Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Poultry Science logoLink to Poultry Science
. 2025 Jun 23;104(9):105466. doi: 10.1016/j.psj.2025.105466

Protective effects of Spirulina platensis on cadmium-induced hematobiochemical and histopathological alterations in broiler chickens

Iffat Kawsar a, Md Iqramul Haque a, Md MN Azim a, Rahimul Islam Shuvo a, Md Eftakhar Jahan Bhuiyan a, Anandha Mozumder b, MA Hashem c, Md Kamrul Islam a, Mohammad Musharraf Uddin Bhuiyan d, Md Golzar Hossain b, Sharmin Akter a,⁎
PMCID: PMC12414276  PMID: 40577947

Abstract

Cadmium (Cd) is a toxic heavy metal that contaminates the environment and food chain, leading to severe health implications in poultry. This study investigates the protective effects of Spirulina platensis against Cd-induced hematological, biochemical, histopathological, and meat quality alterations in broiler chickens. A total of 100 broiler chickens were randomly assigned to four experimental groups: Control, cadmium (Cd)-treated (75 mg/kg/day), spirulina treated (2 g/kg/day), and a combined Cd + spirulina-treated group. Exposure to cadmium led to a significant reduction in body weight, disruption of hematological profiles, elevation of liver and kidney enzyme levels, and deterioration of meat quality traits. However, co-administration of spirulina effectively mitigated these adverse effects by restoring hematological and biochemical parameters, reducing tissue cadmium accumulation, and improving both histopathological features and meat quality. Based on the findings, Spirulina platensis demonstrates notable potential in alleviating cadmium-related health impairments in broiler chickens.

Keywords: Cadmium, Spirulina platensis, Hematobiochemistry, Histopathology, Broiler

Introduction

Cadmium (Cd), a toxic, non-biodegradable heavy metal for humans and animals, is being released in very large amounts into the environment by anthropogenic activity(Alengebawy et al., 2021). The World Health Organization has classified Cd as a significant food contaminant, while the International Agency for Research on Cancer has listed it as a class I carcinogen (Steinke & Huff, 2020). It is reported that increased concentrations of cadmium in agricultural soil are known to come from application of phosphate fertilizer, sewage sludge, waste water, and pesticides (Rashid et al., 2023). Furthermore, industrial application of cadmium in pigments, plastic stabilizers, and nickel cadmium batteries may result in widespread agricultural pollution (Khan et al., 2022) Cadmium is water soluble and is easily transferred efficiently from soil to plants that may affect target species, if there is intake of feed ingredients from a contaminated plant source (Ahmed et al., 2021). Cadmium present in soil can be absorbed by plants and accumulate in it (Alengebawy et al., 2021). Poultry is highly susceptible to cadmium toxicity, because cadmium intoxication may occur through feed ingredients of plant origin and also from dicalcium phosphate, fish meal, and shell grid. Accumulation of cadmium in tissues may lead to decreased rate of growth (Aljohani, 2023). Akyolcu et al., 2003 observed that cadmium administration resulted in lower body weights and higher tissue cadmium concentrations. (Bharavi et al., 2010) also reported that cadmium administration at the rate of 100 ppm resulted in suppression of live weight, alteration in biochemical parameters, damage in kidney, liver and bursa fabricius, and accumulation in liver, kidney, and muscle tissues. The immediate consequence of exposure to cadmium in vivo is stimulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in the mitochondrial electron transfer chain, inhibition of NADPH oxidase activity in the plasma, and depletion of physiological antioxidants like reduced glutathione (GSH) (Heyno et al., 2008). By increasing the production of free radicals, cadmium produces oxidative stress which has been proposed as a mechanism for cadmium toxicity in a number of tissues such as kidney and liver, the primary target of Cd toxicity(Satarug, 2018). The increased ROS cause lipid peroxidation, DNA damage, depletion of sulphydryls, and altered calcium homeostasis (M’Bemba-Meka et al., 2006). Oxidative damage by free radicals can be prevented by the use of antioxidants. Given the limitations and potential side effects of synthetic chelators and pharmaceuticals used to mitigate heavy metal toxicity, there is growing interest in natural, plant- and algae-derived agents with antioxidant properties(Ponnampalam et al., 2022). Spirulina platensis, a blue-green microalga (cyanobacterium), has received considerable attention for its nutritional and therapeutic benefits. Rich in proteins, vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds particularly phycocyanin, carotenoids, and polysaccharides. Spirulina has demonstrated antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and metal-chelating activities (Khalil et al., 2020). Spirulina not only boosts antioxidant enzymes i.e. SOD, CAT, GSH, GSH-PX, and reduces lipid peroxidation but also acts as a free radical scavenger (Mallamaci et al., 2023). The antioxidant properties of spirulina could be attributed to the presence of two major phycobiliproteins component, phycocyanin and allophycocyanin, that act mostly against superoxide radicals (Fernandes et al., 2023). The polysaccharides derived from spirulina were shown to have potent scavenging activities on DPPH and hydroxyl radicals (Kurd & Samavati, 2015). By keeping the above facts in view, an experimental study was planned on broilers to assess the mechanisms, antioxidants disturbance, and toxicity of cadmium and amelioration by herbal adaptogen Spirulina. The primary objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of Spirulina in mitigating hematological alterations, tissue cadmium residues, as well as biochemical and histopathological changes induced by Cd exposure in broilers.

