Skip to main content
PMC home page
Environmental Health Perspectives logoLink to Environmental Health Perspectives
. 2002 Oct;110(10):969–983. doi: 10.1289/ehp.02110969

Dust: a metric for use in residential and building exposure assessment and source characterization.

Paul J Lioy 1, Natalie C G Freeman 1, James R Millette 1
PMCID: PMC1241022  PMID: 12361921

Abstract

In this review, we examine house dust and residential soil and their use for identifying sources and the quantifying levels of toxicants for the estimation of exposure. We answer critical questions that focus on the selection of samples or sampling strategies for collection and discuss areas of uncertainty and gaps in knowledge. We discuss the evolution of dust sampling with a special emphasis on work conducted after the publication of the 1992 review by McArthur [Appl Occup Environ Hyg 7(9):599-606 (1992)]. The approaches to sampling dust examined include surface wipe sampling, vacuum sampling, and other sampling approaches, including attic sampling. The metrics of presentation of results for toxicants in dust surface loading (micrograms per square centimeter) or surface concentration (micrograms per gram) are discussed. We evaluate these metrics in terms of how the information can be used in source characterization and in exposure characterization. We discuss the types of companion information on source use and household or personal activity patterns required to assess the significance of the dust exposure. The status and needs for wipe samplers, surface samplers, and vacuum samplers are summarized with some discussion on the strengths and weaknesses of each type of sampler. We also discuss needs for research and development and the current status of standardization. Case studies are provided to illustrate the use of house dust and residential soil in source characterization, forensic analyses, or human exposure assessment.

Full Text

The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (1.3 MB).

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Adgate J. L., Weisel C., Wang Y., Rhoads G. G., Lioy P. J. Lead in house dust: relationships between exposure metrics. Environ Res. 1995 Aug;70(2):134–147. doi: 10.1006/enrs.1995.1058. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Allott R. W., Hewitt C. N., Kelly M. R. The environmental half-lives and mean residence times of contaminants in dust for an urban environment: Barrow-in-Furness. Sci Total Environ. 1990 Apr;93:403–410. doi: 10.1016/0048-9697(90)90131-d. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Angle C. R., Manton W. I., Stanek K. L. Stable isotope identification of lead sources in preschool children--the Omaha Study. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 1995;33(6):657–662. doi: 10.3109/15563659509010624. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Calabrese E. J., Stanek E. J., 3rd, Pekow P., Barnes R. M. Soil ingestion estimates for children residing on a superfund site. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 1997 Apr;36(3):258–268. doi: 10.1006/eesa.1996.1511. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Charney E., Sayre J., Coulter M. Increased lead absorption in inner city children: where does the lead come from? Pediatrics. 1980 Feb;65(2):226–231. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Chavalitnitikul C., Levin L., Chen L. C. Study and models of total lead exposures of battery workers. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J. 1984 Dec;45(12):802–808. doi: 10.1080/15298668491400674. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Chester G., Ward R. J. Occupational exposure and drift hazard during aerial application of paraquat to cotton. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol. 1984 Sep;13(5):551–563. doi: 10.1007/BF01056333. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Cizdziel J. V., Hodge V. F., Faller S. H. Plutonium anomalies in attic dust and soils at locations surrounding the Nevada Test Site. Chemosphere. 1998 Sep;37(6):1157–1168. doi: 10.1016/s0045-6535(98)00107-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Clayton C. A., Perritt R. L., Pellizzari E. D., Thomas K. W., Whitmore R. W., Wallace L. A., Ozkaynak H., Spengler J. D. Particle Total Exposure Assessment Methodology (PTEAM) study: distributions of aerosol and elemental concentrations in personal, indoor, and outdoor air samples in a southern California community. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 1993 Apr-Jun;3(2):227–250. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Cohen Hubal E. A., Sheldon L. S., Burke J. M., McCurdy T. R., Berry M. R., Rigas M. L., Zartarian V. G., Freeman N. C. Children's exposure assessment: a review of factors influencing Children's exposure, and the data available to characterize and assess that exposure. Environ Health Perspect. 2000 Jun;108(6):475–486. doi: 10.1289/ehp.108-1638158. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Colt J. S. Comparison of pesticides and other compounds in carpet dust samples collected from used vacuum cleaner bags and from a high-volume surface sampler. Environ Health Perspect. 1998 Nov;106(11):721–724. doi: 10.1289/ehp.98106721. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Davies J. E., Edmundson W. F., Raffonelli A. The role of house dust in human DDT pollution. Am J Public Health. 1975 Jan;65(1):53–57. doi: 10.2105/ajph.65.1.53. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Davis A., Sherwin D., Ditmars R., Hoenke K. A. An analysis of soil arsenic records of decision. Environ Sci Technol. 2001 Jun 15;35(12):2401–2406. doi: 10.1021/es001411i. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Duggan M. J., Inskip M. J. Childhood exposure to lead in surface dust and soil: a community health problem. Public Health Rev. 1985;13(1-2):1–54. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Duggan M. J., Inskip M. J., Rundle S. A., Moorcroft J. S. Lead in playground dust and on the hands of schoolchildren. Sci Total Environ. 1985 Jul;44(1):65–79. doi: 10.1016/0048-9697(85)90051-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Edwards R. D., Lioy P. J. The EL sampler: a press sampler for the quantitative estimation of dermal exposure to pesticides in housedust. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 1999 Sep-Oct;9(5):521–529. doi: 10.1038/sj.jea.7500048. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Edwards R. D., Yurkow E. J., Lioy P. J. Seasonal deposition of housedusts onto household surfaces. Sci Total Environ. 1998 Dec 11;224(1-3):69–80. doi: 10.1016/s0048-9697(98)00348-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Farfel M. R., Chisolm J. J., Jr An evaluation of experimental practices for abatement of residential lead-based paint: report on a pilot project. Environ Res. 1991 Aug;55(2):199–212. doi: 10.1016/s0013-9351(05)80176-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Farfel M. R., Orlova A. O., Lees P. S., Bowen C., Elias R., Ashley P. J., Chisolm J. J., Jr Comparison of two floor mat lead dust collection methods and their application in pre-1950 and new urban houses. Environ Sci Technol. 2001 May 15;35(10):2078–2083. doi: 10.1021/es0013071. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Fenske R. A., Black K. G., Elkner K. P., Lee C. L., Methner M. M., Soto R. Potential exposure and health risks of infants following indoor residential pesticide applications. Am J Public Health. 1990 Jun;80(6):689–693. doi: 10.2105/ajph.80.6.689. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Fenske R. A., Curry P. B., Wandelmaier F., Ritter L. Development of dermal and respiratory sampling procedures for human exposure to pesticides in indoor environments. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 1991 Jan;1(1):11–30. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Fenske R. A., Lu C. Determination of handwash removal efficiency: incomplete removal of the pesticide chlorpyrifos from skin by standard handwash techniques. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J. 1994 May;55(5):425–432. doi: 10.1080/15428119491018862. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Fergusson J. E., Kim N. D. Trace elements in street and house dusts: sources and speciation. Sci Total Environ. 1991 Mar;100(Spec No):125–150. doi: 10.1016/0048-9697(91)90376-p. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Freeman N. C., Lioy P. J., Stern A. H. Reduction in residential chromium following site remediation. J Air Waste Manag Assoc. 2000 Jun;50(6):948–953. doi: 10.1080/10473289.2000.10464132. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Freeman N. C., Stern A. H., Lioy P. J. Exposure to chromium dust from homes in a Chromium Surveillance Project. Arch Environ Health. 1997 May-Jun;52(3):213–219. doi: 10.1080/00039899709602889. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Freeman N. C., Wainman T., Lioy P. J., Stern A. H., Shupack S. I. The effect of remediation of chromium waste sites on chromium levels in urine of children living in the surrounding neighborhood. J Air Waste Manag Assoc. 1995 Aug;45(8):604–614. doi: 10.1080/10473289.1995.10467390. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Georgopoulos P. G., Lioy P. J. Exposure measurement needs for hazardous waste sites: two case studies. Toxicol Ind Health. 1996 Sep-Oct;12(5):651–665. doi: 10.1177/074823379601200505. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Georgopoulos P. G., Roy A., Yonone-Lioy M. J., Opiekun R. E., Lioy P. J. Environmental copper: its dynamics and human exposure issues. J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev. 2001 Oct-Dec;4(4):341–394. doi: 10.1080/109374001753146207. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Gurunathan S., Robson M., Freeman N., Buckley B., Roy A., Meyer R., Bukowski J., Lioy P. J. Accumulation of chlorpyrifos on residential surfaces and toys accessible to children. Environ Health Perspect. 