (“strongly agree”). Higher scores reflect greater perceived family support. The Cronbach’s α was 0.896.

Data processing and analysis

Statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS 26.0. First, we tested for common method bias, setting a 40% threshold to identify significant bias⁵⁸. Descriptive statistics and correlation analyses were performed for the demographic characteristics and key variables. All variables were standardized before further analysis. To test the hypotheses, we used the PROCESS macro with Model 4 for the mediating role of psychological resilience in the link between physical exercise and depression, and Model 14 to assess the moderating effect of family support⁵⁹. We ran 5,000 bootstrap resampling iterations to ensure accurate model estimation and calculate 95% confidence intervals⁶⁰. Demographic variables were included as covariates, with a significance level of 0.05.

Results

Common method bias test

The common method bias test showed four factors with eigenvalues above 1, with the first explaining 25.33% of the variance, indicating no significant bias.

Descriptive analysis

As shown in Table 2, significant gender differences were observed in physical exercise (t = 2.59, p < 0.01) and family support (t = -3.02, p < 0.01). Specifically, male participants scored higher in physical exercise, whereas female participants scored higher in family support. Significant differences were also found based on place of residence. Urban students had higher levels of depression (t = -3.18, p < 0.01), while rural students scored higher in psychological resilience (t = 3.49, p < 0.01) and family support (t = 4.40, p < 0.001). Additionally, a significant difference in depression was found between only-child and non-only-child participants (t = -3.67, p < 0.001), with non-only-children reporting higher levels of depression.

Table 2.

Describes the analysis.

Variables		Physical exercise		Depression		Psychological resilience		Family support
		Mean	Sd	Mean	Sd	Mean	Sd	Mean	Sd
Gender	Boys	32.77	23.42	11.71	3.07	68.19	11.02	19.96	5.23
	Girls	29.33	20.56	11.51	3.06	67.37	10.86	20.82	4.22
	t	2.59**		1.07		1.23		−3.02**
Place of Residence	Village	30.10	21.63	11.29	3.16	68.90	12.45	21.13	4.81
	Towns	31.25	21.96	11.87	2.95	66.62	9.22	19.90	4.47
	t	−0.89		−3.18**		3.49**		4.40***
Only child status	Only children	27.91	26.24	10.82	3.06	66.68	10.63	21.00	4.44
	Non-only children	31.23	20.84	11.74	3.04	67.89	10.98	20.38	4.70
	t	−1.86		−3.67***		−1.35		1.61

*: p<0.05;**: p<0.01; ***: p<0.001.

Correlation analysis

As shown in Table 3, physical exercise was significantly negatively correlated with depression (r = -0.188, p < 0.001) and positively correlated with psychological resilience (r = 0.436, p < 0.001) and family support (r = 0.198, p < 0.001). Depression was significantly negatively correlated with both psychological resilience (r = -0.343, p < 0.001) and family support (r = -0.451, p < 0.001). Furthermore, psychological resilience was significantly positively correlated with family support (r = 0.443, p < 0.001).

Table 3.

Correlation analysis.

Variables	1	2	3
1 Physical exercise	-	-
2 Depression	−0.188***	-	-
3 Psychological resilience	0.436***	−0.343***	-
4 Family Support	0.198***	−0.451***	0.443***

***: p<0.001.

Mediation model analysis

After controlling for demographic variables (only-child status, grade level, and place of residence), the mediation model (Table 4) indicated that physical exercise was negatively associated with depression (β = -0.201, p < 0.001). When the mediator was included, the association between physical exercise and depression remained significant and negative (β = -0.064, p < 0.05). Physical exercise was positively associated with psychological resilience (β = 0.433, p < 0.001), and psychological resilience was negatively associated with depression (β = -0.317, p < 0.001). The proportions of the mediation effects are shown in Table 5, and the analytical model is illustrated in Fig. 2.

Table 4.

Mediation model test.

Outcome Variables	Predictor variables	β	SE	t	R²	F
Depression	Physical exercise	−0.201	0.030	−6.794***	0.065	12.897***
Psychological resilience	Physical exercise	0.433	0.027	15.871***	0.206	47.869***
Depression	Physical exercise	−0.064	0.031	−2.038*	0.145	26.769***
	Psychological resilience	−0.317	0.031	−10.142***

**: p<0.01;***: p<0.001.

Table 5.

