Prevalence, patterns, correlates, and academic implications of sports betting and problem gambling among Nigerian undergraduates

Abstract

Background

Sports betting has become increasingly popular among Nigerian undergraduates, particularly males. Once a recreational activity, sports betting has now become an economic pursuit for many young students to augment income. This trend raises concerns about its potential impact on academic performance and mental health. This study examined the patterns, correlates, academic implications, and predictors of sports betting and problem gambling among University of Calabar undergraduate students.

Methods

A cross-sectional analytical study was conducted among undergraduate students at the University of Calabar using a self-administered questionnaire. Data on gambling behaviour, problem gambling severity, reasons for gambling, and demographic information were collected using the Reasons for Gambling Questionnaire (RGQ) and the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI). The impact of sports betting on participants’ academic performance was also assessed. Data was analysed using SPSS Statistics v25, employing descriptive statistics, bivariate analysis, and logistic regression.

Results

Among 406 respondents, 36.7% had engaged in sports betting, with 30.3% participating in the past year. One underage bettor was identified. Males (83.2%) were more likely to bet. Two-thirds of respondents preferred online sports betting. The primary motivation behind sports betting was monetary gain (87.8%), followed by recreational purposes (47.1%) and thrill-seeking (45.1%). Problem gambling prevalence was 14.3%, increasing to 47.2% among those who had gambled in the previous year. Negative academic impacts were reported by 64.2% of respondents who gambled in the year prior. Strong evidence of an association between male gender and higher income with sports betting and problem gambling was identified (p < 0.05). Gambling frequency had strong evidence of association with adverse academic effects (p < 0.01). Problem gambling was associated with spending study time on sports betting (60.7%) or following sports betting games (75%) (p < 0.001). Logistic regression showed strong evidence of an association between advertisement influence and problem gambling, with those influenced by exposure to gambling adverts being four times more likely to have problem gambling (OR 4.36, 95% CI 1.93–9.86).

Conclusion

The study revealed a high prevalence of sports betting and problem gambling among Nigerian undergraduates. Academic impacts were also evident, highlighting the need for targeted interventions. We recommend developing and implementing educational campaigns, financial literacy programs, and support services for at-risk individuals. Additionally, regulatory measures to restrict the advertising and marketing of sports betting to minors and vulnerable populations should be considered.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s44192-025-00214-5.

Introduction

Gambling refers to staking money on uncertain events governed by chance, with potential gains exceeding the initial stake and likely cumulative losses over time [1]. This includes lotteries, bingo, sports betting, horse racing, card games, and chance-based casino table games [2]. Sports betting involves predicting the outcome of sporting events and placing wagers with the hopes of winning money [3, 4]. Increased participation in sports betting has become a significant public health concern, especially among young people. This group often has financial constraints combined with academic pressures, increasing their predilection for sports betting as a means of income supplementation or recreational activity [5].

In Nigeria, sports betting, legalised under the provisions of the National Lottery Act of 2005 has emerged as a vibrant facet of gambling, particularly among young adults aged 18 and above [5]. Sports betting involves popular sports such as basketball, football, and tennis. In the 10 years leading up to 2017, the Nigerian Lottery Regulatory Commission (NLRC) saw a surge in licenses issued to sports betting operators, raising concerns about the proliferation of legalised gambling [2]. This incremental trend is reportedly due to the convenience, interactivity, and perceived skill-based nature of sports betting, unlike other traditional forms of gambling [2]. The Nigerian social context also contributes to the proliferation of sports betting among young persons, as football and other sports are very popular and enjoyed among youths. A recent review of sports betting in various countries suggests that age, gender, income levels, unemployment rates, and marketing campaigns stronglyly influence participation [3]. Individuals may be motivated by monetary gains, recreational interests, social interaction, or reasons related to enhancement and coping [3, 4]. High participation rates in sports betting have been reported among young adults aged 18–30 years, which includes many undergraduates. In European countries, the prevalence of sports betting in this age group exceeds 40% [3]. Additionally, in African countries like Uganda, young adults are twice as likely to engage in sports betting than those over 30 years [3]. Previous studies indicate that sports betting activity is predominantly among males [3, 4]. However, there is no consensus on the relationship between income and sports betting behavior. Daniel et al. reported three scenarios from previous research: low-income earners, high-income earners, and both high and low-income earners, all likely to participate in sports betting activities [3]. Daniel et al. also explored the commercial determinants of health at play in sports betting, revealing how marketing campaigns and intrusive advertising have increased the likelihood of sports betting and gambling harms [3].

