Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Food Science and Biotechnology logoLink to Food Science and Biotechnology
. 2025 May 21;34(13):2989–2996. doi: 10.1007/s10068-025-01888-x

Antioxidant activities of Sargassum horneri solvent fractions against urban particulate matter-induced oxidation

Jaehong Shin 1, Dong Eon Kim 1, Hyo Jin Kim 1, Hyun Jung Kim 1,✉
PMCID: PMC12394102  PMID: 40894961

Abstract

Urban particulate matter (PM) significantly contributes to air pollution. Sargassum horneri was extracted using ethanol (SHE) and subsequently partitioned with n-hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, and water. Antioxidant activities of fractions, including DPPH and ABTS+ radical, hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl radical scavenging activities, and metal chelating effects, were evaluated against oxidative damage induced by PM. Through fractionation of SHE, total phenolic and total flavonoid contents were increased from 17.53 to 31.91 mg GAE/g and 58.61 to 320.60 mg QE/g. The chloroform, ethyl acetate, and n-hexane fractions significantly enhanced antioxidant activities. Notably, the metal chelating effects of n-hexane, chloroform, and ethyl acetate fractions were substantial (93.29, 106.50, and 94.18%). PM-induced oxidation resulted in a decrease in antioxidant activity, with the chelating effect being most markedly reduced due to the presence of transitional metals. These results suggest that S. horneri can be utilized as a natural antioxidant, effectively mitigating oxidative damage by PM.

Keywords: Sargassum horneri, Brown seaweed, Urban particulate matter, Antioxidant activity, Metal chelating

Introduction

PM represents a critical pollutant in urban air environments worldwide, composed of microscopic particles laden with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and heavy metals (Son et al., 2020). These particles, typically ranging from 10 to 50 µm, are small enough to be inhaled into the human respiratory system (Filonchyk et al., 2016). Exposure to PM is associated with detrimental health effects, primarily due to the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), activation of inflammatory pathways, and the introduction of programmed cell death (Tang et al., 2019). The unique combination of PM’s physicochemical properties including the presence of transition metals and organic toxins makes the oxidative damage caused by ROS particularly complex (Libalova et al., 2018). Additionally, PM can impair mitochondrial function and influence NADPH oxidase activity, further exacerbating inflammatory responses (Moller et al., 2014). Antioxidants play a crucial role in counteracting this oxidative stress by neutralizing ROS and stabilizing free radicals (Zulaikhah, 2017). However, due to rising concerns regarding the safety of synthetic antioxidants, their usage is increasingly being limited (Xu et al., 2021). As a result, identifying safe, effective, and naturally derived antioxidants has become a research priority.

Marine macroalgae, particularly seaweeds, are considered as rich sources of natural antioxidants, including phlorotannins, meroterpenoids, carotenoids, and phenolic acids, though their abundance varies by species (Bogolitsyn et al., 2019; Osório et al., 2020). These compounds endow seaweeds with a broad spectrum of bioactivities, such as anticancer, antibacterial, antifungal, and anti-inflammatory effects, making them attractive candidates for pharmaceutical and nutraceutical applications (Aminina et al., 2020). Among seaweed varieties, brown algae are often reported to exhibit relatively higher antioxidant activities compared to their green and red algae (Dang et al., 2018). One of the key molecules responsible for this effect is fucosterol, a phytosterol integral to algal cell membranes (Hikihara et al., 2020). Moreover, complex and sulfated polysaccharides such as fucoidan, laminarin, and alginic acid abundant in brown algal cell walls, contribute to various biological properties (Dobrinčić et al., 2020).

Sargassum horneri (S. horneri), a brown seaweed commonly consumed in East Asian countries, is traditionally used as both a food and medicinal resource (Herath et al., 2020). Nonetheless, it has also emerged as an invasive species along coastal regions, notably around Jeju Island, South Korea, following its spread from eastern Chinese waters (Kim et al., 2021a, b). Despite its ecological impact, S. horneri remains a promising biomass resource. Ethanol extracts from S. horneri (SHE) have demonstrated a range of beneficial effects, including free radical scavenging, metal ion chelation, reduction of allergic airway inflammation, and protection of alveolar epithelial cells from apoptosis (Kim et al., 2022; Saraswati et al., 2019; Shao et al., 2014). These protective effects are thought to arise from a diverse array of bioactive constituents present in the algal matrix. However, little is known about which solvent-specific fractions are primarily responsible for these bioactivities. To clarify which bioactive components of S. horneri contributed to its antioxidant activity, we fractionated its ethanol extract using solvents of varying polarity. The antioxidant efficacy of each fraction was then assessed against PM-induced oxidative stress, with the aim of identifying the most potent natural antioxidant.

