Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Wiley Open Access Collection logoLink to Wiley Open Access Collection
. 2025 Aug 26;60(5):e70119. doi: 10.1111/1460-6984.70119

The Influence of Physical Exercise on Head and Neck Structures and Functions Related to Swallowing: A Scoping Review Protocol

Anittha Mappanasingam 1,✉, Erin Langman 2, Rebecca Affoo 3, Ashwini Namasivayam‐MacDonald 1
PMCID: PMC12379569  PMID: 40856343

ABSTRACT

Background

Dysphagia (swallowing impairment) can lead to malnutrition, dehydration, aspiration pneumonia, social isolation and even death. Current interventions for dysphagia include rehabilitation that improves swallowing physiology and function. Physical exercise is known to directly benefit skeletal muscles and may also benefit non‐targeted skeletal muscles involved in swallowing, as these muscles are often engaged during vigorous exercise. Implementing physical exercise as a dysphagia intervention may help counteract sarcopenic dysphagia and delay symptoms associated with frailty. The objective of this review is to describe current evidence exploring the impact of different forms of physical exercise on structures and functions related to swallowing in both adult humans and animals.

Methods

This study will use PRISMA‐ScR protocol guidelines and JBI methods to ensure proper reporting. Quantitative studies (experimental and quasi‐experimental study designs) and case studies/series that examined either mature animal models or adults who engaged in physical exercise programs. This review will assess any physiological or functional changes to the head and neck structures involved in swallowing assessed by swallowing‐related outcome measures and consider physical exercise programs for the intervention. Studies that include children do not provide details regarding exercises (e.g., dose and type of exercise), or qualitative studies will be excluded. The following databases were searched on 7 April 2024 by an experienced health sciences librarian: MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL and Scopus. English language articles will be included in the review with no restrictions on publication date. Title and abstract screening will be performed, followed by full‐text screening according to the inclusion criteria. Data regarding type and dose of exercise, along with its effect on the structures involved in swallowing, will be extracted using a proposed data charting tool and presented in tables and figures as appropriate.

Discussion

This scoping review aims to comprehensively describe existing literature examining the relationship between physical exercise and swallowing‐related structures and functions. A detailed synthesis of the current evidence is essential to advance multidisciplinary approaches to dysphagia care, including the integration of physical exercise. Such efforts will enable clinicians to take proactive steps in supporting adults to maintain swallowing function.

Review Registration Number

Open Science Framework: https://osf.io/w98t6/

WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS?

What is already known on this subject

  • Currently, there are various head‐and‐neck specific exercises that manage and improve dysphagia. While these interventions are effective, they are not easily accessible to patients, making it challenging to integrate them into their daily routines without access to speech‐language pathologists, who are often underfunded. Physical exercise helps maintain targeted muscles; however, evidence on whether these benefits extend to non‐targeted muscles remains limited.

What this paper adds to existing knowledge

  • This protocol provides a comprehensive synthesis of the existing evidence on the relationship between physical exercise and swallowing‐related structures and functions. The resulting scoping review will inform researchers of key areas for future research.

What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work?

  • This scoping review will provide speech‐language pathologists with the existing literature regarding the role of physical exercise on swallowing. This will allow clinicians to adapt current interventions to include interdisciplinary approaches, such as physical exercise, into dysphagia care.