Everyone who participates in gambling is at risk of gambling harms. Indulgence in sports betting carries the risk of adverse outcomes, including addiction, financial losses, and academic underperformance [5–7]. Additionally, betting on sports can lead to occupational dysfunction and mental health issues such as depression and self-harm [5–7]. Langham et al. categorized gambling harm into individual, interpersonal, and community-level taxonomies [8]. Individual harms include financial losses and reduced academic or work performance. Interpersonal harms affect relationships, while community harms involve societal burdens like stigma and economic strain. This framework highlights gambling’s widespread impact, emphasizing the need for targeted interventions to mitigate its effects on work, study, and well-being. Problem gambling or disordered gambling presents difficulty in controlling the time and money spent on sports betting, causing significant challenges for individuals, their loved ones, and their community [4]. This usually results in debt, financial instability, poor work and academic performance and inability to meet up with daily needs [4–9]. Furthermore, persons who bet may get involved in illegal activities to fund their gambling and become social and financial burdens to their society [3, 4]. These impacts indicate the far-reaching consequences of disordered gambling behavior.

Young people are particularly susceptible to gambling and its harmful effects [10, 11]. Gambling is prevalent among university students worldwide. In countries like Iceland, 16–18 year-olds have gambled at least once in their lifetime, most have done so in the previous year, and students are reported to be more likely to bet than other population groups in other countries [12, 13]. This has been attributed to peer pressure, environmental influence, poverty, and poor economy [14]. In Nigeria, sports betting is common among young people, especially undergraduates, as many have reported engaging in it to survive or earn a living [15]. Interestingly, Nigerian students are reportedly more likely to gamble than other adults, which could affect academic performance [14, 16]. Previous studies in Ghana showed that students experiencing gambling harms across six universities reported lower academic grades [17]. Furthermore, a longitudinal study by Vitaro et al. established a causal link between sports betting and academic under-performance [18]. A review by Daniel et al.,suggested that sports betting possibly leads to study time being lost to plan bets, study records and patterns of teams, engage in sports betting, and follow the matches that have been bet on; and if the stake is lost, more time spent to recover psychologically and mentally get ready for academic work [3]. Yet, the academic consequences of sports betting remain underexplored in Nigerian students, although global evidence linked gambling behaviors to neglect of educational responsibilities, reduced performance, and higher dropout rates [17, 19, 20]. Some research has been conducted on gambling in Nigeria, but few focus on sports betting and problem gambling. Also, there needs to be more awareness concerning the potential impact on academic activities. There is still a poor appreciation of the magnitude of the problem in Nigeria. Sufficient attention and effort have not been put into curbing sports betting by the participants, stakeholders in the sector, and the government. This can be attributed to the fact that most individuals do not perceive sports betting to be much of a problem that bothers mental and public health compared to other addictive activities that have physical manifestations, such as substance abuse. This study examined the patterns, correlates, and predictors of sports betting and problem gambling among University of Calabar undergraduates. The specific objectives are to determine the prevalence and patterns of sports betting, assess its effects, including problem gambling, identify associated factors, examine its relationship with academic endeavours, and identify predictors of problem gambling.

Methods

Study setting and sampling

This was a cross-sectional analytical study among students at the University of Calabar, a public higher institution in Cross River State, Nigeria. The University offers undergraduate and postgraduate training to students across various faculties and disciplines. Participants were drawn from the undergraduate student population of different departments and faculties. Undergraduates are those enrolled in a bachelor’s program; Nigeria's minimum age of enrollment is 16 years. Most undergraduates have just completed secondary (high school) education, while a few may have sought another degree. Only undergraduate students at the University of Calabar during the study's time and who gave informed consent to participate were included. Questionnaires and consent forms were printed and handed to participants; the survey was conducted between October 2019 and March 2021. A pretest of questionnaires was conducted at the Cross River State University of Technology (now the University of Cross River State).

The required sample size for the study was calculated using the Cochran formula, with a 95% confidence level and a 5% margin of error [21]. The prevalence of sports betting in the target population was assumed to be 50%, which gives the highest variability that can be expected in the population, as there was a paucity of data on the prevalence of sports betting among undergraduates in Nigeria. The minimum estimated sample size was determined to be 384. To account for a potential non-response rate of 10%, the researchers adjusted the minimum estimated sample size to 427. The methods used and findings are presented following the strengthening of the reporting of observational studies in epidemiology (STROBE) guidelines [22].