Path analysis of mediation model.

Intermediary path	Effect size	SE	Bootstrap 95% CI	Mediating effect ratio
Total effect	−0.201	0.030	−0.260,−0.143
Direct effect	−0.064	0.031	−0.126,−0.002
Indirect effects	−0.137	0.016	−0.172,−0.107	68.159%

Fig. 2.

Mediation model (** : p < 0.01; *** : p < 0.001).

Moderated mediation analysis

As shown in Table 6; Figs. 3 and 4, after including the moderating variable, psychological resilience remained significantly negatively associated with depression (β = -0.155, p < 0.001). Family support was also significantly negatively associated with depression (β = -0.365, p < 0.001), and the interaction between psychological resilience and family support was significantly associated with depression (β = -0.079, p < 0.01). Further analysis indicated that family support at all levels (low, moderate, and high) moderated the association between psychological resilience and depression, as detailed in Table 7.

Table 6.

Tests the mediation model.

Variables	Depression			Psychological resilience
	β	SE	t	β	SE	t
Physical exercise	−0.073	0.030	−2.475*	0.433	0.027	15.871***
Psychological resilience (A)	−0.155	0.032	−4.860***
Family Support (B)	−0.365	0.030	−12.111***
A × B	−0.079	0.023	−3.373**
R2	0.252			0.206
F	41.222***			47.869***

*: p<0.05;**: p<0.01; ***: p<0.001.

Fig. 3.

Moderating mediation model (*: p < 0.05; **: p < 0.01; *** : p < 0.001).

Fig. 4.

Simple slope diagram.

Table 7.

The moderating effect of different levels of family support between psychological resilience and Depression.

Family support levels	Effect size	SE	t	Low limit 95%CI	High limit 95%CI
Low	−0.086	0.040	−2.866*	−0.157	−0.004
Medium	−0.155	0.032	−4.860***	−0.218	−0.093
High	−0.234	0.038	−6.120***	−0.310	−0.159

*: p<0.05;***: p<0.001.

Discussion

Demographic differences in key variables

Consistent with previous research, our findings revealed significant gender differences in physical exercise and family support. Male students reported higher levels of physical exercise, which aligns with established patterns showing that males generally engage more frequently in physical activities⁶¹. Conversely, female students reported greater family support, reflecting possible gender differences in social connectedness and help-seeking behaviors⁶². These differences are important to consider, as they may influence how physical exercise and family support relate to depression and psychological resilience in university students.

In addition to gender differences, our study found that place of residence and only-child status were significantly associated with several key variables. Urban students reported higher levels of depression compared to their rural counterparts, who demonstrated greater psychological resilience and family support. This may reflect differing social and environmental stressors faced by urban versus rural students, as well as variations in family structures and community resources that contribute to resilience and support in rural areas⁶³. These findings suggest that interventions might need to be tailored to address the unique challenges of urban students while leveraging the stronger social support systems found in rural settings.

Regarding only-child status, non-only-child students exhibited higher levels of depression than only-child students. This difference could be related to variations in family attention, resource allocation, or sibling dynamics, which might influence emotional well-being and stress management⁶⁴. Understanding these demographic nuances is crucial for developing targeted mental health interventions that account for family background and living environments. Together with the observed gender differences—in which males engaged more in physical exercise and females reported greater family support—these demographic factors highlight the importance of considering individual characteristics when designing prevention and intervention strategies to mitigate depression among university students.

Direct effect of physical exercise on depression

The results show that physical exercise significantly reduces depression among university students, aligning with previous studies⁶⁵. This relationship may be explained through both biological and psychosocial mechanisms. Key psychosocial factors include self-esteem, social support, and self-efficacy. Individuals with depression often have lower self-esteem, and this connection between self-esteem and depression may form a feedback loop, where low self-esteem worsens depressive symptoms⁶⁶. According to the Exercise and Self-Esteem Model⁶⁷ boosting self-esteem is a vital mechanism through which exercise improves mood. Structural equation modeling studies further suggest that self-esteem or physical self-concept⁶⁸.