Keywords: deglutition, dysphagia, exercise, physical exercise, swallowing

1. Background

Dysphagia is the medical term used to describe swallowing impairment due to functional and structural changes to swallowing physiology (Trate et al. 1996). Approximately, 1 in 25 adults will experience dysphagia annually (Bhattacharyya 2014), with older adults more likely to experience difficulties than other age groups (Madhavan et al. 2016; Namasivayam‐MacDonald et al. 2023). The greatest risk of developing dysphagia lies with older adults who present with complex medical conditions, such as neurodegenerative disease, head and neck cancers and neurologic impairments (Madhavan et al. 2016; Namasivayam‐MacDonald et al. 2023; Chen et al. 2022). Another contributor to dysphagia is sarcopenia (the loss of muscle mass and strength), with up to 81% of older adults living with sarcopenic dysphagia (Molfenter 2022; de Sire et al. 2022; Moncayo‐Hernández et al. 2021). As individuals age, the body begins to lose muscle mass, including the tongue, which could result in dysphagia (Dellis et al. 2018; Maeda and Akagi 2016). If mismanaged, dysphagia can lead to malnutrition, aspiration pneumonia and even death (Madhavan et al. 2016; Namasivayam‐MacDonald et al. 2023; Dell'Aquila et al. 2022) and contribute to frailty (Madhavan et al. 2016; Namasivayam‐MacDonald et al. 2023). Dysphagia is also associated with significantly longer hospital stays, leading to higher costs for caregivers and the healthcare system (Patel et al. 2017). Dysphagia also affects an individual's participation in social activities; as they begin having trouble during mealtimes, they may exhibit signs of depression, anxiety and isolation, resulting in decreased quality of life (Namasivayam‐MacDonald et al. 2023; Farri et al. 2007; Bendsen et al. 2022).

1.1. Current Interventions for Dysphagia

Currently, clinicians implement both compensatory measures and rehabilitation interventions to manage and improve dysphagia, respectively. These techniques typically involve oropharyngeal structures, such as the tongue, mouth and neck. Compensatory measures involve techniques that help individuals cope with impairments in swallowing, such as postural changes (Easterling 2018; Butler et al. 2013). Rehabilitative interventions involve exercises that improve swallowing physiology and, in turn, function, such as chin tuck against resistance (Inamoto et al. 2018; Huckabee et al. 2023). Current interventions, although useful, are not accessible to all since swallowing‐specific services tend to be limited due to a lack of resources and funding (McGill et al. 2020). As such, healthcare teams would benefit from an understanding of how interdisciplinary approaches may benefit swallowing.

1.2. The Role of Physical Exercise for Dysphagia

Physical exercise is defined as planned, repetitive bodily movement performed with the intention to engage in these movements, whereas physical activity is any bodily movement that is unintentional and simply requires energy expenditure (Caspersen et al. 1985). The focus of the current study will be physical exercise involving limb musculature. Physical activity will be excluded, as this may result in minimal change in targeted and non‐targeted skeletal muscles.

Physical exercise impacts breathing by increasing tongue muscle performance, allowing for increased upper airway patency (Kletzien et al. 2016). The swallowing pathway overlaps with the respiratory pathway, and the systems work in coordination to ensure that both swallowing and breathing occur seamlessly (Matsuo and Palmer 2009). Structures, such as the tongue, are involved in both breathing and swallowing. For example, the genioglossus muscle of the tongue helps propel the bolus into the pharynx during swallowing and assists in dilation of the pharynx when breathing (Matsuo and Palmer 2009; McCausland and Anatomy 2023; Fregosi and Ludlow 2014). Interestingly, physical exercise may benefit non‐targeted skeletal muscles, such as the genioglossus (VanRavenhorst‐Bell et al. 2017; VanRavenhorst‐Bell et al. 2018), in addition to targeted muscle groups. Studies have demonstrated that physical exercise increases genioglossus contraction, resulting in stronger tongue musculature (Williams et al. 2000; Vincent et al. 2002). Furthermore, physical exercise may play a role in counteracting sarcopenia, and since sarcopenia is believed to affect head and neck muscles, it is possible that exercise may also benefit these muscles (Beas‐Jiménez et al. 2011).

The potential benefits of exercise on head and neck muscles may vary depending on factors, such as mode, intensity, duration and frequency of the physical exercise (VanRavenhorst‐Bell et al. 2018; Wilson et al. 2012; Karavirta et al. 2011). Although some studies have investigated the impact of exercise modality, such as weightlifting and running, on tongue muscle performance (VanRavenhorst‐Bell et al. 2018), other exercise parameters remain underexplored. Further research is necessary to understand how these factors may influence swallowing.