Materials and methods

Ethical statement

All procedures involving animal handling, administration, and experimentation were conducted in accordance with the ethical standards approved by the Animal Welfare and Experimentation Ethics Committee of Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU), Mymensingh. Ethical approval was granted under reference number BAU/AWEEC/BAU/2024(02).

Chicks

A total of 100 day-old chicks were selected to monitor the effects of cadmium (Cd) and Spirulina. The chicks were reared in an open-house system for 35 days with timely vaccinations administered throughout the study period.

Diets and experimental protocol

The study was conducted using 100 broiler chickens, randomly assigned into four equal groups of 25 birds each. All the birds were supplied with respective feed and water ad libitum throughout the experiment. The treatment schedule of different groups of birds are as follows: first group received basal diet throughout the experiment. The second group were fed with basal diet mixed with 75 mg cadmium (Cd) / kg of feed daily. The third group were fed with basal diet mixed with 2 gm Spirulina/ kg of feed daily. The fourth group were fed with basal diet mixed with both Cd (75 mg/kg feed/day) and Spirulina (2g/kg feed/day) daily. The dose of 75 mg Cd to induce oxidative damage was selected as per Al-Waeli et al., (2013) and Mustari et al., (2023)who found that Cd at a dose of 75–100 mg/kg significantly altered the performance, biochemical parameters, and antioxidant parameters. Whereas the dose of 2 gm Spirulina to prevent oxidative stress was selected according to the report of El-Shall et al., (2023)who stated that 1–2 gm spirulina per kg of diet improved growth performance without affecting meat quality or gut microflora. Cadmium was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich, while Spirulina powder was obtained from Eskayef Pharmaceutical Ltd., Bangladesh. The experimental trial was conducted over a period of 35 days.

Hematobiochemical studies

5 ml of blood was collected in a vacutainer for hematology and another 5 ml blood was allowed to clot. Serum was separated from the clot and will be centrifuged to get the clear serum. Hematological parameters, including total erythrocyte count (TEC), hemoglobin (Hb), packed cell volume (PCV), total leukocyte count (TLC), heterophil, lymphocyte, and monocyte percentages, were analyzed in the Department of Physiology following the protocol used by (Adegoke et al., 2018). Additionally, biochemical parameters such as serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine transaminase (ALT), and creatinine were measured to assess liver and kidney function, following the methodology described by (Haque et al., 2017).

Determination of Cd contents

At the time of necropsy, target organs including muscle, liver, and kidney were collected from each group of broiler chickens. The accumulation of cadmium (Cd) in the muscle, liver, and kidney tissues was quantified using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS; Agilent 7500c, Japan).

