Abstract
Since the introduction of levodopa therapy for idiopathic Parkinson's disease over 20 years ago, there has been an awakening of research interest in this chronic neuro-degenerative disorder. This paper describes current understanding of the role of genetic and environmental factors in the aetiology of idiopathic Parkinson's disease and problems associated with both diagnosis and management. It briefly outlines both pharmacological and non-pharmacological options for treatment. Despite an increasing armoury of available treatments, the optimum management for this condition remains controversial.
Full text
PDFSelected References
These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.
- Armstrong M., Daly A. K., Cholerton S., Bateman D. N., Idle J. R. Mutant debrisoquine hydroxylation genes in Parkinson's disease. Lancet. 1992 Apr 25;339(8800):1017–1018. doi: 10.1016/0140-6736(92)90537-d. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Barbeau A., Roy M., Bernier G., Campanella G., Paris S. Ecogenetics of Parkinson's disease: prevalence and environmental aspects in rural areas. Can J Neurol Sci. 1987 Feb;14(1):36–41. doi: 10.1017/s0317167100026147. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Baron J. A. Cigarette smoking and Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 1986 Nov;36(11):1490–1496. doi: 10.1212/wnl.36.11.1490. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Baumann R. J., Jameson H. D., McKean H. E., Haack D. G., Weisberg L. M. Cigarette smoking and Parkinson disease: 1. Comparison of cases with matched neighbors. Neurology. 1980 Aug;30(8):839–843. doi: 10.1212/wnl.30.8.839. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Ben-Shlomo Y., Finnan F., Allwright S., Davey Smith G. The epidemiology of Parkinson's disease in the Republic of Ireland: observations from routine data sources. Ir Med J. 1993 Nov-Dec;86(6):190-1, 194. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Ben-Shlomo Y. Smoking and neurogenerative diseases. Lancet. 1993 Nov 13;342(8881):1239–1239. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Bharucha N. E., Stokes L., Schoenberg B. S., Ward C., Ince S., Nutt J. G., Eldridge R., Calne D. B., Mantel N., Duvoisin R. A case-control study of twin pairs discordant for Parkinson's disease: a search for environmental risk factors. Neurology. 1986 Feb;36(2):284–288. doi: 10.1212/wnl.36.2.284. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Blunt S. B., Jenner P., Marsden C. D. Suppressive effect of L-dopa on dopamine cells remaining in the ventral tegmental area of rats previously exposed to the neurotoxin 6-hydroxydopamine. Mov Disord. 1993 Apr;8(2):129–133. doi: 10.1002/mds.870080202. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Brooks D. J. Detection of preclinical Parkinson's disease with PET. Neurology. 1991 May;41(5 Suppl 2):24–28. doi: 10.1212/wnl.41.5_suppl_2.24. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Brown R. G., Marsden C. D. How common is dementia in Parkinson's disease? Lancet. 1984 Dec 1;2(8414):1262–1265. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(84)92807-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Burn D. J., Mark M. H., Playford E. D., Maraganore D. M., Zimmerman T. R., Jr, Duvoisin R. C., Harding A. E., Marsden C. D., Brooks D. J. Parkinson's disease in twins studied with 18F-dopa and positron emission tomography. Neurology. 1992 Oct;42(10):1894–1900. doi: 10.1212/wnl.42.10.1894. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Butterfield P. G., Valanis B. G., Spencer P. S., Lindeman C. A., Nutt J. G. Environmental antecedents of young-onset Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 1993 Jun;43(6):1150–1158. doi: 10.1212/wnl.43.6.1150. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Calne D. B., Langston J. W. Aetiology of Parkinson's disease. Lancet. 1983 Dec 24;2(8365-66):1457–1459. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(83)90802-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Calne D. B. The free radical hypothesis in idiopathic parkinsonism: evidence against it. Ann Neurol. 1992 Dec;32(6):799–803. doi: 10.1002/ana.410320615. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Calne D. B. Treatment of Parkinson's disease. N Engl J Med. 1993 Sep 30;329(14):1021–1027. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199309303291408. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Caradoc-Davies T. H., Weatherall M., Dixon G. S. Medications and their monitoring in Parkinson's disease in Dunedin. N Z Med J. 1992 Jun 10;105(935):212–214. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Cedarbaum J. M., Gandy S. E., McDowell F. H. "Early" initiation of levodopa treatment does not promote the development of motor response fluctuations, dyskinesias, or dementia in Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 1991 May;41(5):622–629. doi: 10.1212/wnl.41.5.622. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Diamond S. G., Markham C. H., Hoehn M. M., McDowell F. H., Muenter M. D. Multi-center study of Parkinson mortality with early versus later dopa treatment. Ann Neurol. 1987 Jul;22(1):8–12. doi: 10.1002/ana.410220105. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Doll R., Peto R. Mortality in relation to smoking: 20 years' observations on male British doctors. Br Med J. 1976 Dec 25;2(6051):1525–1536. doi: 10.1136/bmj.2.6051.1525. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Doty R. L., Deems D. A., Stellar S. Olfactory dysfunction in parkinsonism: a general deficit unrelated to neurologic signs, disease stage, or disease duration. Neurology. 1988 Aug;38(8):1237–1244. doi: 10.1212/wnl.38.8.1237. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Duvoisin R. C. Genetics of Parkinson's disease. Adv Neurol. 1987;45:307–312. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Eisler T., Teräväinen H., Nelson R., Krebs H., Weise V., Lake C. R., Ebert M. H., Whetzel N., Murphy D. L., Kopin I. J. Deprenyl in Parkinson disease. Neurology. 1981 Jan;31(1):19–23. doi: 10.1212/wnl.31.1.19. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Elizan T. S., Casals J. The viral hypothesis in parkinsonism. J Neural Transm Suppl. 1983;19:75–88. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Elizan T. S., Yahr M. D., Moros D. A., Mendoza M. R., Pang S., Bodian C. A. Selegiline use to prevent progression of Parkinson's disease. Experience in 22 de novo patients. Arch Neurol. 1989 Dec;46(12):1275–1279. doi: 10.1001/archneur.1989.00520480017012. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Forgays D. G., Bonaiuto P., Wrzesniewski K., Forgays D. K. Personality and cigarette smoking in Italy, Poland, and the United States. Int J Addict. 1993 Apr;28(5):399–413. doi: 10.3109/10826089309039638. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Formisano R., Pratesi L., Modarelli F. T., Bonifati V., Meco G. Rehabilitation and Parkinson's disease. Scand J Rehabil Med. 1992 Sep;24(3):157–160. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Forno L. S., Alvord E. C., Jr The pathology of Parkinsonism. Part I. Some new observations and correlations. Contemp Neurol Ser. 1971;8:119–130. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Frankel J. P., Lees A. J., Kempster P. A., Stern G. M. Subcutaneous apomorphine in the treatment of Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1990 Feb;53(2):96–101. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.53.2.96. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Freed C. R., Breeze R. E., Rosenberg N. L., Schneck S. A., Kriek E., Qi J. X., Lone T., Zhang Y. B., Snyder J. A., Wells T. H. Survival of implanted fetal dopamine cells and neurologic improvement 12 to 46 months after transplantation for Parkinson's disease. N Engl J Med. 1992 Nov 26;327(22):1549–1555. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199211263272202. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Gibb W. R., Luthert P. J., Janota I., Lantos P. L. Cortical Lewy body dementia: clinical features and classification. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1989 Feb;52(2):185–192. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.52.2.185. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Gibberd F. B., Page N. G., Spencer K. M., Kinnear E., Hawksworth J. B. Controlled trial of physiotherapy and occupational therapy for Parkinson's disease. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1981 Apr 11;282(6271):1196–1196. doi: 10.1136/bmj.282.6271.1196. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Goetz C. G., Stebbins G. T., 3rd, Klawans H. L., Koller W. C., Grossman R. G., Bakay R. A., Penn R. D. United Parkinson Foundation Neurotransplantation Registry on adrenal medullary transplants: presurgical, and 1- and 2-year follow-up. Neurology. 