Materials and methods

Reagents and PM

Folin & Ciocalteu’s phenol reagent, gallic acid, quercetin, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrythydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2'-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) diammonium salt (ABTS), hydrogen peroxide solution, iron (II) sulfate heptahydrate, 2-deoxy-D-ribose, iron (II) chloride, potassium ferricyanide (III), 3-(2-Pyridyl)-5,6-diphenyl-1,2,4-triazine-p,p’-disulfonic acid monosodium salt hydrate (ferrozine), 2-thiobarbituric acid (TBA) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA).

A Certified Reference Material (CRM No. 28) representing urban aerosol PM was obtained from the National Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES, Ibaraki, Japan). This material, collected over a 10-year period in Beijing, China, primarily consisted of fine particles with diameters below 10 μm. The elemental composition was certified and included Na, Mg, Al, K, Ca, Ti, Fe, and Zn, as previously reported by Mori et al. (2008). The PM was suspended in RPMI medium and stored at –80℃ until further experimental use.

Extraction and fractionation of Sargassum horneri

S. honeri was collected from the coast of Jeju Island, Korea, thoroughly rinsed three times with purified water, and dried using hot-air circulation at 50℃. The dried S. horneri was ground and sieved to obtain 40–50 mesh particles using a pin-mill (MF10, Ika-Werke GMHB & Co., Staufen, Germany). The powdered sample was extracted with 70% ethanol for 24 h, followed by filtration through white clay for 2 h to eliminate insoluble residues and metallic impurities. The filtrate was subsequently centrifuged at 8100 × g at room temperature. The resulting supernatant was concentrated and further treated with 95% ethanol to obtain the crude extract. This extract was adjusted to 20% solid content and freeze-dried to yield the ethanol extract of S. horneri (SHE). The obtained SHE and its residual fraction were stored at –20℃ until use.

For solvent partitioning, SHE was dissolved in distilled water and sequentially fractionated using a separatory funnel with four solvents of increasing polarity: n-hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, and water, as illustrated in Fig. 1. Each solvent fraction was concentrated under reduced pressure using a rotary evaporator (SB-1200, Shanghai EYELA Co., Shanghai, China) and stored at –20℃ until further analysis.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

Open in a new tab

Preparation of S. horneri extract (SHE) fractions using different solvents

Preparation of PM-induced oxidation sample

The SHE and SHE fractions were dissolved in distilled water at 1 mg/mL and determined for antioxidant activity. For the PM-induced oxidation, PM at 0.125 g/mL was combined with SHE and its fractions at 1 mg/mL and incubated at room temperature for 24 h, which were determined by preliminary test.

Determination of total phenolics and flavonoids contents

Total phenolic content (TPC) was quantified using the Folin–Ciocalteu colorimetric method as described by Wang et al. (2011), and total flavonoid content (TFC) was measured following the method of Yi et al. (2017). Absorbance was recorded at 765 nm for TPC and 415 nm for TFC using a UV–vis spectrophotometer (OPTIZEN 2120UV, Mecasys, Daejeon, Korea). TPC and TFC were expressed as gallic acid equivalents (mg GAE/g) and quercetin equivalents (mg QE/g), respectively.

Free radical and ROS scavenging activity

The scavenging activities for DPPH, ABTS+ free radicals, and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) were assessed following the method of Kim et al. (2006), Sung et al. (2018), and Heo et al. (2005), respectively. Absorbance value were measured at 517 nm (DPPH), 734 nm (ABTS+), and 405 nm (H2O2) using a microplate reader (Epoch, BioTek Instruments Inc., Winooski, VT, USA). Ascorbic acid at 0.1 mg/mL was used as a positive control and the scavenging activity was calculated as a percentage relative to the blank.