1.3. Rationale for Scoping Review

A preliminary search of PROSPERO, MEDLINE, the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews and JBI Evidence Synthesis was conducted on 15 January 2024, and some relevant scoping reviews were identified. A scoping review exploring the effects of whole‐body exercises on swallowing function was previously published; however, it focused on studies involving humans with no restrictions on age (Pu and Yao 2023). Another scoping review explored the benefits of non‐oropharyngeal exercise in the prevention and treatment of dysphagia (Yoshimatsu et al. 2025). Lastly, another review identified non‐traditional approaches to swallowing rehabilitation, with physical exercise identified as one approach (Horyacheva et al. 2023). Our review will delve further into how physical exercise influences structures and functions involved in swallowing. In comparison to other reviews, the current review will have a broader scope, as it will include studies using animal models. Based on a preliminary search, it is evident that there is limited research on this topic. Incorporating animal studies will provide important mechanistic information and serve as a starting point to explore the role of physical exercise on swallowing function in humans. Further, rather than focusing only on the benefits of physical exercise, our focus will be on the overall influence of physical exercise on swallowing. The limited research on the relationship between physical exercise and swallowing requires exploration of both positive and negative effects. When compared with other reviews, our scoping review will have increased specificity regarding the age of study participants and the type of physical activity. Specifically, our review will exclude individuals less than 18 years of age since exercise programs and their impact on physiology typically differ between adults and paediatrics. It will also only highlight evidence resulting from physical exercise interventions and will exclude studies that discuss physical activity only or have combined interventions, while not differentiating between the impact of the exercise intervention.

This scoping review will serve as the basis for future studies looking to explore the influence of exercise in swallowing. Ultimately, by understanding this relationship, swallowing clinicians may consider adapting current approaches to incorporate exercise‐based interventions within interdisciplinary approaches to care (Carnaby and Harenberg 2013). Integrating physical exercise can allow individuals with dysphagia to have accessible ways of managing dysphagia, while they await speech‐language pathology services. This information may also assist in promoting proactive approaches to care, allowing adults to maintain swallowing function by integrating physical exercise into their daily routine.

The primary objective of this scoping review is to describe current evidence exploring the influence of physical exercise on structures and functions involved in swallowing in adult humans (≥18 years). The secondary objective is to investigate the influence of physical exercise on structures and functions involved in swallowing in mature animal models.

2. Methods

The proposed scoping review will be conducted in accordance with the JBI methodology for scoping reviews (Peters et al. 2020) and in line with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta‐Analyses extension for Scoping Review Protocols (PRISMA‐ScR) (Tricco et al. 2018). This scoping review has been registered with Open Science Framework.

2.1. Eligibility Criteria

2.1.1. Participants

This review will include studies that included mature animal models considered beyond the range of infancy, or humans 18 years of age or older, regardless of swallowing status. Studies involving children will be excluded as rehabilitation often differs between paediatrics and adults. There will be no restrictions on species or other characteristics of animal models due to the limited studies examining the relationship between physical exercise and swallowing structures and functions.

2.1.2. Concept

The review will only consider physical exercise programs for the intervention. Our operational definition of exercise is planned, repetitive bodily movement performed with the intention to engage in these movements (Caspersen et al. 1985). Therefore, studies that include interventions involving any type of bodily movement that simply requires energy expenditure will be excluded, as the review will focus on purposeful movement. This review will include studies that evaluated participants who engaged in exercise programs using limb musculature, such as aerobic exercise, strength training and balance exercises. Studies will only be included if details of the exercise program, such as mode, frequency and duration of the program, are provided. Studies that categorized participants as physically active or inactive without detailing any exercises will be excluded. Those with combined interventions will be included if the impact of the exercise intervention can be discerned. We will also include studies that measured any physiologic or functional changes to the head and neck structures involved in swallowing. This review will consider studies that include the following swallowing‐related outcome measures: measures of swallowing function, such as videofluroscopic swallowing studies and fibreoptic endoscopic evaluations of swallowing; measures of structures involved in swallowing, such as tongue strength and endurance and biochemical properties of the structures involved in swallowing, such as muscle composition.