1991 Nov;41(11):1719–1722. doi: 10.1212/wnl.41.11.1719. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Golbe L. I., Cody R. A., Duvoisin R. C. Smoking and Parkinson's disease. Search for a dose-response relationship. Arch Neurol. 1986 Aug;43(8):774–778. doi: 10.1001/archneur.1986.00520080022014. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Golbe L. I., Di Iorio G., Bonavita V., Miller D. C., Duvoisin R. C. A large kindred with autosomal dominant Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol. 1990 Mar;27(3):276–282. doi: 10.1002/ana.410270309. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Golbe L. I., Farrell T. M., Davis P. H. Case-control study of early life dietary factors in Parkinson's disease. Arch Neurol. 1988 Dec;45(12):1350–1353. doi: 10.1001/archneur.1988.00520360068014. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Golbe L. I. Long-term efficacy and safety of deprenyl (selegiline) in advanced Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 1989 Aug;39(8):1109–1111. doi: 10.1212/wnl.39.8.1109. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Granieri E., Carreras M., Casetta I., Govoni V., Tola M. R., Paolino E., Monetti V. C., De Bastiani P. Parkinson's disease in Ferrara, Italy, 1967 through 1987. Arch Neurol. 1991 Aug;48(8):854–857. doi: 10.1001/archneur.1991.00530200096026. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Haack D. G., Baumann R. J., McKean H. E., Jameson H. D., Turbek J. A. Nicotine exposure and Parkinson disease. Am J Epidemiol. 1981 Aug;114(2):191–200. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a113182. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hammond E. C., Horn D. Smoking and death rates: report on forty-four months of follow-up of 187,783 men. 2. Death rates by cause. J Am Med Assoc. 1958 Mar 15;166(11):1294–1308. doi: 10.1001/jama.1958.02990110030007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Harada H., Nishikawa S., Takahashi K. Epidemiology of Parkinson's disease in a Japanese city. Arch Neurol. 1983 Mar;40(3):151–154. doi: 10.1001/archneur.1983.04050030045008. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hartelius L., Svensson P. Speech and swallowing symptoms associated with Parkinson's disease and multiple sclerosis: a survey. Folia Phoniatr Logop. 1994;46(1):9–17. doi: 10.1159/000266286. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Ho S. C., Woo J., Lee C. M. Epidemiologic study of Parkinson's disease in Hong Kong. Neurology. 1989 Oct;39(10):1314–1318. doi: 10.1212/wnl.39.10.1314. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hoehn M. M., Yahr M. D. Parkinsonism: onset, progression and mortality. Neurology. 1967 May;17(5):427–442. doi: 10.1212/wnl.17.5.427. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hughes A. J., Ben-Shlomo Y., Daniel S. E., Lees A. J. What features improve the accuracy of clinical diagnosis in Parkinson's disease: a clinicopathologic study. Neurology. 1992 Jun;42(6):1142–1146. doi: 10.1212/wnl.42.6.1142. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hughes A. J., Bishop S., Kleedorfer B., Turjanski N., Fernandez W., Lees A. J., Stern G. M. Subcutaneous apomorphine in Parkinson's disease: response to chronic administration for up to five years. Mov Disord. 1993 Apr;8(2):165–170. doi: 10.1002/mds.870080208. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hughes A. J., Daniel S. E., Kilford L., Lees A. J. Accuracy of clinical diagnosis of idiopathic Parkinson's disease: a clinico-pathological study of 100 cases. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1992 Mar;55(3):181–184. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.55.3.181. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jenner P., Schapira A. H., Marsden C. D. New insights into the cause of Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 1992 Dec;42(12):2241–2250. doi: 10.1212/wnl.42.12.2241. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jiménez-Jiménez F. J., Mateo D., Giménez-Roldán S. Exposure to well water and pesticides in Parkinson's disease: a case-control study in the Madrid area. Mov Disord. 1992;7(2):149–152. doi: 10.1002/mds.870070209. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Johnson W. G., Hodge S. E., Duvoisin R. Twin studies and the genetics of Parkinson's disease--a reappraisal. Mov Disord. 1990;5(3):187–194. doi: 10.1002/mds.870050302. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kessler I. I. Epidemiologic studies of Parkinson's disease. 3. A community-based survey. Am J Epidemiol. 1972 Oct;96(4):242–254. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a121455. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Koller W. C. Diagnosis and treatment of tremors. Neurol Clin. 1984 Aug;2(3):499–514. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Koller W. C. Paraquat and Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 1986 Aug;36(8):1147–1147. doi: 10.1212/wnl.36.8.1147-b. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Koller W. C. Sensory symptoms in Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 1984 Jul;34(7):957–959. doi: 10.1212/wnl.34.7.957. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Koller W., Vetere-Overfield B., Gray C., Alexander C., Chin T., Dolezal J., Hassanein R., Tanner C. Environmental risk factors in Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 1990 Aug;40(8):1218–1221. doi: 10.1212/wnl.40.8.1218. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Laihinen A., Rinne U. K., Suchy I. Comparison of lisuride and bromocriptine in the treatment of advanced Parkinson's disease. Acta Neurol Scand. 1992 Dec;86(6):593–595. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0404.1992.tb05493.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Laitinen L. V., Bergenheim A. T., Hariz M. I. Leksell's posteroventral pallidotomy in the treatment of Parkinson's disease. J Neurosurg. 1992 Jan;76(1):53–61. doi: 10.3171/jns.1992.76.1.0053. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Langston J. W., Ballard P., Tetrud J. W., Irwin I. Chronic Parkinsonism in humans due to a product of meperidine-analog synthesis. Science. 1983 Feb 25;219(4587):979–980. doi: 10.1126/science.6823561. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Le Dorze G., Dionne L., Ryalls J., Julien M., Ouellet L. The effects of speech and language therapy for a case of dysarthria associated with Parkinson's disease. Eur J Disord Commun. 1992;27(4):313–324. doi: 10.3109/13682829209012043. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- LeWitt P. A., Gopinathan G., Ward C. D., Sanes J. N., Dambrosia J. M., Durso R., Calne D. B. Lisuride versus bromocriptine treatment in Parkinson disease: a double-blind study. Neurology. 1982 Jan;32(1):69–72. doi: 10.1212/wnl.32.1.69. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- LeWitt P. A., Ward C. D., Larsen T. A., Raphaelson M. I., Newman R. P., Foster N., Dambrosia J. M., Calne D. B. Comparison of pergolide and bromocriptine therapy in parkinsonism. Neurology. 1983 Aug;33(8):1009–1014. doi: 10.1212/wnl.33.8.1009. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Lees A. J. The on-off phenomenon. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1989 Jun;Suppl:29–37. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.52.suppl.29. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Lees A. J. When did Ray Kennedy's Parkinson's disease begin? Mov Disord. 1992;7(2):110–116. doi: 10.1002/mds.870070203. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Limousin P., Pollak P., Benazzouz A., Hoffmann D., Le Bas J. F., Broussolle E., Perret J. E., Benabid A. L. Effect of parkinsonian signs and symptoms of bilateral subthalamic nucleus stimulation. Lancet. 1995 Jan 14;345(8942):91–95. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(95)90062-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Lindvall O., Widner H., Rehncrona S., Brundin P., Odin P., Gustavii B., Frackowiak R., Leenders K. L., Sawle G., Rothwell J. C. Transplantation of fetal dopamine neurons in Parkinson's disease: one-year clinical and neurophysiological observations in two patients with putaminal implants. Ann Neurol. 1992 Feb;31(2):155–165. doi: 10.1002/ana.410310206. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Ludin S. M., Ludin H. P. Is Parkinson's disease of early onset a separate disease entity? J Neurol. 1989 May;236(4):203–207. doi: 10.1007/BF00314500. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Maraganore D. M., Harding A. E., Marsden C. D. A clinical and genetic study of familial Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord. 1991;6(3):205–211. doi: 10.1002/mds.870060303. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Marsden C. D. Parkinson's disease in twins. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1987 Jan;50(1):105–106. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.50.1.105. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Martin W. E., Young W. I., Anderson V. E. Parkinson's disease. A genetic study. Brain. 1973 Sep;96(3):495–506. doi: 10.1093/brain/96.3.495. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Marttila R. J., Kaprio J., Koskenvuo M., Rinne U. K. Parkinson's disease in a nationwide twin cohort. Neurology. 1988 Aug;38(8):1217–1219. doi: 10.1212/wnl.38.8.1217. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Marttila R. J., Rinne U. K. Arteriosclerosis, heredity, and some previous infections in the etiology of Parkinson's disease. A case-control study. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 1976;79(1):46–56. doi: 10.1016/s0303-8467(76)80005-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Marttila R. J., Rinne U. K. Epidemiology of Parkinson's disease in Finland. Acta Neurol Scand. 1976 Feb;53(2):81–102. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0404.1976.tb04328.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Mayeux R., Denaro J., Hemenegildo N., Marder K., Tang M. X., Cote L. J., Stern Y. A population-based investigation of Parkinson's disease with and without dementia. Relationship to age and gender. Arch Neurol. 1992 May;49(5):492–497. doi: 10.1001/archneur.1992.00530290076015. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Mindham R. H. Psychiatric symptoms in Parkinsonism. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1970 Apr;33(2):188–191. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.33.2.188. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Mutch W. J., Dingwall-Fordyce I., Downie A. W., Paterson J. G., Roy S. K. Parkinson's disease in a Scottish city. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1986 Feb 22;292(6519):534–536. doi: 10.1136/bmj.292.6519.534. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Nutt J. G. Levodopa-induced dyskinesia: review, observations, and speculations. Neurology. 1990 Feb;40(2):340–345. doi: 10.1212/wnl.40.2.340. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Olanow C. W., Nakano K., Nausieda P., Tetrud J. A., Manyam B., Last B., Block G., Liss C., Bush D. An open multicenter trial of Sinemet CR in levodopa-naive Parkinson's disease patients. Clin Neuropharmacol. 1991 Jun;14(3):235–240. doi: 10.1097/00002826-199106000-00006. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- POSKANZER D. C., SCHWAB R. S. COHORT ANALYSIS OF PARKINSON'S SYNDROME: EVIDENCE FOR A SINGLE ETIOLOGY RELATED TO SUBCLINICAL INFECTION ABOUT 1920. J Chronic Dis. 1963 Sep;16:961–973. doi: 10.1016/0021-9681(63)90098-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Perry T. L., Yong V. W., Ito M., Foulks J. G., Wall R. A., Godin D. V., Clavier R. M. Nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons remain undamaged in rats given high doses of L-DOPA and carbidopa chronically. J Neurochem. 1984 Oct;43(4):990–993. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.1984.tb12834.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Quinn N., Parkes D., Janota I., Marsden C. D. Preservation of the substantia nigra and locus coeruleus in a patient receiving levodopa (2 kg) plus decarboxylase inhibitor over a four-year period. Mov Disord. 1986;1(1):65–68. doi: 10.1002/mds.870010109. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Quinn N., Parkes J. D., Marsden C. D. Control of on/off phenomenon by continuous intravenous infusion of levodopa. Neurology. 1984 Sep;34(9):1131–1136. doi: 10.1212/wnl.34.9.1131. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Rajput A. H., Offord K. P., Beard C. M., Kurland L. T. Epidemiology of parkinsonism: incidence, classification, and mortality. Ann Neurol. 1984 Sep;16(3):278–282. doi: 10.1002/ana.410160303. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Rajput A. H., Uitti R. J., Stern W., Laverty W. Early onset Parkinson's disease and childhood environment. Adv Neurol. 1987;45:295–297. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Rajput A. H., Uitti R. J., Stern W., Laverty W. Early onset Parkinson's disease in Saskatchewan--environmental considerations for etiology. Can J Neurol Sci. 1986 Nov;13(4):312–316. doi: 10.1017/s0317167100036635. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Riggs J. E. Smoking and Alzheimer's disease: protective effect or differential survival bias? Lancet. 1993 Sep 25;342(8874):793–794. doi: 10.1016/0140-6736(93)91547-y. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Rinne U. K. Early combination of bromocriptine and levodopa in the treatment of Parkinson's disease: a 5-year follow-up. Neurology. 1987 May;37(5):826–828. doi: 10.1212/wnl.37.5.826. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Rinne U. K. Strategies in the treatment of early Parkinson's disease. Acta Neurol Scand Suppl. 1993;146:50–53. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Robins A. H. Depression in patients with Parkinsonism. Br J Psychiatry. 1976 Feb;128:141–145. doi: 10.1192/bjp.128.2.141. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Roy M., Boyer L., Barbeau A. A prospective study of 50 cases of familial Parkinson's disease. Can J Neurol Sci. 1983 Feb;10(1):37–42. doi: 10.1017/s0317167100044541. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Sanchez-Ramos J. R., Hefti F., Weiner W. J. Paraquat and Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 1987 Apr;37(4):728–728. doi: 10.1212/wnl.37.4.728. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Santamaría J., Tolosa E., Valles A. Parkinson's disease with depression: a possible subgroup of idiopathic parkinsonism. Neurology. 1986 Aug;36(8):1130–1133. doi: 10.1212/wnl.36.8.1130. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Sawle G. V., Bloomfield P. M., Björklund A., Brooks D. J., Brundin P., Leenders K. L., Lindvall O., Marsden C. D., Rehncrona S., Widner H. Transplantation of fetal dopamine neurons in Parkinson's disease: PET [18F]6-L-fluorodopa studies in two patients with putaminal implants. Ann Neurol. 1992 Feb;31(2):166–173. doi: 10.1002/ana.410310207. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Schoenberg B. S., Anderson D. W., Haerer A. F. Prevalence of Parkinson's disease in the biracial population of Copiah County, Mississippi. Neurology. 1985 Jun;35(6):841–845. doi: 10.1212/wnl.35.6.841. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Schoenberg B. S., Osuntokun B. O., Adeuja A. O., Bademosi O., Nottidge V., Anderson D. W., Haerer A. F. Comparison of the prevalence of Parkinson's disease in black populations in the rural United States and in rural Nigeria: door-to-door community studies. Neurology. 1988 Apr;38(4):645–646. doi: 10.1212/wnl.38.4.645. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Schulzer M., Mak E., Calne D. B. The antiparkinson efficacy of deprenyl derives from transient improvement that is likely to be symptomatic. Ann Neurol. 1992 Dec;32(6):795–798. doi: 10.1002/ana.410320614. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Scott S., Caird F. I. Speech therapy for patients with Parkinson's disease. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1981 Oct 24;283(6299):1088–1088. doi: 10.1136/bmj.283.6299.1088. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Semchuk K. M., Love E. J., Lee R. G. Parkinson's disease and exposure to agricultural work and pesticide chemicals. Neurology. 1992 Jul;42(7):1328–1335. doi: 10.1212/wnl.42.7.1328. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Semchuk K. M., Love E. J., Lee R. G. Parkinson's disease and exposure to rural environmental factors: a population based case-control study. Can J Neurol Sci. 1991 Aug;18(3):279–286. doi: 10.1017/s0317167100031826. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Smith C. A., Gough A. C., Leigh P. N., Summers B. A., Harding A. E., Maraganore D. M., Sturman S. G., Schapira A. H., Williams A. C., Maranganore D. M. Debrisoquine hydroxylase gene polymorphism and susceptibility to Parkinson's disease. Lancet. 1992 Jun 6;339(8806):1375–1377. doi: 10.1016/0140-6736(92)91196-f. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Spencer D. D., Robbins R. J., Naftolin F., Marek K. L., Vollmer T., Leranth C., Roth R. H., Price L. H., Gjedde A., Bunney B. S. Unilateral transplantation of human fetal mesencephalic tissue into the caudate nucleus of patients with Parkinson's disease. N Engl J Med. 1992 Nov 26;327(22):1541–1548. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199211263272201. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Stern M., Dulaney E., Gruber S. B., Golbe L., Bergen M., Hurtig H., Gollomp S., Stolley P. The epidemiology of Parkinson's disease. A case-control study of young-onset and old-onset patients. Arch Neurol. 1991 Sep;48(9):903–907. doi: 10.1001/archneur.1991.00530210029018. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Steventon G. B., Heafield M. T., Waring R. H., Williams A. C. Xenobiotic metabolism in Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 1989 Jul;39(7):883–887. doi: 10.1212/wnl.39.7.883. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Stibe C. M., Lees A. J., Kempster P. A., Stern G. M. Subcutaneous apomorphine in parkinsonian on-off oscillations. Lancet. 1988 Feb 20;1(8582):403–406. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(88)91193-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Stoof J. C., Booij J., Drukarch B., Wolters E. C. The anti-parkinsonian drug amantadine inhibits the N-methyl-D-aspartic acid-evoked release of acetylcholine from rat neostriatum in a non-competitive way. Eur J Pharmacol. 1992 Mar 31;213(3):439–443. doi: 10.1016/0014-2999(92)90634-g. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Swanson P. D. Drug treatment of Parkinson's disease: is "polypharmacy" best? J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1994 Apr;57(4):401–403. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.57.4.401. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Tetrud J. W., Langston J. W. The effect of deprenyl (selegiline) on the natural history of Parkinson's disease. Science. 1989 Aug 4;245(4917):519–522. doi: 10.1126/science.2502843. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Vieregge P., Schiffke K. A., Friedrich H. J., Müller B., Ludin H. P. Parkinson's disease in twins. Neurology. 1992 Aug;42(8):1453–1461. doi: 10.1212/wnl.42.8.1453. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wade D. T., Hewer R. L. Epidemiology of some neurological diseases with special reference to work load on the NHS. Int Rehabil Med. 1987;8(3):129–137. doi: 10.3109/03790798709166197. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wakabayashi K., Takahashi H., Takeda S., Ohama E., Ikuta F. Parkinson's disease: the presence of Lewy bodies in Auerbach's and Meissner's plexuses. Acta Neuropathol. 1988;76(3):217–221. doi: 10.1007/BF00687767. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Ward C. D., Duvoisin R. C., Ince S. E., Nutt J. D., Eldridge R., Calne D. B. Parkinson's disease in 65 pairs of twins and in a set of quadruplets. Neurology. 1983 Jul;33(7):815–824. doi: 10.1212/wnl.33.7.815. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Weiner W. J., Factor S. A., Sanchez-Ramos J. R., Singer C., Sheldon C., Cornelius L., Ingenito A. Early combination therapy (bromocriptine and levodopa) does not prevent motor fluctuations in Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 1993 Jan;43(1):21–27. doi: 10.1212/wnl.43.1_part_1.21. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wenning G. K., Ben Shlomo Y., Magalhães M., Daniel S. E., Quinn N. P. Clinical features and natural history of multiple system atrophy. An analysis of 100 cases. Brain. 1994 Aug;117(Pt 4):835–845. doi: 10.1093/brain/117.4.835. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Widner H., Tetrud J., Rehncrona S., Snow B., Brundin P., Gustavii B., Björklund A., Lindvall O., Langston J. W. Bilateral fetal mesencephalic grafting in two patients with parkinsonism induced by 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) N Engl J Med. 1992 Nov 26;327(22):1556–1563. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199211263272203. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Yekutiel M. P. Patients' fall records as an aid in designing and assessing therapy in Parkinsonism. Disabil Rehabil. 1993 Oct-Dec;15(4):189–193. doi: 10.3109/09638289309166011. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Yong V. W., Perry T. L. Monoamine oxidase B, smoking, and Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Sci. 1986 Feb;72(2-3):265–272. doi: 10.1016/0022-510x(86)90014-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]