Hydroxyl radical scavenging activity was evaluated using a modified Fenton reaction based on the method of Kim et al. (2009). Hydroxyl radicals were generated by mixing FeSO4·7H2O, EDTA, and 2-deoxyribose in phosphate buffer (pH 7.4), followed by the addition of 200 μL of 10 mM H2O2. Samples were incubated at 37 ℃ for 1 h, reacted with 1 mL of 2.8% TCA and 1 mL of 0.4% TBA, and boiled for 10 min. After cooling and centrifugation (395 × g, 5 min), absorbance was measured at 532 nm using a microplate reader (BioTek Instruments Inc.). The hydroxyl radical scavenging activity was calculated based on the absorbances of sample and blank. Butylated hydroxyl toluene (BHT, Sigma-Aldrich) at 0.1 mg/mL was used as a positive control.

Ferrous ion chelating activity

Metal chelating activity was determined according to Lee et al. (2010). SHE or SHE fractions (100 μL) were mixed with 100 μL of 0.1 mM FeCl2 and 100 μL of 0.25 mM ferrozine. The mixture was incubated at room temperature for 10 min in the dark, and absorbance was measured at 562 nm using a microplate reader (BioTek Instruments Inc.). Chelating efficiency was calculated relative to the control.

Statistical analysis

Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS Statistics (IBM Co., Chicago, IL, USA). Data are expressed as mean ± standard deviation. Statistical comparisons were performed using one-way analysis of variance followed by Duncan’s multiple range test. Significance was considered at p < 0.05.

Results and discussion

Among the solvent-partitioned fractions of SHE, the n-hexane fraction exhibited the highest extraction yield (75.35%), followed by chloroform (13.41%), ethyl acetate (2.46%), and water (1.07%) fractions (previous data, not shown). These findings indicate significant variations in chemical composition based solvent polarity. According to Kim et al. (2021a, b), the proximate composition of dried S. horneri powder comprised moisture (14.2%), ash (21.0%), crude fat (4.4%), crude protein (15%), and carbohydrate (46%). The use of solvents with varying polarities resulted in distinct chemical extractions: non-polar solvent like n-hexane predominantly extract lipids and pigments, moderately polar solvents such as chloroform and ethyl acetate were effective in isolating phenolic compounds and flavonoids, and polar solvents like water primarily extracted polysaccharides and proteins. These solvent-specific fractions, each rich in unique bioactive compounds, underscored the potential of S. horneri for various applications.

Total phenolic and flavonoid contents

TPC and TFC of SHE and its solvent fractions are shown in Table 1. The chloroform and ethyl acetate fraction showed the highest TPC, 31.91 and 24.18 mg GAE/g, whereas SHE, SHE residue, and other fractions ranged in 16.57–18.37 mg GAE/g. Chloroform and ethyl acetate fractions contained high amounts of phenolic compounds while n-hexane and water fractions did not. Phenolic compounds are known to be highly correlated to the antioxidant property of the compound (Lee et al., 2020), possibly showing high antioxidant activity of those fractions. Flavonoids are the naturally occurring polyphenolic compounds representing one of the most prevalent classes of food materials (Heo et al., 2005). The current study showed that the highest TFC was found in chloroform and ethyl acetate fractions, 320.60 mg QE/g and 303.77 mg QE/g. These values were great compared to those of SHE and n-hexane and water fractions (38.38–92.38 mg QE/g). Consequently, the result suggested that phenolic compounds and flavonoids may play an important role as primary compounds contributing to the antioxidant effects and the inhibition of oxidative reactions. Moreover, the use of chloroform and ethyl acetate as fractionating solvents proved to be more efficacious for the extraction of polyphenols including flavonoids compared to n-hexane and water.

Table 1.