2.1.3. Context

This review will consider studies that include participants of all genders, ethnicities and medical diagnoses to maintain a broad scope. This review will not be restricted by geographic location, social setting or healthcare setting.

2.2. Information Sources

This scoping review will include quantitative studies (experimental and quasi‐experimental study designs including randomized controlled trials, non‐randomized controlled trials, before and after studies, and interrupted time‐series studies) and case studies/series. Conference abstracts, opinion papers, review papers and qualitative studies will be excluded.

The databases to be searched include MEDLINE (Ovid), Embase (Ovid), CINAHL (EBSCO) and Scopus (Elsevier). Sources of unpublished studies and grey literature to be searched include the WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform, ClinicalTrials.gov and ProQuest Dissertation and Thesis. Articles published in English, or previously translated into English, will be considered, as the authors do not have access to translation services. There is no restriction on the publication date.

2.3. Search Strategy

The search strategy will aim to locate both published and unpublished primary studies, and reviews. An initial limited search of MEDLINE was undertaken to identify articles on the topic. The text words contained in the titles and abstracts of relevant articles, and the index terms used to describe the articles, were used by a health sciences librarian to develop a full search strategy for MEDLINE (Ovid) (see Appendix I). Text words and index terms were identified, in part, using WordFreq, the word frequency tool in Systematic Review Accelerator (Institute for Evidence‐Based Healthcare and Bond University) (SR‐Accelerator), and Yale MeSH Analyzer (Cushing/Whitney Medical Library, Yale University) (Yale MeSH Analyzer). The search strategy for MEDLINE was peer‐reviewed by a second health sciences librarian using Peer Review of Electronic Search Strategies (PRESS) (McGowan et al. 2016). The search strategy, including all identified keywords and index terms, will be adapted for each included information source. The reference lists of articles included in the review will be screened for additional papers.

2.4. Selection Process

Following the search, all identified records will be collated and uploaded into Covidence, and duplicates will be removed. All records for all phases of the review will be completed and stored using Covidence data extraction software. Following a pilot test, titles and abstracts will then be screened by four independent reviewers for assessment against the inclusion criteria. Full texts of selected citations will be assessed in detail against the inclusion criteria by two independent reviewers. Reasons for exclusion of full‐text papers that do not meet the inclusion criteria will be recorded and reported in the scoping review. Any disagreements that arise between the reviewers at each stage of the selection process will be resolved through discussion with a third reviewer.

2.5. Data Collection

Data will be extracted from papers included in the scoping review by two independent reviewers using a data charting tool developed by the reviewers. The data extracted will include specific details about the population, concept, context, methods and key findings relevant to the review question. A data charting tool is provided (see Appendix II). The tool will be modified and revised as necessary during data extraction. Modifications will be detailed in the full scoping review. Any disagreements that arise between the reviewers will be resolved through discussion or with a third reviewer. Authors of papers will be contacted to request missing or additional data, where required. A maximum of two attempts to contact the corresponding author, and/or co‐authors, where information is available, will be made within a 1‐month timeframe.

2.6. Data Items/Synthesis

Data collected from the data charting tool (Appendix II) will be presented in tables and graphs as appropriate. The results of the search will be reported in full in the final scoping review and presented in a PRISMA flow diagram (Page et al. 2021). Descriptive analysis techniques will be used to synthesize, interpret and report quantitative data. This will involve commonly used interventions, describing patterns in the findings and highlighting gaps across the studies.