Meat quality indices assessment

Gathered muscles from the breast were utilized to examine the index value of meat pH, color, water holding capacity (WHC), Drip loss and cooking loss. A pre-calibrated pH meter (Mettler-Toledo AG, Zürich, Switzerland) was used for the measurement of pH and calibration was done prior to usage using pH 4.0 and 7.0 buffers (King et al., 2022). A ColorFlex EZ spectrophotometer (Hunter Associates Laboratory, Inc., Reston, VA, USA) was used for meat colour determination following the International Commission on Illumination (CIE) Lab-values. Before using it, the colourimeter was calibrated against black and white tiles. The frozen meat samples were thawed overnight into a 4°C chiller. The thawed meat samples were subjected to blooming for 30 min and transferred into the ColorFlex sample cup with the bloomed meat surface facing the base of the cup. Meat colour was measured in triplicate (the cup was rotated clockwise to 90° in the second and third reading) and to obtain the average values of lightness (L*), redness (a*) and yellowness (b*) readings (King et al., 2022). WHC was estimated as follows: % loss in muscle sample weight after centrifugation (Aprianto et al., 2023). Drip loss of the meat samples was evaluated using the method described by Honikel (Honikel, 1998). After slaughtering, approximately 25–35 g of fresh meat samples from pectoralis major muscle was collected, individually weighed and recorded as the initial weight (W1). Polyethene plastics bags used to pack each sample were sealed and the vacuum packages were stored at 4°C in the chiller. Then, at 7 days post-storage, the final weight (W2) was measured immediately after removing the samples from the bags and blotted dry. The calculation of the percentage drip loss was done by differences in the final and initial weight of the sample. The sample weight was divided by the initial sample weight after 7 days of storage. Cooking losses of the meat samples were obtained according to Honikel (Honikel, 1998). Fresh meat samples from pectoralis major muscle were weighed individually and recorded as the initial weight (W1). Samples were then cooked in a water bath at 80°C for 20 min in plastic bags. Following that, the samples were cooled at room temperature and blotted gently and reweighed as a final weight (W2). Cooking loss percentage was quantified as the initial and the final weight difference.

Histopathology

After full blood removal with the use of phosphate-buffer saline perfusion, selected organs (liver, kidney and brain) from each group of birds were collected and kept for 15 days in 10 % neutral buffered formalin. In conjunction with the Department of Surgery and Obstetrics, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh-2202, the properly treated tissues were subsequently prepared, sectioned off, and stained. For a better presentation of the histological findings, a photo-microscope was utilized to acquire histology images at various magnifications.

Statistical analysis

All data were initially recorded and organized using Microsoft Excel, then exported to GraphPad Prism version 5.0 for statistical analysis. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Bonferroni’s post-hoc multiple comparison test was employed to assess differences among groups, with a significance level set at p < 0.05 and 95 % confidence intervals.

Results

Effect of Spirulina on growth performance

Body weights of the birds in each experimental group were recorded at seven-day intervals, beginning on Day 1 and continuing through Day 35. No notable differences in body weight were observed among the groups on Day 7. However, by Day 14, group-specific variations in body weight began to emerge. The highest mean body weight was consistently observed in the group supplemented with Spirulina, while the lowest was recorded in the cadmium (Cd)-treated group. Birds exposed to Cd exhibited a statistically significant reduction in body weight compared to the control group (p < 0.05). Notably, co-administration of Spirulina in Cd-exposed birds partially ameliorated the Cd-induced weight loss, as evidenced by a higher body weight in this group compared to birds receiving Cd alone, although their weights remained lower than those of the control and Spirulina-only groups.

Effect of Spirulina on hematological parameters

TEC, Hb, PCV, TLC, Heterophil, Lymphocyte, Monocyte count were analyzed. All hematological parameters showed a significant decrease (p < 0.05) in the cadmium (Cd)-treated group compared to the control. Spirulina supplementation significantly improved TEC, Hb, PCV, and TLC values in Cd-exposed birds (p < 0.05); however, monocyte counts did not show a significant improvement.

Effect of Spirulina on Liver (ALT, AST) and Kidney (Creatinine) functions

Serum AST and ALT levels were significantly elevated (p < 0.05) in the cadmium (Cd)-treated group compared to the control, which exhibited the lowest values. Spirulina supplementation in Cd-treated broilers markedly attenuated this increase, resulting in significantly lower AST and ALT levels relative to the Cd-only group. Similarly, serum creatinine levels were significantly elevated (p < 0.05) in the Cd-treated group, whereas Spirulina co-administration significantly reduced creatinine concentrations compared to the Cd group alone Figs. 1 and 2.