In vitro antioxidant activities of S. horneri extract and its solvent fractions

S. horneri extract (SHE)
and its fractions		 TPC
(mg GAE/g)		 TFC
(mg QE/g)		 Antioxidant activities1)
DPPH (%) ABTS (%) H2O2 (%) ·OH (%) Chelating (%)
Extract SHE 17.53 ± 0.71c,2) 58.61 ± 4.10d 41.07 ± 0.75d 34.22 ± 1.57c 9.63 ± 4.06d 15.53 ± 2.62c 53.54 ± 6.59c
Residue 16.57 ± 0.15c 24.00 ± 2.91f 30.80 ± 1.06f 32.85 ± 1.14c 15.83 ± 2.45c 25.78 ± 3.26b 17.42 ± 2.47d
SHE fractions n-Hexane 16.76 ± 0.73c 92.38 ± 4.62c 37.68 ± 1.33e 36.42 ± 2.69bc 7.44 ± 2.41d 31.85 ± 2.94a 93.29 ± 3.38b
Chloroform 24.18 ± 2.52b 320.60 ± 13.68a 62.86 ± 0.87b 39.89 ± 3.52ab 45.55 ± 6.01b 31.61 ± 2.31a 106.50 ± 3.05a
Ethyl acetate 31.91 ± 2.06a 303.77 ± 7.08b 70.63 ± 0.35a 43.62 ± 3.16a 74.88 ± 2.69a 27.65 ± 3.38ab 94.18 ± 5.62b
Water 18.37 ± 1.10c 38.38 ± 2.65e 42.90 ± 0.58c 34.20 ± 1.59c 11.28 ± 4.61d 14.94 ± 4.74c 22.14 ± 2.14d
Positive control3) – – 98.64 ± 0.19 101.26 ± 0.06 99.75 ± 0.77 77.24 ± 0.41 107.35 ± 0.20
Open in a new tab

1DPPH: DPPH free radical scavenging activity, ABTS: ABTS+ radical scavenging activity, H2O2: hydrogen peroxide scavenging activity, ·OH: hydroxyl radical scavenging activity, and Chelating: ferrous ion chelating effect

2Each value is mean ± standard deviation. Means with different small letters in the same column are significantly different at p < 0.05

3Ascorbic acid was used as a positive control for DPPH, ABTS, and H2O2 scavenging activity, BHT was for ·OH scavenging activity, and EDTA was for metal chelating effect

In vitro antioxidants activities of SHE and its fractions

The in vitro antioxidant activities of SHE and its solvent-partitioned fractions are shown in Table 1. The DPPH and ABTS+ free radical scavenging activities were in the range of 30.80 to 70.63% and 32.85 to 43.62%, respectively. Among SHE fractions, the n-hexane and chloroform fraction exhibited the highest DPPH and ABTS+ free radical scavenging activities (p < 0.05). These results indicated that the polarity of the extraction solvent significantly influenced the distribution of antioxidant compounds. Moderately non-polar solvents such as chloroform and ethyl acetate likely enhanced the extraction of phenolic and flavonoid compounds, which are known for electron-donating and radical-scavenging capabilities (Hwang et al., 2021; Karahan et al., 2015). Correspondingly, the chloroform and ethyl acetate fractions showed higher in TPC and TFC than other fractions, suggesting that high presence in polyphenols including flavonoids was correlated to their radical scavenging activities.

The hydrogen peroxide scavenging activity was most pronounced in the ethyl acetate (74.88%) and chloroform (45.55%) fractions, whereas the SHE, SHE residue, and other fractions showed significantly lower activity (7.44–15.83%). This aligned with previous findings on Turbinaria conoides, which demonstrated that the moderately polar fractions of brown seaweeds are particularly effective in suppressing hydrogen peroxide (Chakraborty et al., 2013). As hydrogen peroxide, one type of ROS produced by oxygen molecules in cellular processes, is a relatively unreactive non-radical (Aryal et al., 2019). Its deactivation relies on antioxidants that either directly react with it or interfere with its intermediates generated by the enzyme (Martínez-Tomé et al., 2001).

The fractions of n-hexane (31.85%), chloroform (31.61%), and ethyl acetate (27.65%) inhibited the hydroxyl radicals as shown in Table 1. The SHE, SHE residue, and water fraction were determined as 15.53, 25.78, and 11.28%, which were significantly lower than those of n-hexane and ethyl acetate fractions (p < 0.05). The ability of SHE and its fractions to neutralize hydroxyl radicals was comparatively less effective than their capacity to counteract DPPH free radicals and hydrogen peroxide. Hydroxy radicals, due to their high standard reduction potential and extreme reactivity, are among the most damaging ROS (Choe and Min, 2006; Devi et al., 2008). The observed activity of these fractions suggests their potential to inhibit both initiation and termination phases of peroxyl radical generation by hydroxyl radicals.

Ferrous ion (Fe2+) chelating effect of the chloroform (106.50%), ethyl acetate (94.18%), and n-hexane (93.29%) fractions were comparable to that of the standard EDTA (107.35%) at 0.1 mg/mL. In contrast, the SHE residue and water fraction exhibited low chelating capacity (17.42 and 22.42%, respectively). Previous studies have reported high metal ion binding in ethyl acetate extracts from brown algae, G. acerosa (99.02% at 0.05 mg/mL) (Suganthy et al., 2013). Brown seaweeds including Sargassum spp. were potential metal chelators which attained by the presence of phenolics (Senevirathne et al., 2006). The metal ion chelating activity of phenolic compounds depends on their phenolic structure and the number and location of the hydroxyl groups (Santoso et al., 2004). The chloroform, ethyl acetate, and n-hexane fractions exhibited a high activity of metal ion binding capacity, suggesting the presence of phenolic components.