3. Discussion

The proposed scoping review aims to describe existing evidence on the influence of physical exercise on swallowing‐related structures and functions in adult humans and animals. It will identify knowledge gaps within the current literature to guide future research and inform potential advancements in clinical practice, rehabilitation programs and policy changes aimed at enhancing access to care for individuals at risk of dysphagia. Understanding the relationship between physical exercise and swallowing can support interdisciplinary collaboration among swallowing clinicians and other healthcare professionals, such as physiotherapists, personal support workers and family physicians. Such interdisciplinary efforts could help implement more patient‐familiar management strategies, such as physical exercise, to proactively maintain swallowing function and improve patient outcomes, particularly in populations vulnerable to dysphagia and with limited access to current dysphagia care.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to Jeff Mason, MLIS, Health Sciences Library, McMaster University, who completed the peer review of the search strategy. No patient and public persons were involved in the current adaptation of the scoping review protocol. Public personnel may be involved in the dissemination of the research findings through conference presentations and local events/workshops.

Appendix I. Search Strategy

I.1.

MEDLINE ALL 1946 to 5 April 2024

Search conducted on 7 April 2024.

Lines 1–12 adapted from Yin, D., Engracia, M. V., Edema, M. K., Clarke, D. C. (preprint). A PubMed search filter for efficiently retrieving exercise training studies. sportRxiv. https://doi.org/10.51224/SRXIV.353.

#  Searches  Results 
1  Physical conditioning, human/  2916 
2  Physical Conditioning, animal/  15 783 
3  Circuit‐based exercise/  116 
4  Endurance training/  618 
5  High‐intensity interval training/  2327 
6  Plyometric exercise/  842 
7  Resistance training/  12 839 
8  Exercise therapy/  50 755 
9  Aquatic therapy/  29 
10  Exercise movement techniques/  884 
11  Exercise/ and training.ti, ab, kf.  24 251 
12  (interval training or HIIT or cardio training or cardiovascular training or training program* or exercise program* or resistance training or circuit training or concurrent training or aerobic training or anaerobic training or endurance training or sprint interval or aquatic training or exercise training or fitness training or functional training or weight lifting or weightlifting or weight training or bodyweight training or body weight training or strength training or swim training or ((game‐based or exergam* or exer‐gam* or fitness gam*) and training)).ti, ab, kf.  115 092 
13  or/1–12  175 581 
14  Deglutition/  11 905 
15  Deglutition Disorders/  24 521 
16  Tongue/  20 795 
17  Masticatory muscles/  8078 
18  Masseter muscle/  4981 
19  Pterygoid muscles/  1019 
20  Temporal muscle/  2710 
21  Neck muscles/  6496 
22  Pharyngeal muscles/  1739 
23  Velopharyngeal Sphincter/  84 
24  Pharynx/  20 497 
25  Esophagus/  45 002 
26  Esophageal sphincter, upper/  564 
27  Esophagogastric junction/  8807 
28  Esophageal sphincter, lower/  1886 
29  Velopharyngeal sphincter/  84 
30  Laryngeal muscles/  2536 
31  Palatal muscles/  647 
32  dysphagia.ti, ab, kf.  36 556 
33  ((swallow* or deglutit*) adj3 (disorder* or impair* or dysfunction* or disfunction* or difficult*)).ti, ab, kf.  10 193 
34  ((structur* or muscle* or musculature or pathway* or physiolog* or function*) adj3 (head or neck or swallow* or masticat* or tongue or deglutit*)).ti, ab, kf.  27 604 
35  (buccinator or cricopharyngeus or esophag* or genioglossus or geniohyoid or hyoglossus or infrahyoid or laryngeal or larynx or lateral cricoarytenoid or lateral pterygoid or levator veli palatini or masseter or medial constrictor or medial pterygoid or musculus uvulae or mylohyoid or orbicularis oris or oropharyngeal or oropharynx or palatoglossus or palatopharyngeal or palatopharyngeus or pharyngeal or pharynx or pterygoid or salpingopharyngeus or styloglossus or stylopharyngeus or superior constrictor or suprahyoid or temporalis or tensor veli palatini or thyroarytenoid or thyropharyngeus or transverse arytenoid or velopharyngeal or velopharynx or verticalis).ti, ab, kw.  309 840 
Open in a new tab

Appendix II. Data Extraction Instrument

II.1.