Study procedure and bias

To minimise bias and ensure a diverse and representative sample, we implemented a multistage randomised sampling approach to recruit participants for the study. First, a simple random sampling method was used to select 17 departments across all 16 faculties and institutes offering undergraduate programs. From each of these departments, one class was chosen through balloting, resulting in a total of 17 classes. Based on official records from the Heads of Departments, the selected classes had a total population of 2126 students (Fig. 1). To ensure proportional allocation, we estimated the number required from each class and then selected participants using systematic (or interval) sampling (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1.

Study sampling flow chart

Study variables

Data was obtained by administering a standardised questionnaire adapted from the Sports Betting Section of the Reasons for Gambling Questionnaire, initially developed for the 2010 British Gambling Prevalence Survey (BGPS) [23]. The questionnaire consisted of four parts (Supplementary Files 1). The first section obtained sociodemographic characteristics. In addition, the levels (100–500; first year to fifth year) of study were also derived from this section, and sources of income, whether from parents, self, a combination of both or guardians, as it was not typical for undergraduates and secondary school graduates to be working in Nigeria. The second section was adapted from the BGPS questionnaire segment on sports betting and assessed the prevalence of lifetime sports betting, past year, and patterns of sports betting in the past year. Only those who reported sports betting in the past year completed the questions of that section, and others that followed. The third part was the Reasons for Gambling Questionnaire (RGQ), used to determine the motivations behind participants' sports betting behavior [23]. The RGQ consisted of 15 items, 14 grouped into monetary, enhancement, coping, recreational, and social aspects [23]. An additional question regarding the influence of advertisements on participation in sports betting was added to this section. The last section was mainly an adaptation of the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI), which was modified to evaluate the effects of sports betting on academics [24]. The PGSI was employed to assess the presence of problem gambling among participants. This index categorises persons who gamble into different levels based on their gambling behaviour's varying degrees of negative consequences [24]. Participants rated each item on a four-point Likert scale, with 0, 1, 2, and 3 assigned to the responses of 'never,' 'sometimes,' 'most of the time,' and 'almost always,' respectively [24]. The total scores ranged from 0 to 27, with higher scores indicating greater problem gambling severity [24]. The PGSI scores were then grouped into categories: 0 = no problem gambling, 1–2 = low-risk problem gambling, 3–7 = moderate-risk problem gambling and 8 and above = problem gambling [24].

Four questions were developed to assess the impact of sports betting on academics. These questions evaluated if students spent study time on sports betting or following games, spent school fees on sports betting, or missed classes because of sports betting. Each item was also rated on a four-point scale, with 0, 1, 2, and 3 being assigned to the responses of 'never,' 'sometimes,' 'most of the time,' and 'almost always,' respectively. The total score range for this questionnaire was 0–12. A score of 0 indicated no effect on academic life or endeavours, while scores above zero indicated a negative impact on academic endeavours. We did not ask questions about academic grades because self-reporting may introduce social desirability bias and confounders; however, our findings from effects of betting activity on academic endeavours can be used to draw inferences on possible impacts on academic performance.

Data analysis

The study utilised numbered questionnaires that were coded and cleaned during data entry. Missing data were excluded as only 3 of 430 respondents (0.7%) were missing. Hence, the potential impact will likely be low. Additionally, these participants had only filled out the sociodemographic section, which made imputations less favourable, and a complete case analysis was performed. Participants were classified based on monthly earnings as low-income ($36.50), middle-income ($36.50–110.00), and high-income (> $110.00) earners, based on previous research where income levels have been associated with sports betting participation or problem gambling [21]. The average exchange rates for May 2021 were used, with the local currency, the Naira and the United States Dollars (₦411.52/$1). Regular gambling was defined as sports betting at least once a week. The data was analysed using IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, version 22.0 (IBM Corp; Armonk, NY, USA). The socio-demographic information of the participants, as well as the prevalence and patterns of sports betting, was reported using frequency and percentages for categorical variables and means for continuous variables. Bivariate analysis was conducted for inferential testing to assess evidence of the association between socio-demographic variables and sports betting participation, socio-demographic variables and problem gambling, and the correlation between gambling frequency and academic effects. A logistic regression was also conducted to determine if age, sex, level of study, monthly income and self-reported influence of advertisement could predict the likelihood of respondents having problem gambling.

Ethical consideration

Ethical approval was obtained from the Ethics Committee of the University of Calabar Teaching Hospital (UCTH). Written informed consent was sought and acquired from students who participated in the study. This study adhered to the principles of the Helsinki Declaration concerning research among human subjects.