Overall, the antioxidant assays including DPPH free radical scavenging, hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl radical scavenging, and metal chelation consistently demonstrated that the SHE fractions by ethyl acetate and chloroform showed a great effect along with high levels of TPC and TFC (Table 1). These results suggest that phenolic compounds were the primary contributor to the antioxidant capacities of S. horneri. Notably, the ethyl acetate fraction showed the most consistent and potent antioxidant performance among the four solvent-derived fractions.

Antioxidants activities of SHE and its fractions against PM-induced oxidation

PM causes oxidative stress and antioxidant activities of SHE and its fractions can be altered when exposed to PM. The in vitro antioxidant activities of SHE, SHE residue, and SHE’s fractions at a concentration of 1 mg/mL were evaluated in the presence of PM at 0.125 g/mL, as shown in Table 2. PM exposure significantly diminished overall antioxidant capacity, indicating the induction of oxidative stress.

Table 2.

In vitro antioxidant activities of S. horneri extract and its solvent fractions in the oxidation induced by urban particulate matter at 0.125 g/mL

S. horneri extract (SHE)
and its fractions		 Antioxidant activities1)
DPPH (%) ABTS (%) H2O2 (%) ·OH (%) Chelating (%)
Extract SHE 39.57 ± 1.19c,2) 34.34 ± 0.16c 8.83 ± 0.92c 9.70 ± 1.68c 18.35 ± 1.54a
Residue 36.52 ± 0.65d 32.51 ± 0.08d 5.33 ± 2.37c 9.63 ± 1.66b 17.78 ± 0.89b
SHE fractions n-Hexane 39.71 ± 1.35c 32.74 ± 0.23d 4.98 ± 0.90c 9.82 ± 1.66a 18.35 ± 1.28a
Chloroform 51.17 ± 0.32b 35.72 ± 0.09b 18.96 ± 2.03b 13.83 ± 2.00a 19.51 ± 0.36a
Ethyl acetate 55.10 ± 0.17a 36.43 ± 0.01a 44.17 ± 5.67a 17.58 ± 1.58ab 18.24 ± 0.84a
Water 39.91 ± 1.64c 34.09 ± 0.13c 16.37 ± 4.80bc 12.11 ± 1.47c 16.23 ± 0.65ab
Open in a new tab

1DPPH: DPPH free radical scavenging activity, ABTS: ABTS+ radical scavenging activity, H2O2: hydrogen peroxide scavenging activity, OH: hydroxyl radical scavenging activity, and Chelating: ferrous ion chelating effect

2Each value is mean ± standard deviation. Means with different letters in the same column are significantly different at p < 0.05

DPPH radical scavenging activity was notably reduced in the chloroform, ethyl acetate, and water fractions following PM exposure, decreasing from 70.63 to 55.10% and from 62.86 to 51.17%, respectively. Despite these reductions, these two fractions still maintained the highest activity levels among all tested fractions. Similarly, ABTS+ radical scavenging activity also declined modestly across all fractions when treated with PM, although the relative activities among fractions remained consistent. For hydrogen peroxide scavenging, a marked decline was observed in the ethyl acetate and chloroform fractions, decreasing from from 74.88 to 44.17% and from 45.55 to 18.96%, respectively. In contrast, SHE, SHE residue, n-hexane, and water fractions showed low H2O2 scavenging activity both before and after PM treatment, suggesting that fractions enriched in polyphenols and terpenoids were more effective at counteracting H2O2 under stress conditions.

Hydroxyl radical scavenging activity also decreased across all samples following PM exposure. The most pronounced reductions were seen in the SHE residue, n-hexane, and chloroform fractions. Depending on major bioactive compounds in each fraction, the antioxidant activities varied when treated with PM 0.125 g/mL.

PM treatment also significantly impaired the ferrous ion (Fe2+) chelating activity of all fractions. Particularly, the chloroform and ethyl acetate fractions, which initially showed high metal binding capacity, exhibited substantial loss of activity. This reduction is likely due to the presence of PM-associated transition metals, which not only interfere with chelation byt may also catalyze the generation of ROS.