Publication details Study title
First Author
Year of Publication
Country
Study details Objective
Inclusion Criteria
Exclusion Criteria
Methodological information Type of Study
Intervention Components (type, materials used)
Intervention Dose (frequency, duration)
Session Duration
Comparator
Outcome Measure(s)
Participant information Population (animals or humans)
Age
Gender
Sample Size
Findings/Discussion Results
Author's Conclusion
Limitations
Future Directions
Open in a new tab

Mappanasingam, A. , Langman, E. , Affoo, R. , and and Namasivayam‐MacDonald, A. (2025) The Influence of Physical Exercise on Head and Neck Structures and Functions Related to Swallowing: A Scoping Review Protocol. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 60, e70119. 10.1111/1460-6984.70119

Funding: This study was funded by McMaster Institute for Research on Aging, the Canadian Frailty Network (Grant Number: ECR2022‐003), Canadian Foundation for Innovation (Grant Number: #41500) and Ontario Research Fund.

Data Availability Statement

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

References

  1. Beas‐Jiménez, J. de D. , López‐Lluch G., Sánchez‐Martínez I., Muro‐Jiménez A., Rodríguez‐Bies E., and Navas P.. 2011. “Sarcopenia, Implications of Physical Exercise in Its Pathophysiology, Prevention and Treatment.” Revista Andaluza de Medicina del Deporte 4, no. 4 (October): 158–166. [Google Scholar]
  2. Bendsen, B. B. , Jensen D., Westmark S., Krarup A. L., Riis J., and Melgaard D.. 2022. “The Quality of Life in Citizens With Oropharyngeal Dysphagia—A Cross‐Sectional Study.” Journal of Clinical Medicine 11, no. 14 (July): 4212. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Bhattacharyya, N. 2014. “The Prevalence of Dysphagia Among Adults in the United States.” Otolaryngology ‐ Head and Neck Surgery 151, no. 5 (November): 765–769. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Butler, S. G. , Pelletier C. A., and Steele C. M.. 2013. “Compensatory Strategies and Techniques.” In Manual of Diagnostic and Therapeutic Techniques for Disorders of Deglutition, 299–316. Springer. [cited 2025 Apr 1]. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978‐1‐4614‐3779‐6_16. [Google Scholar]
  5. Carnaby, G. D. , and Harenberg L.. 2013. “What Is “Usual Care” in Dysphagia Rehabilitation: A Survey of USA Dysphagia Practice Patterns.” Dysphagia 28, no. 4 (December): 567–574. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Caspersen, C. J. , Powell K. E., and Christenson G. M.. 1985. “Physical Activity, Exercise, and Physical Fitness: Definitions and Distinctions for Health‐Related Research.” Public Health Reports 100, no. 2: 126–131. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Chen, K. , Xing L., Xu B., et al. 2022. “Research Progress in the Risk Factors and Screening Assessment of Dysphagia in the Elderly.” Frontiers in Medicine 9: 1021763. [Internet]. [cited 2023 Dec 30]. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmed.2022.1021763. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Dell'Aquila, G. , Peladic N. J., Nunziata V., et al. 2022. “Prevalence and Management of Dysphagia in Nursing Home Residents in Europe and Israel: The SHELTER Project.” BMC Geriatrics 22, no. 1 (August): 719. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Dellis, S. , Papadopoulou S., Krikonis K., and Zigras F.. 2018. “Sarcopenic Dysphagia. A Narrative Review.” Journal of Frailty, Sarcopenia and Falls 3, no. 1 (March): 1–7. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. de Sire, A. , Ferrillo M., Lippi L., et al. 2022. “Sarcopenic Dysphagia, Malnutrition, and Oral Frailty in Elderly: A Comprehensive Review.” Nutrients 14, no. 5 (February): 982. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Easterling, C. 2018. “Management and Treatment of Patients With Dysphagia.” Current Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Reports 6, no. 4 (December): 213–219. [Google Scholar]