Fig. 1.

Fig 1

Open in a new tab

Effects of Spirulina on weekly body weight in cadmium (Cd)-treated broiler chickens up to 35 days of experiment. Significant differences between the control and Cd-treated groups are indicated by * (p < 0.05), ** (p < 0.01), and *** (p < 0.001). Significant differences between the Cd-treated and Cd + Spirulina groups are indicated by # (p < 0.05), ## (p < 0.01), and ### (p < 0.001).

Fig. 2.

Fig 2

Open in a new tab

Effects of Spirulina on hematological parameters including total erythrocyte counts (TEC), hemoglobin concentration (Hb), packed cell volume (PCV), heterophil, lymphocyte, and monocyte percentage in Cd-treated broiler chickens. Data indicate mean ± SEM. Statistical analysis was performed using one-way ANOVA followed by Bonferroni’s multiple comparison test. Significant differences are indicated by * (p < 0.05), ** (p < 0.01), and *** (p < 0.001).

Effect of Spirulina on Cd residue (Liver, kidney, Muscle)

Cadmium (Cd) accumulation in muscle tissue was significantly elevated in Cd-treated broilers compared to the control group. However, Spirulina supplementation in Cd-exposed birds led to a significant reduction in muscle Cd concentration. Similarly, Cd levels in the liver and kidney were markedly increased in Cd-treated broilers relative to controls. Co-administration of spirulina partially reduced Cd accumulation in the liver and kidney, although levels remained higher than those in the control group Figs. 3 and 4.

Fig. 3.

Fig 3

Open in a new tab

Effects of Spirulina on liver and kidney function parameters including alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and creatinine in Cd-treated broiler chickens. Data indicate mean ± SEM. Statistical analysis was performed using one-way ANOVA followed by Bonferroni’s multiple comparison test. Significant differences are indicated by * (p < 0.05) and ** (p < 0.01).

Fig. 4.

Fig 4

Open in a new tab

Effects of Spirulina on Cd accumulation in the liver, kidney, and muscle of cadmium-treated broiler chickens. Data indicate mean ± SEM. Statistical analysis was performed using one-way ANOVA followed by Bonferroni’s multiple comparison test. Significant differences are indicated by ** (p < 0.01) and *** (p < 0.001).

Effect of Spirulina on meat quality

The pH of the meat is measured with pH meter. The pH is lower (p < 0.5) in Cd treated broiler meat compared to the other groups. The water Holding Capacity (WHC) is decreased (p < 0.5) in the meat of Cd treated broilers. The color of meat as in Lightness, Yellowness, Redness of meat is also lower (p < 0.5) in the Cd treated broilers. On the other hand, Drip loss and Cooking loss is increased (p < 0.5) in the Cd-treated broilers Fig 5a and b.

Fig. 5(a).

Fig 5(a)

Open in a new tab

Effects of Spirulina on meat quality parameters including pH, water-holding capacity (WHC), drip loss, and cooking loss in Cd-treated broiler chickens. Data indicate mean ± SEM. Statistical analysis was performed using one-way ANOVA followed by Bonferroni’s multiple comparison test. Significant differences are indicated by * (p < 0.05), ** (p < 0.01), and *** (p < 0.001).

Fig. 5(b).

Fig 5(b)

Open in a new tab

. Effects of Spirulina supplementation on meat color profiles including meat redness, yellowness and lightness in Cd-treated broiler chickens. Data indicate mean ± SEM. Statistical analysis was performed using one-way ANOVA followed by Bonferroni’s multiple comparison test. Significant differences are indicated by * (p < 0.05), ** (p < 0.01), and *** (p < 0.001).