As illustrated in Fig. 2, antioxidant activities of SHE, SHE residue, and SHE’s fractions were all adversely affected by PM-induced oxidation. Nevertheless, SHE and its fractions retained considerable antioxidant capacity, particularly the chloroform and ethyl acetate fractions. Among the tested antioxidant activities, metal chelation was the most significantly inhibited by PM exposure, likely due to competition or interfere from PM-bound transition metals. Moreover, these transition metal might contribute to oxidative stress by promoting the formation of free radicals and ROS, resulting DPPH, ABTS, H2O2, and hydroxyl radical scavenging activities. These findings suggest that while PM exposure reduces the antioxidant efficacy of S. horneri extracts and fractions, especially in terms of metal ion chelation, the chloroform and ethyl acetate fractions still demonstrate promising potential for mitigating oxidative stress. Their high phenolic and flavonoid contents may offer protective effects against environmental oxidative damage.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

Open in a new tab

Difference in antioxidant activity of S. horneri extract (SHE) and its solvent fractions without and with PM-induced oxidation. Results are expressed as mean ± standard deviation of triplicate data. Means with different letters in each antioxidant activity were significantly different among SHE and its solvent fractions at p < 0.05

In conclusion, this study investigated the antioxidant potential of S. horneri, a brown macroalga, by evaluating the bioactivities of its ethanol extract (SHE) and solvent-partitioned fractions. Fractionation using n-hexane, chloroform, and ethyl acetate significantly enhanced TPC and TFC, leading to improved DPPH and ABTS+ radical scavenging and hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl radical scavenging activities. The metal chelating effects of the n-hexane, chloroform, and ethyl acetate fractions were notably high, with respective values of 93.29, 106.50, and 94.18%, respectively. Although exposure to PM-induced oxidative stress reduced the antioxidant activities of all fractions, the chloroform and ethyl acetate fractions maintained relatively high functionality, particularly in metal chelating effect. The observed reduction was likely attributed to the presence of transitional metals in PM that interfere with antioxidant mechanisms. Overall, S. horneri exhibited strong potential as a natural source of antioxidant capable of mitigating oxidative damage caused by environmental pollutants such as particulate matter. These findings support its application in developing functional ingredients for health protection and environmental stress mitigation.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the research grant of Jeju National University in 2022.

Funding

Jeju National University, 2022, Hyun Jung Kim

Declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests or personal relationships that may have influenced the work reported in this study.

