Abstract
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have been used increasingly to map instances of environmental injustice, the disproportionate exposure of certain populations to environmental hazards. Some of the technical and analytic difficulties of mapping environmental injustice are outlined in this article, along with suggestions for using GIS to better assess and predict environmental health and equity. I examine 13 GIS-based environmental equity studies conducted within the past decade and use a study of noxious land use locations in the Bronx, New York, to illustrate and evaluate the differences in two common methods of determining exposure extent and the characteristics of proximate populations. Unresolved issues in mapping environmental equity and health include lack of comprehensive hazards databases; the inadequacy of current exposure indices; the need to develop realistic methodologies for determining the geographic extent of exposure and the characteristics of the affected populations; and the paucity and insufficiency of health assessment data. GIS have great potential to help us understand the spatial relationship between pollution and health. Refinements in exposure indices; the use of dispersion modeling and advanced proximity analysis; the application of neighborhood-scale analysis; and the consideration of other factors such as zoning and planning policies will enable more conclusive findings. The environmental equity studies reviewed in this article found a disproportionate environmental burden based on race and/or income. It is critical now to demonstrate correspondence between environmental burdens and adverse health impacts--to show the disproportionate effects of pollution rather than just the disproportionate distribution of pollution sources.
Full Text
The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (1.3 MB).
Selected References
These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.
- Drucker E., Alcabes P., Bosworth W., Sckell B. Childhood tuberculosis in the Bronx, New York. Lancet. 1994 Jun 11;343(8911):1482–1485. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(94)92588-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Dunn C., Kingham S. Establishing links between air quality and health: searching for the impossible? Soc Sci Med. 1996 Mar;42(6):831–841. doi: 10.1016/0277-9536(95)00182-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Ezcurra E., Mazari-hiriart M. Are megacities viable? A cautionary tale from Mexico City. Environment. 1996 Jan-Feb;38(1):6-15, 26-35. doi: 10.1080/00139157.1996.9930972. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Friedman M. S., Powell K. E., Hutwagner L., Graham L. M., Teague W. G. Impact of changes in transportation and commuting behaviors during the 1996 Summer Olympic Games in Atlanta on air quality and childhood asthma. JAMA. 2001 Feb 21;285(7):897–905. doi: 10.1001/jama.285.7.897. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Maantay J. Zoning, equity, and public health. Am J Public Health. 2001 Jul;91(7):1033–1041. doi: 10.2105/ajph.91.7.1033. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Mahaffey K. R. Nutrition and lead: strategies for public health. Environ Health Perspect. 1995 Sep;103 (Suppl 6):191–196. doi: 10.1289/ehp.95103s6191. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Neumann C. M., Forman D. L., Rothlein J. E. Hazard screening of chemical releases and environmental equity analysis of populations proximate to toxic release inventory facilities in Oregon. Environ Health Perspect. 1998 Apr;106(4):217–226. doi: 10.1289/ehp.98106217. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Scholten H. J., de Lepper M. J. The benefits of the application of geographical information systems in public and environmental health. World Health Stat Q. 1991;44(3):160–170. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Sheppard E., Leitner H., McMaster R. B., Tian H. GIS-based measures of environmental equity: exploring their sensitivity and significance. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 1999 Jan-Feb;9(1):18–28. doi: 10.1038/sj.jea.7500023. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Tim U. S. The application of GIS in environmental health sciences: opportunities and limitations. Environ Res. 1995 Nov;71(2):75–88. doi: 10.1006/enrs.1995.1069. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Vine M. F., Degnan D., Hanchette C. Geographic information systems: their use in environmental epidemiologic research. Environ Health Perspect. 1997 Jun;105(6):598–605. doi: 10.1289/ehp.97105598. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]