Results

Socio-demographics and sports betting prevalence

In this study, a total of 430 students were invited to participate. Three questionnaires were inadequately filled out and subsequently excluded from the analysis. This left 427 questionnaires, of which 406 were completed, resulting in a response rate of 95.1% (Fig. 1). The mean age was 22 ± 3 years; other socio-demographic characteristics are summarised (Table 1). In assessing prevalence using “yes/no” questions for 406 respondents, the lifetime prevalence of sports betting was 149 (36.7%), the 12-month prevalence was 123 (30.3%), and the past week prevalence (16.3%). We noted that one respondent who participated in sports betting was underage.

Table 1.

Showing socio-demographic characteristics of respondents

Variable	Frequency (n = 406)	Percentage
Age in years
< 18	13	3.2
18–25	367	90.4
26–33	15	3.7
> 33	11	2.7
Mean ± standard deviation	22 ± 3 years
Sex
Male	231	56.9
Female	175	43.1
Level of study
100	55	13.5
200	120	29.6
300	77	19.0
400	124	30.5
500	30	7.4
Monthly income ($)
< 36.49 (low income earner)	154	37.9
36.49–109.49 (middle income earner)	209	51.5
> 109.49 (high income earner)	43	10.6
Sources of income
Parents	212	52.2
Self	62	15.3
Parents and self	112	4.9
Guardian	20	27.6

n = total number of study respondents

Sports betting behaviour and preferences

About half of the sports bettors (52.0%) placed bets within the range of $2.43 to $12.17 per month, while the remaining spent less than $2.43(28.5%), $12.17–$24.33 (14.6%), or > $24.33 (4.9%) monthly. The average exchange rates for May 2021 were used, with the local currency, the Naira and the United States Dollars (₦411.52/$1). Regarding the daily time spent on sports betting, 61% of the participants spent an hour or less, 26.8% spent at least 2 h, followed by 8.1% who spent a minimum of 3 h and 4.1% who spent 4 h and above sports betting daily. The frequency of sports betting among those who gambled in the past year varied greatly, with the majority (21.9%) engaging in this activity 2–3 days a week. Others engaged in sports betting daily (15.4%), 4–5 days a week (5.7%), once a week (14.6%), 2–3 days a month (18.7%), once a month (5.7%), 1–5 times a year (9.7%) or 6–11 times a year (8.1%). Football (95.9%) was the most popular sport for sports betting, followed by basketball (22.8%) and tennis (11.4%). Most respondents (67.6%) preferred sports betting with online platforms over physical sports betting, citing convenience and accessibility as key factors in their decision.

Motivations for sports betting

Regarding the 15 reasons for betting on sports, most participants reported sports betting “for the chance of winning big money” (93.5%), “to make money” (82.1%), and “because of the sense of achievement when I win” (67.5%) while the least reported reason was “to compete with others” (13.9%) (Table 2). The results showed that 87.8% of respondents cited monetary gain as their primary reason for sports betting; other reasons were recreational (47.1%), thrill-seeking (45.1%), social (23.2%), coping (21.1%), and fear of missing out (10.5%). Over half (56.1%) of those who gambled the previous year reported that sports betting advertisements influenced their decision to gamble, with 96.7% reporting exposure to such advertisements.

Table 2.

Reasons for betting on sports among past-year gamblers (n = 123)

Statement	Frequency (n)	Percentage
For the chance of winning big money	115	93.5
To make money	101	82.1
Because it is fun	78	63.4
As a hobby or pastime	56	45.5
To relax	47	38.2
To escape boredom or fill the time	52	42.3
To compete with others	17	13.9
Because it is exciting	59	48.0
For the mental challenge	54	43.9
Because of the sense of achievement when I win	83	67.5
To be sociable	36	29.3
Because it is something I do with family and friends	21	17.1
To impress others	23	18.7
Because it helps when I feel tense	29	23.6
Because I am worried about not winning if I do not play	46	37.4

n = total number of past year gamblers

Prevalence of problem gambling

The overall prevalence of problem gambling was 14.3%, while among those who gambled in the past year, the rate was 47.2%, with 40.6% classified as moderate-risk, 11.4% as low-risk, and 0.08% as non-problem gambling. We found that in most instances, 50.4% of students who engaged in gambling more often diverted their study time to follow games they placed bets on; similarly, 42.3% spent their study time placing bets. Furthermore, 17.9% of respondents used money meant for school charges to bet, and 13.0% reported missing classes or being unable to study due to sports betting losses. A strong evidence of an association was observed between problem gambling and spending study time on betting or to follow games and a weak association between problem gambling and spending money for school charges, on betting (Table 3). Individuals with problem gambling habits reported a higher effect on their academic endeavours. Moreover, those with problem gambling who spent time sports betting or following games during their study time were more than double the number with non-problem gambling (Table 3).