Footnotes

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

References

  1. Aminina NM, Karaulova EP, Vishnevskaya TI, Yakush EV, Kim YK, Nam KH, Son KT. Characteristics of polyphenolic content in brown algae of the Pacific Coast of Russia. Molecules. 25(17): 3909 (2020) [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Aryal S, Baniya MK, Danekhu K, Kunwar P, Gurung R, Koirala N. Total phenolic content, flavonoid content and antioxidant potential of wild vegetables from western Nepal. Plants. 8(4):96-108 (2019) [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Bogolitsyn K, Dobrodeeva L, Druzhinina A, Ovchinnikov D, Parshina A, Shulgina E. Biological activity of a polyphenolic complex of Arctic brown algae. Journal of Applied Phycology. 31: 3341–3348 (2019) [Google Scholar]
  4. Chakraborty K, Praveen NK, Vijayan KK, Rao GS. Evaluation of phenolic contents and antioxidant activities of brown seaweeds belonging to Turbinaria spp. (Phaeophyta, Sargassaceae) collected from Gulf of Mannar. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine. 3(1): 8-16 (2013) [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Choe E, Min DB. Chemistry and reactions of reactive oxygen species in foods. Critical Review in Food Science and Nutrition. 46(1): 1-22 (2006) [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Dang TT, Bowyer MC, Van Altena IA, Scarlett CJ. Comparison of chemical profile and antioxidant properties of the brown algae. International Journal of Food Science and Technology. 53(1): 174-181 (2018) [Google Scholar]
  7. Devi KP, Suganthy N, Kesika P, Pandian SK. Bioprotective properties of seaweeds: in vitro evaluation of antioxidant activity and antimicrobial activity against food borne bacteria in relation to polyphenolic content. BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies. 8(38): 1-11 (2008) [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Dobrinčić A, Balbino S, Zorić Z, Pedisić S, Kovačević DB, Garofulić IE, Dragović-Uzelac V. Advanced technologies for the extraction of marine brown algal polysaccharides. Marine Drugs. 18(3): 168 (2020) [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Filonchyk M, Yan H, Yang S, Hurynovich V. study of PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations in the atmosphere of large cities in Gansu Province, China, in summer period. Journal of Earth System Science. 125(6): 1175-1187 (2016) [Google Scholar]
  10. Heo S, Cha S-H, Lee K-W, Cho SK, Jeon Y-J. Antioxidant activities of chlorophyta and phaeophyta from Jeju island. Algae. 20(3): 251-260 (2005) [Google Scholar]
  11. Herath KHINM, Kim HJ, Jang JH, Kim HS, Kim HJ, Jeon YJ, Jee Y. Mojabanchromanol isolated from Sargassum horneri attenuates particulate matter induced inflammatory responses via suppressing TLR2/4/7-MAPK signaling in MLE-12 cells. Marine Drugs. 18(7): 355 (2020) [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Hikihara R, Yamasaki Y, Shikata T, Nakayama N, Sakamoto S, Kato S, Hatate H, Tanaka R. Analysis of phytosterol, fatty acid, and carotenoid composition of 19 microalgae and 6 bivalve species. Journal of Aquatic Food Product Technology. 29(5): 461-479 (2020) [Google Scholar]
  13. Hwang EJ, Lee YG, Lee HJ, Cho JY, Moon JH. Major constituents and antioxidant activities of domestic onion (Allium cepa L.) cultivars. Korean Journal of Food Science and Technology. 53(4): 434-445 (2021) [Google Scholar]
  14. Karahan F, Kulak M, Urlu E, Gözüacik HG, Böyümez T, Şekeroʇlu NI, Doganturk IH. Total phenolic content, ferric reducing and DPPH scavenging activity of Arum dioscoridis. Natural Product Research. 29(17): 1678-1683 (2015) [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Kim BM, Jun JY, Park YB, Jeon IH. Antioxidant activity of methanolic extracts from seaweeds. Journal of the Korean Society of Food Science and Nutrition. 35(8): 1097-1101 (2006) [Google Scholar]
  16. Kim YD, Mahinda S, Koh KS, Jeon YJ, Kim SH. Reactive oxygen species scavenging activity of Jeju native citrus peel during maturation. Journal of the Korean Society of Food Science and Nutrition. 38(4): 462-469 (2009) [Google Scholar]
  17. Kim HJ, Herath KHINM, Dinh DTT, Kim H-S, Jeon Y-J, Kim HJ, Jee Y. Sargassum horneri ethanol extract containing polyphenols attenuates PM-induced oxidative stress via ROS scavenging and transition metal chelation. Journal of Functional Foods. 79:104401 (2021a) [Google Scholar]
  18. Kim MJ, Jo HG, Ramakrishna C, Lee S-J, Lee D-S, Cheong SH. Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities of Sargassum horneri extract in RAW264.7 macrophages. Physical Activity and Nutrition. 25(4): 45-53 (2021b) [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Kim HI, Kim DS, Jung Y, Sung NY, Kim M, Han IJ, Nho EY, Hong JH, Lee JK, Boo M, Kim HL, Baik S, Jung KO, Lee S, Kim CS, Park J. Immune-enhancing effect of Sargassum horneri on cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppression in BALB/c mice and primary cultured splenocytes. Molecules. 27(23): 8253 (2022) [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Lee KH, Senevirathne M, Ahn CB, Je JY. Biological compounds extracted from Codium fragile by enzymatic hydrolysis and their biological activities. Journal of the Korean Society of Food Science and Nutrition. 39(7): 953-959 (2010) [Google Scholar]
