Skip to main content
PMC home page
Environmental Health Perspectives logoLink to Environmental Health Perspectives
. 2001 May;109(Suppl 2):223–233. doi: 10.1289/ehp.109-1240669

Climate variability and change in the United States: potential impacts on vector- and rodent-borne diseases.

D J Gubler 1, P Reiter 1, K L Ebi 1, W Yap 1, R Nasci 1, J A Patz 1
PMCID: PMC1240669  PMID: 11359689

Abstract

Diseases such as plague, typhus, malaria, yellow fever, and dengue fever, transmitted between humans by blood-feeding arthropods, were once common in the United States. Many of these diseases are no longer present, mainly because of changes in land use, agricultural methods, residential patterns, human behavior, and vector control. However, diseases that may be transmitted to humans from wild birds or mammals (zoonoses) continue to circulate in nature in many parts of the country. Most vector-borne diseases exhibit a distinct seasonal pattern, which clearly suggests that they are weather sensitive. Rainfall, temperature, and other weather variables affect in many ways both the vectors and the pathogens they transmit. For example, high temperatures can increase or reduce survival rate, depending on the vector, its behavior, ecology, and many other factors. Thus, the probability of transmission may or may not be increased by higher temperatures. The tremendous growth in international travel increases the risk of importation of vector-borne diseases, some of which can be transmitted locally under suitable circumstances at the right time of the year. But demographic and sociologic factors also play a critical role in determining disease incidence, and it is unlikely that these diseases will cause major epidemics in the United States if the public health infrastructure is maintained and improved.

Full Text

The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (483.8 KB).

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Aitken T. H., Tesh R. B., Beaty B. J., Rosen L. Transovarial transmission of yellow fever virus by mosquitoes (Aedes aegypti). Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1979 Jan;28(1):119–121. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1979.28.119. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Amerasinghe F. P., Breisch N. L., Neidhardt K., Pagac B., Scott T. W. Increasing density and Borrelia burgdorferi infection of deer-infesting Ixodes dammini (Acari: Ixodidae) in Maryland. J Med Entomol. 1993 Sep;30(5):858–864. doi: 10.1093/jmedent/30.5.858. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Baldari M., Tamburro A., Sabatinelli G., Romi R., Severini C., Cuccagna G., Fiorilli G., Allegri M. P., Buriani C., Toti M. Malaria in Maremma, Italy. Lancet. 1998 Apr 25;351(9111):1246–1247. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(97)10312-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Bouma M. J., Poveda G., Rojas W., Chavasse D., Quiñones M., Cox J., Patz J. Predicting high-risk years for malaria in Colombia using parameters of El Niño Southern Oscillation. Trop Med Int Health. 1997 Dec;2(12):1122–1127. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-3156.1997.d01-210.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Bouma M. J., van der Kaay H. J. Epidemic malaria in India and the El Niño southern oscillation. Lancet. 1994 Dec 10;344(8937):1638–1639. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(94)90432-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Bunnell J. E., Dumler J. S., Childs J. E., Glass G. E. Retrospective serosurvey for human granulocytic ehrlichiosis agent in urban white-footed mice from Maryland. J Wildl Dis. 1998 Jan;34(1):179–181. doi: 10.7589/0090-3558-34.1.179. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Butler T. The black death past and present. 1. Plague in the 1980s. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1989 Jul-Aug;83(4):458–460. doi: 10.1016/0035-9203(89)90246-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Calisher C. H. Medically important arboviruses of the United States and Canada. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1994 Jan;7(1):89–116. doi: 10.1128/cmr.7.1.89. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Chan N. Y., Ebi K. L., Smith F., Wilson T. F., Smith A. E. An integrated assessment framework for climate change and infectious diseases. Environ Health Perspect. 1999 May;107(5):329–337. doi: 10.1289/ehp.99107329. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Childs J. E., Schwartz B. S., Ksiazek T. G., Graham R. R., LeDuc J. W., Glass G. E. Risk factors associated with antibodies to leptospires in inner-city residents of Baltimore: a protective role for cats. Am J Public Health. 1992 Apr;82(4):597–599. doi: 10.2105/ajph.82.4.597. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Dawson J. E., Childs J. E., Biggie K. L., Moore C., Stallknecht D., Shaddock J., Bouseman J., Hofmeister E., Olson J. G. White-tailed deer as a potential reservoir of Ehrlichia spp. J Wildl Dis. 1994 Apr;30(2):162–168. doi: 10.7589/0090-3558-30.2.162. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Demers R. Y., Thiermann A., Demers P., Frank R. Exposure to Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae in inner-city and suburban children: a serologic comparison. J Fam Pract. 1983 Dec;17(6):1007–1011. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Dennis D. T., Nekomoto T. S., Victor J. C., Paul W. S., Piesman J. Reported distribution of Ixodes scapularis and Ixodes pacificus (Acari: Ixodidae) in the United States. J Med Entomol. 1998 Sep;35(5):629–638. doi: 10.1093/jmedent/35.5.629. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Engelthaler D. M., Mosley D. G., Cheek J. E., Levy C. E., Komatsu K. K., Ettestad P., Davis T., Tanda D. T., Miller L., Frampton J. W. Climatic and environmental patterns associated with hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, Four Corners region, United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999 Jan-Feb;5(1):87–94. doi: 10.3201/eid0501.990110. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Focks D. A., Daniels E., Haile D. G., Keesling J. E. A simulation model of the epidemiology of urban dengue fever: literature analysis, model development, preliminary validation, and samples of simulation results. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1995 Nov;53(5):489–506. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1995.53.489. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Fontenille D., Lochouarn L., Diagne N., Sokhna C., Lemasson J. J., Diatta M., Konate L., Faye F., Rogier C., Trape J. F. High annual and seasonal variations in malaria transmission by anophelines and vector species composition in Dielmo, a holoendemic area in Senegal. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1997 Mar;56(3):247–253. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1997.56.247. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Francy D. B., Moore C. G., Eliason D. A. Past, present and future of Aedes albopictus in the United States. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 1990 Mar;6(1):127–132. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Gill J., Stark L. M., Clark G. G. Dengue surveillance in Florida, 1997-98. Emerg Infect Dis. 2000 Jan-Feb;6(1):30–35. doi: 10.3201/eid0601.000105. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Glass G. E., Amerasinghe F. P., Morgan J. M., 3rd, Scott T. W. Predicting Ixodes scapularis abundance on white-tailed deer using geographic information systems. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1994 Nov;51(5):538–544. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1994.51.538. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Glass G. E., Cheek J. E., Patz J. A., Shields T. M., Doyle T. J., Thoroughman D. A., Hunt D. K., Enscore R. E., Gage K. L., Irland C. Using remotely sensed data to identify areas at risk for hantavirus pulmonary syndrome. Emerg Infect Dis. 2000 May-Jun;6(3):238–247. doi: 10.3201/eid0603.000303. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Goldman D. P., Artenstein A. W., Bolan C. D. Human ehrlichiosis: a newly recognized tick-borne disease. Am Fam Physician. 1992 Jul;46(1):199–208. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Grimstad P. R., Haramis L. D. Aedes triseriatus (Diptera: Culicidae) and La Crosse virus. III. Enhanced oral transmission by nutrition-deprived mosquitoes. J Med Entomol. 1984 May 30;21(3):249–256. doi: 10.1093/jmedent/21.3.249. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Gubler D. J. Aedes aegypti and Aedes aegypti-borne disease control in the 1990s: top down or bottom up. Charles Franklin Craig Lecture. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1989 Jun;40(6):571–578. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1989.40.571. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Gubler D. J. Arboviruses as imported disease agents: the need for increased awareness. Arch Virol Suppl. 1996;11:21–32. doi: 10.1007/978-3-7091-7482-1_3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Gubler D. J. Dengue and dengue hemorrhagic fever in the Americas. P R Health Sci J. 1987 Aug;6(2):107–111. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Gubler D. J. Dengue and dengue hemorrhagic fever. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1998 Jul;11(3):480–496. doi: 10.1128/cmr.11.3.480. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Gubler D. J., Meltzer M. Impact of dengue/dengue hemorrhagic fever on the developing world. Adv Virus Res. 1999;53:35–70. doi: 10.1016/s0065-3527(08)60342-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Gubler D. J. Resurgent vector-borne diseases as a global health problem. Emerg Infect Dis. 1998 Jul-Sep;4(3):442–450. doi: 10.3201/eid0403.980326. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Gubler D. J., Rosen L. Variation among geographic strains of Aedes albopictus in susceptibility to infection with dengue viruses. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1976 Mar;25(2):318–325. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1976.25.318. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Gubler D. J., Trent D. W. Emergence of epidemic dengue/dengue hemorrhagic fever as a public health problem in the Americas. Infect Agents Dis. 1993 Dec;2(6):383–393. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Han L. L., Popovici F., Alexander J. P., Jr, Laurentia V., Tengelsen L. A., Cernescu C., Gary H. E., Jr, Ion-Nedelcu N., Campbell G. L., Tsai T. F. Risk factors for West Nile virus infection and meningoencephalitis, Romania, 1996. J Infect Dis. 1999 Jan;179(1):230–233. doi: 10.1086/314566. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Hardy J. L., Meyer R. P., Presser S. B., Milby M. M. Temporal variations in the susceptibility of a semi-isolated population of Culex tarsalis to peroral infection with western equine encephalomyelitis and St. Louis encephalitis viruses. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1990 May;42(5):500–511. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1990.42.500. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Hawley W. A., Reiter P., Copeland R. S., Pumpuni C. B., Craig G. B., Jr Aedes albopictus in North America: probable introduction in used tires from northern Asia. Science. 1987 May 29;236(4805):1114–1116. doi: 10.1126/science.3576225. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Hurlbut H. S. The effect of environmental temperature upon the transmission of St. Louis encephalitis virus by Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus. J Med Entomol. 1973 Jan 31;10(1):1–12. doi: 10.1093/jmedent/10.1.1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Jetten T. H., Focks D. A. Potential changes in the distribution of dengue transmission under climate warming. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1997 Sep;57(3):285–297. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1997.57.285. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Kabrane-Lazizi Y., Fine J. B., Elm J., Glass G. E., Higa H., Diwan A., Gibbs C. J., Jr, Meng X. J., Emerson S. U., Purcell R. H. Evidence for widespread infection of wild rats with hepatitis E virus in the United States. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1999 Aug;61(2):331–335. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1999.61.331. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Kitron U., Swanson J., Crandell M., Sullivan P. J., Anderson J., Garro R., Haramis L. D., Grimstad P. R. Introduction of Aedes albopictus into a La Crosse virus--enzootic site in Illinois. Emerg Infect Dis. 1998 Oct-Dec;4(4):627–630. doi: 10.3201/eid0404.980413. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Ko A. I., Galvão Reis M., Ribeiro Dourado C. M., Johnson W. D., Jr, Riley L. W. Urban epidemic of severe leptospirosis in Brazil. Salvador Leptospirosis Study Group. Lancet. 1999 Sep 4;354(9181):820–825. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(99)80012-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Kramer L. D., Hardy J. L., Presser S. B. Effect of temperature of extrinsic incubation on the vector competence of Culex tarsalis for western equine encephalomyelitis virus. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1983 Sep;32(5):1130–1139. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1983.32.1130. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Lanciotti R. S., Roehrig J. T., Deubel V., Smith J., Parker M., Steele K., Crise B., Volpe K. E., Crabtree M. B., Scherret J. H. Origin of the West Nile virus responsible for an outbreak of encephalitis in the northeastern United States. Science. 1999 Dec 17;286(5448):2333–2337. doi: 10.1126/science.286.5448.2333. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Lang J. D. Factors affecting the seasonal abundance of ground squirrel and wood rat fleas (Siphonaptera) in San Diego County, California. J Med Entomol. 1996 Sep;33(5):790–804. doi: 10.1093/jmedent/33.5.790. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Lansdowne C., Hacker C. S. The effect of fluctuating temperature and humidity on the adult life table characteristics of five strains of Aedes aegypti. J Med Entomol. 1975 Jan 10;11(6):723–733. doi: 10.1093/jmedent/11.6.723. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Lindsay S. W., Birley M. H. Climate change and malaria transmission. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 1996 Dec;90(6):573–588. doi: 10.1080/00034983.1996.11813087. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Lindsay S. W., Martens W. J. Malaria in the African highlands: past, present and future. Bull World Health Organ. 1998;76(1):33–45. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Martens W. J., Niessen L. W., Rotmans J., Jetten T. H., McMichael A. J. Potential impact of global climate change on malaria risk. Environ Health Perspect. 1995 May;103(5):458–464. doi: 10.1289/ehp.95103458. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Meltzer M. I., Rigau-Pérez J. G., Clark G. G., Reiter P., Gubler D. J. Using disability-adjusted life years to assess the economic impact of dengue in Puerto Rico: 1984-1994. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1998 Aug;59(2):265–271. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1998.59.265. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Milián F., Sánchez L. M., Toledo P., Ramírez C., Santillán M. A. Descriptive study of human and bovine tuberculosis in Querétaro, México. Rev Latinoam Microbiol. 2000 Jan-Mar;42(1):13–19. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Mills J. N., Ksiazek T. G., Peters C. J., Childs J. E. Long-term studies of hantavirus reservoir populations in the southwestern United States: a synthesis. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999 Jan-Feb;5(1):135–142. doi: 10.3201/eid0501.990116. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Mills J. N., Yates T. L., Ksiazek T. G., Peters C. J., Childs J. E. Long-term studies of hantavirus reservoir populations in the southwestern United States: rationale, potential, and methods. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999 Jan-Feb;5(1):95–101. doi: 10.3201/eid0501.990111. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Mitchell C. J., Haramis L. D., Karabatsos N., Smith G. C., Starwalt V. J. Isolation of La Crosse, Cache Valley, and Potosi viruses from Aedes mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) collected at used-tire sites in Illinois during 1994-1995. J Med Entomol. 1998 Jul;35(4):573–577. doi: 10.1093/jmedent/35.4.573. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Monath T. P., Giesberg J. A., Fierros E. G. Does restricted distribution limit access and coverage of yellow fever vaccine in the United States? Emerg Infect Dis. 1998 Oct-Dec;4(4):698–702. doi: 10.3201/eid0404.980427. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Monath T. P., Tsai T. F. St. Louis encephalitis: lessons from the last decade. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1987 Nov;37(3 Suppl):40S–59S. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1987.37.40s. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Moore C. G., Francy D. B., Eliason D. A., Monath T. P. Aedes albopictus in the United States: rapid spread of a potential disease vector. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 1988 Sep;4(3):356–361. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Moore C. G., Mitchell C. J. Aedes albopictus in the United States: ten-year presence and public health implications. Emerg Infect Dis. 1997 Jul-Sep;3(3):329–334. doi: 10.3201/eid0303.970309. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Morens D. M., Rigau-Pérez J. G., López-Correa R. H., Moore C. G., Ruiz-Tibén E. E., Sather G. E., Chiriboga J., Eliason D. A., Casta-Velez A., Woodall J. P. Dengue in Puerto Rico, 1977: public health response to characterize and control an epidemic of multiple serotypes. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1986 Jan;35(1):197–211. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1986.35.197. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Mouchet J., Manguin S., Sircoulon J., Laventure S., Faye O., Onapa A. W., Carnevale P., Julvez J., Fontenille D. Evolution of malaria in Africa for the past 40 years: impact of climatic and human factors. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 1998 Jun;14(2):121–130. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Mount G. A., Haile D. G., Barnard D. R., Daniels E. New version of LSTSIM for computer simulation of Amblyomma americanum (Acari: Ixodidae) population dynamics. J Med Entomol. 1993 Sep;30(5):843–857. doi: 10.1093/jmedent/30.5.843. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Murphy F. A. Emerging zoonoses. Emerg Infect Dis. 1998 Jul-Sep;4(3):429–435. doi: 10.3201/eid0403.980324. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. Nasci R. S., Moore C. G. Vector-borne disease surveillance and natural disasters. Emerg Infect Dis. 1998 Apr-Jun;4(2):333–334. doi: 10.3201/eid0402.980227. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Nasci R. S. The size of emerging and host-seeking Aedes aegypti and the relation of size to blood-feeding success in the field. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 1986 Mar;2(1):61–62. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Nicholson W. L., Muir S., Sumner J. W., Childs J. E. Serologic evidence of infection with Ehrlichia spp. in wild rodents (Muridae: Sigmodontinae) in the United States. J Clin Microbiol. 1998 Mar;36(3):695–700. doi: 10.1128/jcm.36.3.695-700.1998. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. O'Meara G. F., Evans L. F., Jr, Gettman A. D., Cuda J. P. Spread of Aedes albopictus and decline of Ae. aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) in Florida. J Med Entomol. 1995 Jul;32(4):554–562. doi: 10.1093/jmedent/32.4.554. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Omer S. M., Cloudsley-Thompson J. L. Survival of female Anopheles gambiae Giles through a 9-month dry season in Sudan. Bull World Health Organ. 1970;42(2):319–330. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Parmenter R. R., Yadav E. P., Parmenter C. A., Ettestad P., Gage K. L. Incidence of plague associated with increased winter-spring precipitation in New Mexico. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1999 Nov;61(5):814–821. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1999.61.814. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Patz J. A., Martens W. J., Focks D. A., Jetten T. H. Dengue fever epidemic potential as projected by general circulation models of global climate change. Environ Health Perspect. 1998 Mar;106(3):147–153. doi: 10.1289/ehp.98106147. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. Porter C. H., Collins F. H. Susceptibility of Anopheles hermsi to Plasmodium vivax. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1990 May;42(5):414–416. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1990.42.414. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. Rai K. S. Aedes albopictus in the Americas. Annu Rev Entomol. 1991;36:459–484. doi: 10.1146/annurev.en.36.010191.002331. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Reeves W. C., Hardy J. L., Reisen W. K., Milby M. M. Potential effect of global warming on mosquito-borne arboviruses. J Med Entomol. 1994 May;31(3):323–332. doi: 10.1093/jmedent/31.3.323. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Reisen W. K. Effect of temperature on Culex tarsalis (Diptera: Culicidae) from the Coachella and San Joaquin Valleys of California. J Med Entomol. 1995 Sep;32(5):636–645. doi: 10.1093/jmedent/32.5.636. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Reisen W. K., Lothrop H. D., Hardy J. L. Bionomics of Culex tarsalis (Diptera: Culicidae) in relation to arbovirus transmission in southeastern California. J Med Entomol. 1995 May;32(3):316–327. doi: 10.1093/jmedent/32.3.316. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  71. Reisen W. K., Meyer R. P., Presser S. B., Hardy J. L. Effect of temperature on the transmission of western equine encephalomyelitis and St. Louis encephalitis viruses by Culex tarsalis (Diptera: Culicidae). J Med Entomol. 1993 Jan;30(1):151–160. doi: 10.1093/jmedent/30.1.151. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  72. Reiter P. Climate change and mosquito-borne disease. Environ Health Perspect. 2001 Mar;109 (Suppl 1):141–161. doi: 10.1289/ehp.01109s1141. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  73. Reiter P. From Shakespeare to Defoe: malaria in England in the Little Ice Age. Emerg Infect Dis. 2000 Jan-Feb;6(1):1–11. doi: 10.3201/eid0601.000101. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. Reiter P. Global warming and mosquito-borne disease in USA. Lancet. 1996 Aug 31;348(9027):622–622. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(05)64844-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  75. Reiter P. Global-warming and vector-borne disease in temperate regions and at high altitude. Lancet. 1998 Mar 14;351(9105):839–840. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(05)78979-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  76. Reiter P., Sprenger D. The used tire trade: a mechanism for the worldwide dispersal of container breeding mosquitoes. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 1987 Sep;3(3):494–501. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  77. Rigau-Pérez JG, Gubler DJ, Vorndam AV, Clark GG. Dengue: A Literature Review and Case Study of Travelers from the United States, 1986-1994. J Travel Med. 1997 Jun 1;4(2):65–71. doi: 10.1111/j.1708-8305.1997.tb00782.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  78. Robertson S. E., Hull B. P., Tomori O., Bele O., LeDuc J. W., Esteves K. Yellow fever: a decade of reemergence. JAMA. 1996 Oct 9;276(14):1157–1162. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  79. Rogers D. J., Randolph S. E. The global spread of malaria in a future, warmer world. Science. 2000 Sep 8;289(5485):1763–1766. doi: 10.1126/science.289.5485.1763. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  80. Rosen L., Gubler D. J., Bennett P. H. Epidemic polyarthritis (Ross River) virus infection in the Cook Islands. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1981 Nov;30(6):1294–1302. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1981.30.1294. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  81. Sanders E. J., Marfin A. A., Tukei P. M., Kuria G., Ademba G., Agata N. N., Ouma J. O., Cropp C. B., Karabatsos N., Reiter P. First recorded outbreak of yellow fever in Kenya, 1992-1993. I. Epidemiologic investigations. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1998 Oct;59(4):644–649. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1998.59.644. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  82. Schmaljohn C., Hjelle B. Hantaviruses: a global disease problem. Emerg Infect Dis. 1997 Apr-Jun;3(2):95–104. doi: 10.3201/eid0302.970202. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  83. Sellers R. F., Maarouf A. R. Trajectory analysis of winds and eastern equine encephalitis in USA, 1980-5. Epidemiol Infect. 1990 Apr;104(2):329–343. doi: 10.1017/s0950268800059501. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  84. Shope R. E. A midcourse assessment of hantavirus pulmonary syndrome. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999 Jan-Feb;5(1):172–174. doi: 10.3201/eid0501.990124. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  85. Shope R. E. Arbovirus-related encephalitis. Yale J Biol Med. 1980 Jan-Feb;53(1):93–99. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  86. Spielman A., Clifford C. M., Piesman J., Corwin M. D. Human babesiosis on Nantucket Island, USA: description of the vector, Ixodes (Ixodes) dammini, n. sp. (Acarina: Ixodidae). J Med Entomol. 1979 Mar 23;15(3):218–234. doi: 10.1093/jmedent/15.3.218. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  87. Sprenger D., Wuithiranyagool T. The discovery and distribution of Aedes albopictus in Harris County, Texas. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 1986 Jun;2(2):217–219. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  88. Sutherst R. W. Arthropods as disease vectors in a changing environment. Ciba Found Symp. 1993;175:124–145. doi: 10.1002/9780470514436.ch8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  89. Taylor P., Mutambu S. L. A review of the malaria situation in Zimbabwe with special reference to the period 1972-1981. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1986;80(1):12–19. doi: 10.1016/0035-9203(86)90185-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  90. Tesh R. B., Gubler D. J., Rosen L. Variation among goegraphic strains of Aedes albopictus in susceptibility to infection with chikungunya virus. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1976 Mar;25(2):326–335. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1976.25.326. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  91. Thiermann A. B. Canine leptospirosis in Detroit. Am J Vet Res. 1980 Oct;41(10):1659–1661. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  92. Trevejo R. T., Rigau-Pérez J. G., Ashford D. A., McClure E. M., Jarquín-González C., Amador J. J., de los Reyes J. O., Gonzalez A., Zaki S. R., Shieh W. J. Epidemic leptospirosis associated with pulmonary hemorrhage-Nicaragua, 1995. J Infect Dis. 1998 Nov;178(5):1457–1463. doi: 10.1086/314424. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  93. Tsai T. F., Popovici F., Cernescu C., Campbell G. L., Nedelcu N. I. West Nile encephalitis epidemic in southeastern Romania. Lancet. 1998 Sep 5;352(9130):767–771. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(98)03538-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  94. Van der Stuyft P., Gianella A., Pirard M., Cespedes J., Lora J., Peredo C., Pelegrino J. L., Vorndam V., Boelaert M. Urbanisation of yellow fever in Santa Cruz, Bolivia. Lancet. 1999 May 8;353(9164):1558–1562. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(99)03291-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  95. Villari P., Spielman A., Komar N., McDowell M., Timperi R. J. The economic burden imposed by a residual case of eastern encephalitis. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1995 Jan;52(1):8–13. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1995.52.8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  96. Watts D. M., Burke D. S., Harrison B. A., Whitmire R. E., Nisalak A. Effect of temperature on the vector efficiency of Aedes aegypti for dengue 2 virus. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1987 Jan;36(1):143–152. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1987.36.143. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  97. Williams R. J., Bryan R. T., Mills J. N., Palma R. E., Vera I., De Velasquez F., Baez E., Schmidt W. E., Figueroa R. E., Peters C. J. An outbreak of hantavirus pulmonary syndrome in western Paraguay. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1997 Sep;57(3):274–282. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1997.57.274. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  98. Wilson M. L. Distribution and abundance of Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae) in North America: ecological processes and spatial analysis. J Med Entomol. 1998 Jul;35(4):446–457. doi: 10.1093/jmedent/35.4.446. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  99. Zucker J. R. Changing patterns of autochthonous malaria transmission in the United States: a review of recent outbreaks. Emerg Infect Dis. 1996 Jan-Mar;2(1):37–43. doi: 10.3201/eid0201.960104. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Environmental Health Perspectives are provided here courtesy of National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences

RESOURCES