Table 3.

Association between problem gambling and self-reported impact on academics (n = 123)

Self-reported impact on academics	Problem gambling*		Chi-square statistic	p value
	No	Yes
Spent study time on betting
No	49 (73.1)	22 (39.3)	X2 = 14.32	< 0.001
Yes	13 (26.9)	34 (60.7)
Spent study time to follow game
No	47 (70.1)	14 (25.0)	X2 = 24.874	< 0.001
Yes	20 (29.9)	42 (75.0)
Missed classes for betting
No	61 (91.0)	46 (82.1)	X2 = 2.136	0.144
Yes	6 (9.0)	10 (17.9)
Spent money for school charges on betting
No	59 (88.1)	42 (75.0)	X2 = 3.542	0.060
Yes	8 (11.9)	14 (25.0)

^*Based on PGSI yes (problem gamblers) > 8/27, no including (low-risk and moderate-risk gamblers) < 8/27

Those who gambled regularly (63.3%) reported more detrimental educational consequences due to their gambling habits, with 45.5% not experiencing such effects. In those non-regular gambling, 36.7% reported negative impacts on their academic endeavours, while 54.5% did not face any adverse effects. There was strong evidence of an association between the frequency of gambling and its impact on academic endeavours (χ² = 411.86; p < 0.05).

Factors influencing sports betting

Male gender (χ² = 66.514; p ≤ 0.001) and mean monthly income (t = 2.26; p = 0.024) were associated with sports betting participation (Table 4). Similarly, there was moderate evidence of higher differences in problem gambling prevalence among males (82.1%, χ² = 10.54; p = 0.030) and strong evidence that having higher monthly income (17.9%, χ² = 51.953; p = 0.001) was associated with problem gambling.

Table 4.

Test for association between socio-demographic characteristics and participation in sports betting among respondents (n = 406)

Variable	Sports betting participation		Statistical test	p-value*
	Yes n (%)	No n (%)
Age mean (SD)	21.81 (2.44)	22.07 (4.28)	t = 0.80	0.421
Sex
Males	124 (83.2)	107 (41.6)	x2 = 66.514	< 0.001
Females	25 (16.8)	150 (58.4)
Level of study
100	13 (8.7)	42 (16.3)	X2 = 6.728	0.151
200	51 (34.2)	69 (26.8)
300	25 (16.8)	52 (20.2)
400	48 (32.2)	76 (29.6)
500	12 (8.1)	18 (7.0)
Monthly income $
Mean (SD)	60.31 (53.00)	48.90 (40.94)	t = 2.26	0.024

^*p-values derived from likelihood ratio test

A logistic regression analysis was performed to assess the predictive power of age, sex, monthly income, and self-reported influence of adverts on the likelihood of respondents experiencing problem gambling (Table 5). The model accounted for 12.5% (Cox & Snell R2) to 16.6% (Nagelkerke R2) of the variance. Notably, among the examined variables, only the impact of advertisements emerged as a predictor of problem gambling. Specifically, participants who acknowledged the influence of advertisements were found to be 4.3 (95% CI 1.927–9.858, p < 0.001) times more likely to experience gambling-related harms, with strong evidence that this association was not due to chance.

Table 5.

Binary logistic regression analysis to assess predictors of problem gambling (n = 123)

Predictors	Coefficient	Standard error	Wald (z-statistic)	p-value*	Odds ratio	95% C.I. for Exp(B)
						Lower	Upper
Age	−0.074	0.081	0.844	0.358	0.928	0.792	1.088
Male gender	0.005	0.516	0.000	0.992	1.005	0.366	2.761
Monthly income < $36.50			2.777	0.249	(Reference Group)
Monthly income > $109.49	−0.581	0.603	0.929	0.335	0.559	0.172	1.823
Monthly income $36.50–109.49	−0.745	0.449	2.752	0.097	0.475	0.197	1.145
Advertisement influence	1.472	0.416	12.497	< 0.001	4.359	1.927	9.858

^*p-values derived from likelihood ratio test

Discussion

This study aimed to assess the prevalence, patterns and effects of sports betting, and its associated factors and predictors among University of Calabar undergraduate students. Findings showed that 36.7% of students had ever engaged in sports betting, with the majority participating in the past year (30.3%). Male students were likelier to participate in sports betting, with football being the preferred sport, and online platforms being the convenient choices. Regular gambling occurred 2–3 days per week. Problem gambling, as measured by the PGSI, was prevalent (42.7%) among those who gambled in the past year and had a negative impact on academic activities. Male students aged 18–25 and those from high socioeconomic classes displayed higher problem gambling rates. Motivations for gambling included the desire to win money, make money, and have fun, while advertisements were found to influence gambling behaviour. Influence from advertisement emerged as a predictor of problem gambling.