  21. Lee JH, Kim HJ, Jee Y, Jeon Y-J, Kim HJ. Antioxidant potential of Sargassum horneri extract against urban particulate matter-induced oxidation. Food Science and Biotechnology. 29(6): 855-865 (2020) [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Libalova H, Milcova A, Cervena T, Vrbova K, Rossnerova A, Novakova Z, Topinka J, Rossner P. Kinetics of ROS generation induced by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and organic extracts from ambient air particulate matter in model human lung cell lines. Mutation Research Genetic Toxicology and Environmental Mutagenesis. 827: 50-58 (2018) [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Martínez-Tomé M, García-Carmona F, Antonia Murcia M. Comparison of the antioxidant and pro-oxidant activities of broccoli amino acids with those of common food additives. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 81(10): 1019-1026 (2001) [Google Scholar]
  24. Moller P, Danielsen P, Karottki D, Jantzen K, Roursgaard M, Klingberg H, Jensen D, Christophersen D, Hemmingsen J, Cao Y, Loft S. Oxidative stress and inflammation generated DNA damage by exposure to air pollution particles. Mutation Research Reviews in Mutation Research. 762: 133-166 (2014) [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Mori I, Sun Z, Ukachi M, Nagano K, McLeod CW, Cox AG, Nishikawa M. Development and certification of the new NIES CRM 28: urban aerosols for the determination of multielements. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. 391(6): 1997-2003 (2008) [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Osório C, Machado S, Peixoto J, Bessada S, Pimentel FB, Alves RC, Oliveira MBPP. Pigments content (chlorophylls, fucoxanthin and phycobiliproteins) of different commercial dried algae. Separations. 7(2): 1-14 (2020) [Google Scholar]
  27. Santoso J, Yoshie-Stark Y, Suzuki T. Anti-oxidant activity of methanol extracts from Indonesian seaweeds in an oil emulsion model. Fisheries Science. 70: 183-188 (2004) [Google Scholar]
  28. Saraswati GPE, Iskandriati D, Tan CP, Andarwulan N. Sargassum seaweed as a source of anti-inflammatory substances and the potential insight of the tropical species: A review. Marine Drugs. 17(10): 590 (2019) [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Senevirathne M, Kim SH, Siriwardhana N, Ha JH, Lee KW, Jeon YJ. Antioxidant potential of Ecklonia cava on reactive oxygen species scavenging, metal chelating, reducing power and lipid peroxidation inhibition. Food Science and Technology International. 12(1): 27-38 (2006) [Google Scholar]
  30. Shao P, Chen X, Sun P. hemical characterization, antioxidant and antitumor activity of sulfated polysaccharide from Sargassum horneri. Carbohydrate Polymers. 105(1): 260-269 (2014) [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Son ES, Park JW, Kim YJ, Jeong SH, Hong JH, Kim SH, Kyung SY. Effects of antioxidants on oxidative stress and inflammatory responses of human bronchial epithelial cells exposed to particulate matter and cigarette smoke extract. Toxicology in Vitro. 67: 104883 (2020) [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Suganthy N, Nisha SA, Pandian SK, Devi KP. Evaluation of Gelidiella acerosa, the red algae inhabiting South Indian coastal area for antioxidant and metal chelating potential. Biomedicine and Preventive Nutrition. 3(4): 399-406 (2013) [Google Scholar]
  33. Sung HM, Seo YS, Yang EJ. Anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of hot water extract obtained from geranium Thunbergii using different extraction temperatures and times. Journal of the Korean Society of Food Science and Nutrition. 47(10): 1006-1013 (2018) [Google Scholar]
  34. Tang Q, Huang K, Liu J, Wu S, Shen D, Dai P, Li C. Fine particulate matter from pig house induced immune response by activating TLR4/MAPK/NF-ΚB pathway and NLRP3 inflammasome in alveolar macrophages. Chemosphere. 236: 124373 (2019) [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Wang SM, Yu DJ, Song K. Physicochemical characteristics of kohlrabi slices dehydrated by the addition of maltodextrin. Journal of Food Science and Nutrition. 16(2): 189-193 (2011) [Google Scholar]
  36. Xu X, Liu A, Hu S, Ares I, Martínez-Larrañaga MR, Wang X, Martínez M, Anadón A, Martínez MA. Synthetic phenolic antioxidants: Metabolism, hazards and mechanism of action. Food Chemistry. 353: 129488 (2021) [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Yi L, Ma S, Ren D. Phytochemistry and bioactivity of Citrus flavonoids: a focus on antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer and cardiovascular protection activities. Phytochemistry Reviews. 16(3): 479-511 (2017) [Google Scholar]
  38. Zulaikhah ST. The role of antioxidant to prevent free radicals in the body. Sains Medika: Jurnal Kedokteran dan Kesehatan. 8(1): 39-45 (2017) [Google Scholar]

Articles from Food Science and Biotechnology are provided here courtesy of Springer

RESOURCES