1998 Jan;106(1):9–16. doi: 10.1289/ehp.981069. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Hawley J. K. Assessment of health risk from exposure to contaminated soil. Risk Anal. 1985 Dec;5(4):289–302. doi: 10.1111/j.1539-6924.1985.tb00185.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Jo W. K., Weisel C. P., Lioy P. J. Routes of chloroform exposure and body burden from showering with chlorinated tap water. Risk Anal. 1990 Dec;10(4):575–580. doi: 10.1111/j.1539-6924.1990.tb00541.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Kerger B. D., Schmidt C. E., Paustenbach D. J. Assessment of airborne exposure to trihalomethanes from tap water in residential showers and baths. Risk Anal. 2000 Oct;20(5):637–651. doi: 10.1111/0272-4332.205058. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Kissel J. C., Richter K. Y., Fenske R. A. Field measurement of dermal soil loading attributable to various activities: implications for exposure assessment. Risk Anal. 1996 Feb;16(1):115–125. doi: 10.1111/j.1539-6924.1996.tb01441.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Lanphear B. P., Emond M., Jacobs D. E., Weitzman M., Tanner M., Winter N. L., Yakir B., Eberly S. A side-by-side comparison of dust collection methods for sampling lead-contaminated house dust. Environ Res. 1995 Feb;68(2):114–123. doi: 10.1006/enrs.1995.1015. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Lees P. S., Corn M., Breysse P. N. Evidence for dermal absorption as the major route of body entry during exposure of transformer maintenance and repairmen to PCBs. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J. 1987 Mar;48(3):257–264. doi: 10.1080/15298668791384715. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Lewis R. G., Fortmann R. C., Camann D. E. Evaluation of methods for monitoring the potential exposure of small children to pesticides in the residential environment. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol. 1994 Jan;26(1):37–46. doi: 10.1007/BF00212792. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Lewis R. G., Fortune C. R., Blanchard F. T., Camann D. E. Movement and deposition of two organophosphorus pesticides within a residence after interior and exterior applications. J Air Waste Manag Assoc. 2001 Mar;51(3):339–351. doi: 10.1080/10473289.2001.10464281. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Lewis R. G., Fortune C. R., Willis R. D., Camann D. E., Antley J. T. Distribution of pesticides and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in house dust as a function of particle size. Environ Health Perspect. 1999 Sep;107(9):721–726. doi: 10.1289/ehp.99107721. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Lioy P. J., Edwards R. D., Freeman N., Gurunathan S., Pellizzari E., Adgate J. L., Quackenboss J., Sexton K. House dust levels of selected insecticides and a herbicide measured by the EL and LWW samplers and comparisons to hand rinses and urine metabolites. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 2000 Jul-Aug;10(4):327–340. doi: 10.1038/sj.jea.7500099. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Lioy P. J., Freeman N. C., Wainman T., Stern A. H., Boesch R., Howell T., Shupack S. I. Microenvironmental analysis of residential exposure to chromium-laden wastes in and around New Jersey homes. Risk Anal. 1992 Jun;12(2):287–299. doi: 10.1111/j.1539-6924.1992.tb00676.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Lioy P. J. Measurement methods for human exposure analysis. Environ Health Perspect. 1995 Apr;103 (Suppl 3):35–43. doi: 10.1289/ehp.95103s335. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Lioy P. J. The 1998 ISEA Wesolowski Award lecture. Exposure analysis: reflections on its growth and aspirations for its future. International Society of Exposure Analysis. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 1999 Jul-Aug;9(4):273–281. doi: 10.1038/sj.jea.7500060. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Lioy P. J., Wainman T., Weisel C. A wipe sampler for the quantitative measurement of dust on smooth surfaces: laboratory performance studies. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 1993 Jul-Sep;3(3):315–330. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Lioy P. J., Wainman T., Zhang J., Goldsmith S. Typical household vacuum cleaners: the collection efficiency and emissions characteristics for fine particles. J Air Waste Manag Assoc. 1999 Feb;49(2):200–206. doi: 10.1080/10473289.1999.10463789. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Lioy P. J., Yiin L. M., Adgate J., Weisel C., Rhoads G. G. The effectiveness of a home cleaning intervention strategy in reducing potential dust and lead exposures. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 1998 Jan-Mar;8(1):17–35. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Lioy Paul J., Weisel Clifford P., Millette James R., Eisenreich Steven, Vallero Daniel, Offenberg John, Buckley Brian, Turpin Barbara, Zhong Mianhua, Cohen Mitchell D. Characterization of the dust/smoke aerosol that settled east of the World Trade Center (WTC) in lower Manhattan after the collapse of the WTC 11 September 2001. Environ Health Perspect. 2002 Jul;110(7):703–714. doi: 10.1289/ehp.02110703. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Long C. M., Suh H. H., Catalano P. J., Koutrakis P. Using time- and size-resolved particulate data to quantify indoor penetration and deposition behavior. Environ Sci Technol. 2001 May 15;35(10):2089–2099. doi: 10.1021/es001477d. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Lowengart R. A., Peters J. M., Cicioni C., Buckley J., Bernstein L., Preston-Martin S., Rappaport E. Childhood leukemia and parents' occupational and home exposures. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1987 Jul;79(1):39–46. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Lu C., Fenske R. A. Dermal transfer of chlorpyrifos residues from residential surfaces: comparison of hand press, hand drag, wipe, and polyurethane foam roller measurements after broadcast and aerosol pesticide applications. Environ Health Perspect. 1999 Jun;107(6):463–467. doi: 10.1289/ehp.99107463. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Meijer S. N., Halsall C. J., Harner T., Peters A. J., Ockenden W. A., Johnston A. E., Jones K. C. Organochlorine pesticide residues in archived UK soil. Environ Sci Technol. 2001 May 15;35(10):1989–1995. doi: 10.1021/es0000955. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Nishioka M. G., Lewis R. G., Brinkman M. C., Burkholder H. M., Hines C. E., Menkedick J. R. Distribution of 2,4-D in air and on surfaces inside residences after lawn applications: comparing exposure estimates from various media for young children. Environ Health Perspect. 2001 Nov;109(11):1185–1191. doi: 10.1289/ehp.011091185. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. O'Malley M. A., Mathias C. G., Priddy M., Molina D., Grote A. A., Halperin W. E. Occupational vitiligo due to unsuspected presence of phenolic antioxidant byproducts in commercial bulk rubber. J Occup Med. 1988 Jun;30(6):512–516. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Ott W. R. Human exposure assessment: the birth of a new science. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 1995 Oct-Dec;5(4):449–472. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Ott W. R. Total human exposure: basic concepts, EPA field studies, and future research needs. J Air Waste Manage Assoc. 1990 Jul;40(7):966–975. doi: 10.1080/10473289.1990.10466747. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Paustenbach D. J. The practice of exposure assessment: a state-of-the-art review. J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev. 2000 Jul-Sep;3(3):179–291. doi: 10.1080/10937400050045264. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Pellizzari E., Lioy P., Quackenboss J., Whitmore R., Clayton A., Freeman N., Waldman J., Thomas K., Rodes C., Wilcosky T. Population-based exposure measurements in EPA region 5: a phase I field study in support of the National Human Exposure Assessment Survey. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 1995 Jul-Sep;5(3):327–358. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Que Hee S. S., Peace B., Clark C. S., Boyle J. R., Bornschein R. L., Hammond P. B. Evolution of efficient methods to sample lead sources, such as house dust and hand dust, in the homes of children. Environ Res. 1985 Oct;38(1):77–95. doi: 10.1016/0013-9351(85)90074-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Rappe C., Marklund S., Kjeller L. O., Bergqvist P. A., Hansson M. Strategies and techniques for sample collection and analysis: experience from the Swedish PCB accidents. Environ Health Perspect. 1985 May;60:279–292. doi: 10.1289/ehp.8560279. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. Reed K. J., Jimenez M., Freeman N. C., Lioy P. J. Quantification of children's hand and mouthing activities through a videotaping methodology. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 1999 Sep-Oct;9(5):513–520. doi: 10.1038/sj.jea.7500047. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Rhoads G. G., Ettinger A. S., Weisel C. P., Buckley T. J., Goldman K. D., Adgate J., Lioy P. J. The effect of dust lead control on blood lead in toddlers: a randomized trial. Pediatrics. 1999 Mar;103(3):551–555. doi: 10.1542/peds.103.3.551. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Rich D. Q., Yiin L. M., Rhoads G. G., Glueck D. H., Weisel C., Lioy P. J. A field comparison of two methods for sampling lead in household dust. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 1999 Mar-Apr;9(2):106–112. doi: 10.1038/sj.jea.7500006. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Roberts J. W., Dickey P. Exposure of children to pollutants in house dust and indoor air. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol. 1995;143:59–78. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4612-2542-3_3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Roberts JW, Clifford WS, Glass G, Hummer PG. Reducing dust, lead, dust mites, bacteria, and fungi in carpets by vacuuming . Arch Environ Contam Toxicol. 1999 May;36(4):477–484. doi: 10.1007/pl00022756. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Rodes C. E., Lawless P. A., Evans G. F., Sheldon L. S., Williams R. W., Vette A. F., Creason J. P., Walsh D. The relationships between personal PM exposures for elderly populations and indoor and outdoor concentrations for three retirement center scenarios. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 2001 Mar-Apr;11(2):103–115. doi: 10.1038/sj.jea.7500155. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Rudel R. A., Brody J. G., Spengler J. D., Vallarino J., Geno P. W., Sun G., Yau A. Identification of selected hormonally active agents and animal mammary carcinogens in commercial and residential air and dust samples. J Air Waste Manag Assoc. 2001 Apr;51(4):499–513. doi: 10.1080/10473289.2001.10464292. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. Scott P. K., Finley B. L., Sung H. M., Schulze R. H., Turner D. B. Identification of an accurate soil suspension/dispersion modeling method for use in estimating health-based soil cleanup levels of hexavalent chromium in chromite ore processing residues. J Air Waste Manag Assoc. 1997 Jul;47(7):753–765. doi: 10.1080/10473289.1997.10463940. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. Simcox N. J., Fenske R. A., Wolz S. A., Lee I. C., Kalman D. A. Pesticides in household dust and soil: exposure pathways for children of agricultural families. Environ Health Perspect. 1995 Dec;103(12):1126–1134. doi: 10.1289/ehp.951031126. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Stern A. H., Fagliano J. A., Savrin J. E., Freeman N. C., Lioy P. J. The association of chromium in household dust with urinary chromium in residences adjacent to chromate production waste sites. Environ Health Perspect. 1998 Dec;106(12):833–839. doi: 10.1289/ehp.106-1533240. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Stern A. H., Freeman N. C., Pleban P., Boesch R. R., Wainman T., Howell T., Shupack S. I., Johnson B. B., Lioy P. J. Residential exposure to chromium waste--urine biological monitoring in conjunction with environmental exposure monitoring. Environ Res. 1992 Aug;58(2):147–162. doi: 10.1016/s0013-9351(05)80211-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Vostal J. J., Taves F., Sayre J. W., Charney E. Lead analysis of house dust: a method for the detection of another source of lead exposure in inner city children. Environ Health Perspect. 1974 May;7:91–97. doi: 10.1289/ehp.74791. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  71. Wallace L. A., Pellizzari E. D., Hartwell T. D., Sparacino C., Whitmore R., Sheldon L., Zelon H., Perritt R. The TEAM (Total Exposure Assessment Methodology) Study: personal exposures to toxic substances in air, drinking water, and breath of 400 residents of New Jersey, North Carolina, and North Dakota. Environ Res. 1987 Aug;43(2):290–307. doi: 10.1016/s0013-9351(87)80030-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  72. Wright C. G., Jackson M. D. Insecticide residues in non-target areas of rooms after two methods of crack and crevice application. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol. 1975 Jan;13(1):123–128. doi: 10.1007/BF01684875. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  73. Wright C. G., Leidy R. B., Dupree H. E., Jr Chlorpyrifos and diazinon detection on surfaces in dormitory rooms. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol. 1984 Mar;32(3):259–264. doi: 10.1007/BF01607495. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. Yankel A. J., von Lindern I. H., Walter S. D. The Silver Valley lead study: the relationship between childhood blood lead levels and environmental exposure. J Air Pollut Control Assoc. 1977 Aug;27(8):763–767. doi: 10.1080/00022470.1977.10470488. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  75. Yiin L. M., Rhoads G. G., Lioy P. J. Seasonal influences on childhood lead exposure. Environ Health Perspect. 2000 Feb;108(2):177–182. doi: 10.1289/ehp.00108177. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  76. Zartarian V. G., Ferguson A. C., Leckie J. O. Quantified dermal activity data from a four-child pilot field study. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 1997 Oct-Dec;7(4):543–552. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  77. de Meijer R. J., Aldenkamp F. J., Brummelhuis M. J., Jansen J. F., Put L. W. Radionuclide concentrations in the northern part of The Netherlands after the Chernobyl reactor accident. Health Phys. 1990 Apr;58(4):441–452. doi: 10.1097/00004032-199004000-00006. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Environmental Health Perspectives are provided here courtesy of National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences

RESOURCES