  12. Farri, A. , Accornero A., and Burdese C.. 2007. “Social Importance of Dysphagia: Its Impact on Diagnosis and Therapy.” Acta Otorhinolaryngologica Italica 27, no. 2 (April): 83–86. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Fregosi, R. F. , and Ludlow C. L.. 2014. “Activation of Upper Airway Muscles During Breathing and Swallowing.” Journal of Applied Physiology (1985) 116, no. 3 (February): 291–301. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Horyacheva, A. , Boyce K., Badesha M., Kerr C., Najeeb H., and Namasivayam‐MacDonald A.. 2023. “Identifying Non‐Traditional Approaches to Swallowing Rehabilitation: A Scoping Review.” Dysphagia 39, no. 3 (October): 321–347. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Huckabee, M. L. , Flynn R., and Mills M.. 2023. “Expanding Rehabilitation Options for Dysphagia: Skill‐Based Swallowing Training.” Dysphagia 38, no. 3 (June): 756–767. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Inamoto, Y. , Pongpipatpaiboon K., Shibata S., Aoyagai Y., Kagaya H., and Matsuo K.. 2018. “Swallowing Exercises.” In Dysphagia Evaluation and Treatment: From the Perspective of Rehabilitation Medicine, edited by Saitoh E., Pongpipatpaiboon K., Inamoto Y., and Kagaya H., 109–155. [Internet]. Springer. [cited 2023 Dec 2]. 10.1007/978-981-10-5032-9_7. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  17. Karavirta, L. , Häkkinen A., Sillanpää E., et al. 2011. “Effects of Combined Endurance and Strength Training on Muscle Strength, Power and Hypertrophy in 40–67‐Year‐Old Men.” Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports 21, no. 3: 402–411. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Kletzien, H. , Russell J. A., and Connor N. P.. 2016. “The Effects of Treadmill Running on Aging Laryngeal Muscle Structure.” Laryngoscope 126, no. 3 (March): 672–677. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Madhavan, A. , Lagorio L. A., Crary M. A., Dahl W. J., and Carnaby G. D.. 2016. “Prevalence of and Risk Factors for Dysphagia in the Community Dwelling Elderly: A Systematic Review.” Journal of Nutrition, Health and Aging 20, no. 8 (October): 806–815. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Maeda, K. , and Akagi J.. 2016. “Sarcopenia Is an Independent Risk Factor of Dysphagia in Hospitalized Older People.” Geriatrics & Gerontology International 16, no. 4: 515–521. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Matsuo, K. , and Palmer J. B.. 2009. “Coordination of Mastication, Swallowing and Breathing.” Japanese Dental Science Review 45, no. 1 (May): 31–40. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. McCausland, T. , and Anatomy B. B.. 2023. “Head and Neck: Genioglossus Muscle.” In StatPearls, [Internet]. StatPearls Publishing. [cited 2024 Jan 1]. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545141/. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. McGill, N. , Crowe K., and Mcleod S.. 2020. ““Many Wasted Months”: Stakeholders' perspectives About Waiting for Speech‐Language Pathology Services.” International Journal of Speech‐Language Pathology 22, no. 3 (May): 313–326. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. McGowan, J. , Sampson M., Salzwedel D. M., Cogo E., Foerster V., and Lefebvre C.. 2016. “PRESS Peer Review of Electronic Search Strategies: 2015 Guideline Statement.” Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 75: (July) 40–46. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Molfenter, S. M. 2022. “The Relationship Between Sarcopenia, Dysphagia, Malnutrition, and Frailty: Making the Case for Proactive Swallowing Exercises to Promote Healthy Aging.” Current Opinion in Otolaryngology & Head and Neck Surgery 30, no. 6 (December): 400–405. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Moncayo‐Hernández, B. A. , Herrera‐Guerrero J. A., Vinazco S., Ocampo‐Chaparro J. M., and Reyes‐Ortiz C. A.. 2021. “Sarcopenic Dysphagia in Institutionalised Older Adults.” Endocrinologia, Diabetes y Nutricion (English Ed.) 68, no. 9 (November): 602–611. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Namasivayam‐MacDonald, A. , Lam B., Ma J., and Affoo R.. 2023. “Prevalence, Incidence, and Predictors of Self‐Reported Swallowing Difficulties in Community‐Dwelling Adults: A Population‐Based Study From the Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging (CLSA).” Dysphagia 38, no. 5 (October): 1406–1420. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Page, M. J. , McKenzie J. E., Bossuyt P. M., et al. 2021. “The PRISMA 2020 Statement: An Updated Guideline for Reporting Systematic Reviews.” BMJ 372: (March) n71. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Patel, D. A. , Krishnaswami S., Steger E., et al. 2017. “Economic and Survival Burden of Dysphagia Among Inpatients in the United States.” Diseases of the Esophagus 31, no. 1 (November): 1–7. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Peters, M. D. J. , Godfrey C., Mclnemey P., Munn Z., Tricco A. C., and Khalil H.. 2020. “Chapter 11: Scoping Reviews.” In JBI Manual for Evidence Synthesis, [Internet]. JBI. [cited 2024 Jan 2]. https://jbi‐global‐wiki.refined.site/space/MANUAL/4687342/Chapter+11%3A+Scoping+reviews. [Google Scholar]
  31. Pu, D. , and Yao T. J.. 2023. “The Use and Effects of Whole‐Body Exercises on Swallowing Function: A Scoping Review.” International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders 58, no. 4: 1357–1374. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. SR‐Accelerator . 2020. [Internet]. [cited 2025 Apr 16]. https://sr‐accelerator.com/#/wordfreq.
  33. Trate, D. M. , Parkman H. P., and Fisher R. S.. 1996. “DYSPHAGIA: Evaluation, Diagnosis, and Treatment.” Primary Care: Clinics in Office Practice 23, no. 3 (September): 417–432. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Tricco, A. C. , Lillie E., and Zarin W., et al. 2018. “PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA‐ScR): Checklist and Explanation.” Annals of Internal Medicine 169, no. 7 (October): 467–473. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. VanRavenhorst‐Bell, H. A. , Coufal K. L., Patterson J. A., and Mefferd A. S.. 2018. “A Comparative Study: Tongue Muscle Performance in Weightlifters and Runners.” Physiological Reports 6, no. 22: e13923. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. VanRavenhorst‐Bell, H. A. , Mefferd A. S., Coufal K. L., Scudder R., and Patterson J.. 2017. “Tongue Strength and Endurance: Comparison in Active and Non‐Active Young and Older Adults.” International Journal of Speech‐Language Pathology 19, no. 1 (January): 77–86. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Vincent, H. K. , Shanely R. A., Stewart D. J., et al. 2002. “Adaptation of Upper Airway Muscles to Chronic Endurance Exercise.” American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 166, no. 3 (August): 287–293. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Williams, J. S. , Janssen P. L., Fuller D. D., and Fregosi R. F.. 2000. “Influence of Posture and Breathing Route on Neural Drive to Upper Airway Dilator Muscles During Exercise.” Journal of Applied Physiology 89, no. 2 (August): 590–598. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Wilson, J. M. , Marin P. J., Rhea M. R., Wilson S. M. C., Loenneke J. P., and Anderson J. C.. 2012. “Concurrent Training: A Meta‐Analysis Examining Interference of Aerobic and Resistance Exercises.” Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 26, no. 8 (August): 2293–2307. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Yale MeSH Analyzer . [Internet]. [cited 2025 Apr 16]. https://mesh.med.yale.edu/.
  41. Yoshimatsu, Y. , Smithard D. G., Kulnik S. T., et al. 2025. “Non‐Oropharyngeal Exercise and Its Benefits in the Prevention and Treatment of Dysphagia: A Scoping Review.” Physical Therapy Reviews 30: (March) 1–13. [Google Scholar]

Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

Data Availability Statement

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Articles from International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders are provided here courtesy of Wiley

RESOURCES