Prevalence of sports betting among undergraduate students

Our findings are similar to those of previous studies conducted by Labrador and Vallejo-Achon, who reported a lifetime prevalence of sports betting of 42.6% in young students aged 18–25 [13]. In contrast, lower prevalence rates were reported in Thailand (26.8%) and Uganda (20%) [10, 11]. Notably, the prevalence rates of sports betting in the United States were higher than in the current study [12]. This prevalence within our context can be attributed to several factors: the growing need for additional income, the convenience of online betting platforms, and the widespread appeal of online prediction sites. Moreover, the influence of aggressive and unregulated advertising, coupled with the prevalence of betting shops readily available on nearly every street corner, has contributed to this trend. As more individuals seek to acquire agent licenses with betting operators, an emerging culture of bettors, often with substantial followings on social media, has developed, sharing tips and insights that further encourage participYet, the academic consequences

ation in sports betting.

Patterns of sports betting among undergraduate students

Unlike a previous study conducted in Ibadan, Nigeria, where most respondents favoured land-based sports betting, this study revealed a preference for online sports betting platforms [25]. Similar findings were reported in Spain, where online sports betting was preferred by 83.4% of respondents [26]. Others reported much lower proportions of youths in Madrid, Spain, utilising online sports betting channels [13]. The reasons for these platform preferences, such as convenience, ease of depositing funds, and withdrawal winnings, align with previous research [25, 26]. Additionally, the sports betting frequency was explored in more detail, narrowed down to the daily hours spent to bet with more than half spending only one hour at most on days they bet. Most respondents placed bets as 2–3 days a week followed by 2–3 days a month. This data is consistent with findings from Labrador and Vallejo-Achon [13], with average reported values of three bets a month [13]. However, this study assessed sports betting frequency over a month as opposed to ours, which assessed frequency over a year. It varies, however, from a study in Lagos, Nigeria, which reported a higher proportion (58%) of daily sports betting among general youth populations compared to our finding of 15.4% [27]. These differences may be attributed to the diversity in study populations, as this study focused solely on undergraduates.

The study's findings reveal a trend among Nigerian undergraduates, who spend an average of 1.5 h on sports betting, with an average sports betting amount between $2.43 and $12.17. Similar spending patterns have been reported in Nigeria, where the majority spent less than $12.17 [28]. This trend is concerning, especially when considering their monthly income, the opportunity cost forgone, and the time that could be allocated to academic work and meaningful personal activities. The surveyed students showed a clear preference for football as the sport of choice for sports betting, a trend that is not surprising given the sport's immense popularity in Nigeria [25]. This is also consistent with previous studies in Spain [29], China [30], and Nigeria [15, 25].

Factors associated with sports betting among undergraduate students

The predominant age group noted for sports betting and problem gambling was 18–25 years, with no evidence of an association between age and both variables. Our findings corroborate the study by Wardle et al., reporting that the highest prevalence of low-risk (12.6%), moderate-risk (3.5%), and problem gambling (1.4%) were in the 16–24 year age range [3]. Our result aligns with research conducted in Spain, where 42.6% of participants were in the same age group, and varies with findings from Uganda, where youths in this category were twice as likely to bet on sports than those above 30 years [10, 11]. Underage sports betting participation was also reported in one participant in this study, highlighting the possibility of repeated occurrence in the population, thus emphasising the need to enforce age restrictions strictly. Gender was associated with sports betting, with males reporting higher prevalence rates. These findings are consistent with previous research, which can be attributed to the greater interest of males in sporting activities and cultural norms surrounding gambling [13, 31]. The 2010 BGPS indicates that 75% of respondents were male, and in Spain, males constituted 81% of sports bettors; similar findings are also reported in Nigeria [3, 23].

This research revealed a strong correlation between monthly income and sports betting participation, with more sports betting among highe-income earners. This finding contrasts other studies that have reported higher prevalence among high-income earners and high rates among low-income earners [10, 31]. Students with higher incomes might understandably have more funds available for gambling after meeting their daily needs. As revealed in this study, the most frequent motivation for sports bettors was monetary, and the primary reason behind sports betting was to win money. This is consistent with a previous study conducted in Australia, where 52% engaged in sports betting “for the chance to win big money,” and two studies from Nigeria, which found that “the need to supplement or gain additional income” was the main motivating factor among youths [31–33]. These findings highlight the socioeconomic factors that drive individuals, especially students, to engage in sports betting to generate income.