Poor self-efficacy can lead to a vicious cycle in which individuals avoid pursuing achievable goals or tasks, resulting in frustration and further lowering self-efficacy, thereby intensifying depressive symptoms⁶⁹. Physical exercise can help strengthen self-efficacy, and these benefits may extend to various aspects of life, reducing depression⁶⁹. Additionally, individuals experiencing depression often report insufficient social support⁷⁰, while strong social connections act as a buffer against depressive symptoms⁷¹. Physical exercise may foster social interactions, strengthening social support networks and buffering against the development of depression⁷². The stress-buffering model⁷³ suggests that social support alleviates the impact of stress, protecting psychological well-being from its adverse effects.

From a biological perspective, the antidepressant effects of physical exercise may involve mechanisms related to neuroplasticity, the gut microbiota, neuroinflammation, and oxidative stress. Disruptions in neuroplasticity are implicated in the pathophysiology of depression⁷⁴, with the hippocampus—an area crucial for emotional processing⁷⁵ and stress regulation⁷⁶—being particularly affected in individuals with depression⁷⁷. Systematic reviews have found that exercise can reduce the risk of depression by increasing hippocampal volume bilaterally⁷⁸, enhancing prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortex volumes^79,80. Dysfunction in the gut microbiota–brain axis is also considered a contributing factor in depression. Physical exercise changes gut microbiota, increasing SCFA production, which in turn enhances BDNF and GLP-1 levels, exerting antidepressant effects⁸¹. Neuroinflammation plays a critical role in the pathophysiology of depression⁸²,, and meta-analyses indicate that physical exercise interventions reduce depression risk by decreasing circulating inflammatory markers such as IL-6 and angiotensin II⁸³. Additionally, oxidative stress is implicated in the pathophysiology of psychiatric disorders, including depression⁸⁴. Studies have shown that long-term physical exercise is associated with lower levels of oxidative stress biomarkers, such as serum TBARS⁸⁵.

The mediating role of psychological resilience

Consistent with prior studies, physical exercise is positively associated with Psychological resilience in university students^86,87. Physical exercise as an effective intervention for strengthening Psychological resilience in this population. The recreational, open, and collective nature of physical exercise provides an optimal context for fostering Psychological resilience. Group-based physical activities facilitate interpersonal interactions and relationship-building, contributing to the development of strong social support networks, which are key protective factors for Psychological resilience. Social support alleviates feelings of loneliness and stress while providing psychological resources for coping with adversity⁸⁸. Additionally, setting and achieving exercise-related goals (e.g., adhering to a workout regimen, improving athletic performance) enhances self-efficacy—an essential component of Psychological resilience that enables individuals to confront challenges with greater confidence⁸⁹.

Biological evidence further supports physical exercise in enhancing Psychological resilience. The core components of Psychological resilience—self-confidence—are mediated by distinct neural systems: the SNS, the ANS, and the CNS⁹⁰. Physical exercise exerts positive effects on these neural systems, facilitating the development of Psychological resilience⁹¹. Research suggests that, akin to trauma, Psychological resilience is influenced by epigenetic modifications. Elevated DNA methylation of growth factors such as GDNF in specific brain regions has been linked to improved stress recovery⁹². Physical exercise has been shown to significantly improve DNA methylation levels of key neurotrophic factors in the brain, thereby promoting stress resilience and Psychological resilience⁹³. Prior studies have demonstrated that Psychological resilience significantly alleviates depressive symptoms in university students⁹⁴. Psychological resilience is recognized as a crucial protective factor against depression and anxiety, particularly during major public health crises⁹⁵. Individuals with higher Psychological resilience exhibit greater adaptability when faced with adversity, enabling them to regulate negative emotions more effectively and recover from stressors more rapidly, thereby reducing depression risk⁹⁶.

According to the Psychological resilience interaction model, Psychological resilience moderates the impact of risk factors on psychosocial functioning, serving as a “buffer” against adversity⁹⁷. As an essential internal psychological resource, Psychological resilience helps mitigate depressive experiences under stress. Those with high Psychological resilience tend to exhibit perseverance, self-reliance, and optimism, which enhance their capacity to deal with setbacks and diminish the negative impact of depression on mental health. The individual-process-environment model conceptualizes Psychological resilience as a dynamic interplay between individual traits, environmental factors, and adaptive outcomes. When facing stressors or challenges, internal resilience factors are activated and interact with the external environment to facilitate successful coping and adaptation⁹⁸.

Moderating role of family support in the relationship between psychological resilience and depression

Research shows that resilient individuals are better at utilizing social support, and family support, as a stable resource, strengthens the protective effect of resilience on depression^99,100. Specifically, emotional support from family members can enhance self-esteem and a sense of security, enabling individuals to approach stress with greater confidence and stability. It also alleviates feelings of loneliness and strengthens a sense of belonging, thereby reducing the risk of depression¹⁰¹. Informational support helps individuals access more effective coping strategies, allowing for better decision-making in the face of challenges, which in turn mitigates anxiety and feelings of helplessness resulting from failed coping attempts¹⁰². Additionally, companionship support provides crucial emotional comfort during adverse life events, fostering a sense of understanding and acceptance that buffers the impact of negative emotions¹⁰³. Beyond these direct benefits, family support facilitates the accumulation of positive emotions and enhances coping efficacy. This encourages individuals to adopt proactive coping strategies, such as problem-solving and cognitive restructuring, rather than resorting to avoidance or emotional venting. Consequently, the likelihood of developing depressive symptoms is further reduced¹⁰⁴.

Theoretical and practical contributions

Theoretically, this study contributes to a better understanding of the associations between physical exercise and depression by highlighting the roles of psychological resilience and family support, thus enriching the framework of psychological health protection mechanisms. The results also point to potential directions for future research on psychosocial factors involved in this relationship. Moreover, the findings are generally consistent with the stress-resilience model and social support theory, emphasizing the interaction between internal (psychological resilience) and external (family support) resources in college students’ psychological adaptation. However, given the cross-sectional design, these associations should be interpreted with caution and do not imply causal relationships.

From a practical perspective, the findings provide insights that may inform efforts to address depression in college students. The observed associations suggest that physical exercise could be linked to lower depression levels, potentially through enhanced psychological resilience, which supports the promotion of exercise in university settings. Additionally, the role of family support highlights the importance of both individual and family factors in students’ mental health. Families may contribute positively by providing emotional support, fostering open communication, and offering practical assistance, which could help enhance students’ psychological resilience and reduce depressive symptoms.

In summary, while this study advances theoretical understanding and offers empirical evidence regarding the relationships among physical exercise, psychological resilience, family support, and depression, the cross-sectional nature limits causal inference. Future longitudinal or experimental studies are warranted to confirm these pathways and inform the development of more effective preventive and therapeutic interventions to improve psychological well-being in this population.

Limitations and future directions

This study has several limitations. First, the reliance on self-report measures may introduce social desirability bias, as participants might respond in ways they perceive as more socially acceptable, potentially affecting data accuracy. Subjective perceptions and memory recall may also influence responses. Second, the sample’s demographic characteristics, including gender imbalance and limited diversity, may restrict the generalizability of the findings. Third, the cross-sectional design limits causal inference regarding the relationships among physical exercise, depression, psychological resilience, and family support. Additionally, although Harman’s single-factor test was used to assess common method bias, this approach has recognized limitations and may not fully detect all sources of bias. Therefore, the possibility of common method variance cannot be entirely ruled out. Future studies should consider using more rigorous techniques, such as marker variables or procedural controls, and employ longitudinal or experimental designs to better address common method bias and explore causal relationships.

Conclusion

This study explored the relationships among physical exercise, psychological resilience, depression, and family support, developing a moderated mediation model. The findings indicate that physical exercise is negatively associated with depression both directly and indirectly through its positive association with psychological resilience. These results highlight the potential importance of psychological resilience in the relationship between physical exercise and depression. The study provides empirical evidence for understanding the complex associations among physical exercise, depression, psychological resilience, and family support, offering insights for mental health interventions targeting college students. By encouraging physical exercise and enhancing family support, universities, families, and communities may contribute to developing more comprehensive and effective strategies to promote students’ psychological well-being and social adaptation. However, due to the cross-sectional design, causal relationships cannot be established, and future longitudinal or experimental research is needed to confirm these pathways.

Author contributions

F.Y., Y.G., and F.L. designed the study. F.Y. and Y.G. conducted the statistical analysis. Y.G. and F.L.collected and organized the data. F.Y. and F.L. wrote the initial draft of the manuscript. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript.

Data availability

Due to [the policy of our experimental team], the datasets generated and/or analyzed during this study are not publicly available but are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethical approval and consent to participate

This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Tianjin Institute of Physical Education before the project started. Informed consent was obtained from the participants and their guardians before the project started. We confirm that all experiments were in compliance with relevant guidelines and regulations, such as the Declaration of Helsinki.