Effects of sports betting on undergraduate students

This study revealed findings on the prevalence of problem gambling and explored its effects on undergraduates' academic lives and endeavours. Our findings showed a high prevalence of problem gambling. First, about one in six university students in our sample population experience disordered or problem gambling. Second, those with problem gambling comprised almost half of those who have participated in sports betting in the past year. Lastly, most of the other half without problem gambling have a moderate risk for problem gambling. The prevalence of problem gambling in the study population is three times higher than a previous study that reported a 5.3% prevalence among Macau college students [30]. Differences in the sample population can explain the higher prevalence of problem gambling in our research; while our study had slightly more males (56.9%), the survey in Macau had 62.9% of respondents as females. This could explain the lower estimates, as males were significantly more likely to develop problem gambling. Additionally, the absence of strict enforcements on deposit limits, increased popularity of normative betting participation, reduced awareness of pathological gambling, and economic hardship can explain the differences.

This research also delves into sports betting’s academic effects, about two-thirds of those who gambled in the previous year experiencing negative impacts, with most students spending time sports betting or following games, spending school charges or missing classes due to gambling activity. This is in keeping with a study by Koross, who found that gambling negatively impacted academic performance in Kenyan university students, with almost all respondents reporting absences from school or using study time for sports betting [5]. This study also revealed that those with problem gambling reported higher academic neglect with statistically strong evidence of an association, suggesting the need to implore targeted strategies to address academic issues in persons with problem gambling identified after screening.

Factors influencing problem gambling

According to the 2010 BGPS results, the highest prevalence of problem gambling in 16–24 year-olds remained consistent with this study [23]. While the 2010 BPGS highlighted a strong correlation between age group, male gender, socioeconomic status and problem gambling, this study only found a strong correlation between problem gambling, male gender, and socioeconomic status [23]. This could be because undergraduates generally fall within a narrow and similar age bracket.

Subjects who reported seeing promotional sports betting advertisements and admitted to these adverts usually motivating them to place bets were found to have a higher likelihood of experiencing gambling disorders, as previous research has identified advertisements as a strong predictive factor, particularly among young male sports bettors [34–36]. This underscores the significant impact of advertising and marketing campaigns on consumer behaviour, particularly among students. Gambling advertisements can create a false perception that gambling is risk-free and lead to impulsive sports betting, which may result in a gambling disorder. Acknowledging their influence is crucial because it suggests susceptibility to their effects. To discourage the of harmful gambling products and prevent problem gambling, it is critical to adopt responsible marketing practices that prioritise the well-being of individuals. The National Lottery Regulatory Commission (NLRC) oversees sports betting companies in Nigeria but lacks specific regulations to limit betting advertisements [37]. Instead, the NLRC encourages these companies to establish codes of practice promoting responsible gambling, which include age verification, self-exclusion options, and deposit limits [37]. Furthermore, the idea of responsible gambling puts responsibility on the victims and those affected by the industry, a highly criticised strategy for intervention. Companies must also create advertising guidelines to protect vulnerable individuals from exposure to gambling-related content [37].

Unfortunately, the absence of strict regulations has exposed young people to aggressive marketing during sports events through various media channels. This issue mirrors challenges in high-income countries, where sports teams form partnerships with betting companies, negatively affecting sports fans and millions of viewers across the world [38]. This relationship has been termed the "gamblification" of sports, where marketing creates an emotional bond between sports and betting, making gambling an increasingly prominent aspect of sports fandom [38–40].

Previous studies have classified sex as a risk factor and socioeconomic status as a protective factor for problem gambling [41]. However, the findings among those who gambled the previous year in our sample have shown that neither sex nor income can be considered a predictive factor. This contrasts with the earlier findings and suggests that additional factors may be relevant for understanding the development of problem gambling.

Based on our study, we recommend tailored initiatives aimed at at-risk stakeholders and individuals. First, education campaigns emphasising the associated risks of sports betting should be implemented, mainly targeting young adults. Regulatory measures, such as age verification processes, are essential to minimise underage exposure to gambling advertisements. We strongly advocate for more impactful advertising regulations, including banning betting promotions during live-streamed fixtures and restricting marketing campaigns near schools frequented by children, adolescents, and undergraduates. Additionally, strategies to limit betting advertisements on social media platforms for users under 30 should be explored, given the evidence of their heightened likelihood of betting participation. Moreover, the current discourse around “responsible gambling” often shifts the burden of responsibility onto individuals, fostering an environment of victim-blaming and stigmatization. To counter this, changes in communication strategies are necessary, coupled with a call for betting companies to assume greater responsibility in safeguarding consumer well-being. Structural interventions are equally critical; partnerships with the most affected communities and universities and engagement with students of various socio-economic backgrounds can provide empowerment opportunities and sustainable income alternatives. In this regard, initiatives to support student welfare and tuition assistance for those without family sponsorships are vital. Campus gambling prevention programs hold the potential to provide professional support for students grappling with academic pressures or related mental health issues. Financial literacy programs are also essential for fostering healthy financial habits and alternative income-generating strategies, enabling students to make informed decisions and reduce reliance on sports betting. Schools should also take proactive steps to raise awareness about the harms of sports betting, offer support groups, and limit the number of nearby betting shops. Individuals considered at risk or experiencing gambling harms should be encouraged to seek help and recovery from mental health organizations. Mental health practitioners can significantly contribute to this effort by conducting further research on sports betting, providing training for addicted sports betters, and offering specialized support services.

Limitations and strengths

This study has several limitations that should be acknowledged. The small sample size and single-center design may restrict the generalisability of the findings to other populations or contexts, limiting the ability to capture regional variations in gambling behavior and its correlates. Additionally, the study did not explore essential variables such as the relationship between family problem gambling, the age of gambling onset, sensation seeking, and the development of problem gambling, as was done in other studies. These factors are crucial for understanding gambling behaviours' intergenerational and developmental trajectories. Furthermore, while the study provides valuable insights, its cross-sectional design precludes the ability to infer causality between variables. Despite these limitations, the study possesses significant strengths. It is the first in Nigeria to offer a comprehensive analysis that measures the prevalence and correlates of sports betting. Beyond prevalence, this study uniquely examines predictors, effects of betting participation, and their impact on academic performance, providing a holistic understanding of the phenomenon. Adopting and modifying validated tools, such as the Motivation for Betting scale and the Problem Gambling Severity Index, enhance the reliability of the findings. These tools allow for robust assessments of motivational factors and the severity of gambling-related issues, ensuring alignment with global research standards. Additionally, assessing the impact of advertisements and betting participation on academic performance adds a nuanced dimension to understanding the socio-economic implications of gambling. The rigorous multi-stage random sampling methodology further strengthens the study by reducing selection bias and improving the sample's representativeness. This methodological rigour enhances the utility of the findings and their potential to be extrapolated to broader populations. These strengths underscore the study's contribution to the growing knowledge on gambling behaviours and their effects in the Nigerian context.

Conclusion

Sports betting and problem gambling are increasingly prevalent among young undergraduates, highlighting the urgent need for targeted interventions, regulations, and support services to address potential consequences. Our study reports a high prevalence of sports betting among the study respondents, with a notable prevalence of online betting. A significant finding was the hours spent on betting through the weeks and months, which was reported to take a negative toll on students’ academic performance and their monthly income. The implications of these findings for this population are enormous, as they struggle with limited time to meet academic needs. To curb the adverse impacts of sports betting among students, stringent laws and regulatory frameworks are necessary to control the hours spent and the unnecessary economic burden that addictive betting places on students. A multisectoral and interdisciplinary approach involving government agencies, lawmakers, financial institutions, marketing and advertising agencies, and mental health physicians is pertinent to palliating the negative impacts highlighted. Future research should focus on the long-term effects of preventive measures, social and psychological factors, and advertisement impacts on sports betters. By adopting a comprehensive approach that integrates education, regulation, community engagement, and mental health support, a safer environment that fosters integrated learning with good financial habits among students who indulge in sports betting is assured.

Supplementary Information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Abbreviations

BPGS

British Problem Gambling Survey

PGSI

Problem Gambling Severity Index

DSM

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

Author contributions

FMD conceptualized and designed this study. FMD, BMU, VEE, NGU, VKK, AMC were involved in data collation and project administration. FMD, EAE, and SA conducted data analysis. BMU, VEE, NGU, and VKK were involved in data collation and project administration. FMD and VEE conducted the literature review. FMD wrote the original draft. FMD, EAE, SA edited and reviewed the manuscript. SA supervised the conduct of this study. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. BU is the corresponding author FMD and BU are responsible for the work’s credibility.

Funding

No funding was sourced for this study.

Data availability

All datasets generated from this study are available on request.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Ethical approval was secured from the University of Calabar Teaching Hospital, Health Research and Ethics Board. All participants gave written, informed, and voluntary consent.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.