Effect of Spirulina on histopathology

Histopathological examination of the liver revealed irregular hepatocytes, necrosis and presence of inflammatory cells in Cd-treated broilers, whereas the liver architecture in the control group appeared normal. Broilers receiving spirulina supplementation exhibited markedly fewer pathological changes. In the Cd and spirulina co-treated group, hepatic histology showed minimal to no degenerative alterations, indicating that spirulina effectively attenuated Cd-induced hepatotoxicity. Renal histology in the Cd-treated group demonstrated tubular degeneration and interstitial lymphocytic infiltration, while no significant histoarchitectural changes were observed in the kidneys of the control and spirulina-only groups. In the brain, Cd-treated broilers displayed neuronal necrosis, perivascular cuffing and neuronophagia. In contrast, the control and spirulina-only groups exhibited normal histological features. Notably, co-treatment with spirulina and Cd appeared to preserve brain histology, suggesting a protective effect of spirulina against Cd-induced neurotoxicity Fig. 6.

Fig. 6.

Fig 6

Open in a new tab

Effects of Spirulina platensis on the histology of the liver, kidney, and brain in Cd-treated broiler chickens. Tissue sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) and examined under a light microscope using a 40 × objective. In the Cd-treated group, liver sections show infiltration of inflammatory cells and disorganized hepatocyte architecture (arrows). Kidney sections exhibit tubular degeneration and interstitial lymphocytic infiltration (arrows). Brain sections reveal perivascular cuffing (arrows). These pathological changes were markedly alleviated in birds co-treated with Spirulina platensis. Scale bar = 20 µm.

Discussion

Cadmium (Cd) is a toxic heavy metal widely utilized in industrial processes and frequently discharged into the environment through factory effluents. Its accumulation in water, soil, and food sources poses a significant threat to ecological and public health. Chronic Cd exposure causes severe hepatic and renal damage as well as bone loss in animals and human(Khalil et al., 2020; Satarug, 2018). In this study, we assessed spirulina as a protective agent against experimental induced cadmium toxicity in broiler chickens. Our findings demonstrated that Cd exposure significantly reduced the body weight of broilers, which may be attributed to decreased feed intake and enhanced catabolism of proteins and lipids commonly associated with Cd toxicity. Earlier reports have also shown a significant reduction in body weight in broiler chicks treated with Cd (Ali et al., 2021). Decreased body weight could be due to the treatment of broiler with heavy metals that could have led changes in liver glycogen and triglyceride along with a disturbance in metabolic enzymes leading to decreased feed conversion and weight loss (Surai F, 2016). Notably, broilers co-treated with spirulina exhibited improved body weights compared to the Cd-only group, potentially due to enhanced feed utilization and metabolic efficiency, as suggested by Ponnampalam et al., (2022). Furthermore, this outcome is consistent with a study by (Abd EL-Dayem et al., 2021) who found that the addition of spirulina had a favorable impact on body weight increase as spirulina has a great nutritional profile and contains all the required amino acids, vitamin C and antioxidant carotenoids. Hematological parameters were markedly altered in Cd-treated birds, showing significant reductions in total erythrocyte count (TEC), hemoglobin (Hb), packed cell volume (PCV), and total leukocyte count (TLC). These results align with previous reports that heavy metal exposure disrupts hematological homeostasis (Al-Asgah et al., 2015),(Vinodhini & Narayanan, 2009). Cd toxicity may impair hemoglobin function by reducing its oxygen-carrying capacity and promoting erythrocyte fragility, deformation, and hemolysis. However, supplementation with spirulina significantly restored most of these parameters, indicating a potential hematoprotective role, likely mediated by its antioxidant properties. This is supported by earlier studies showing the efficacy of antioxidant agents in restoring hematological values in heavy metal-exposed animals (Mashkoor et al., 2023). Increased RBC and WBC count may be due to the presence of C-phycocyanin in spirulina algae which stimulates the erythropoietin hormone that promotes hematopoiesis (Abdalla et al., 2014). Cd exposure is also known to disrupt hepatic and renal functions. In our study, serum levels of AST and ALT were significantly elevated in Cd-treated broilers, indicating hepatocellular damage. Cd-induced hepatotoxicity is believed to result from oxidative stress and the disruption of metallothionein-mediated detoxification pathways in hepatocytes function (Wallin et al., 2014), (Niture et al., 2021). Histological observations supported these findings, showing bile duct hyperplasia and degenerative changes in the livers of Cd-exposed birds. Conversely, spirulina supplementation significantly reduced serum AST and ALT levels and mitigated histopathological liver damage, which is consistent with previous reports of its hepatoprotective properties (Mirzaie et al., 2018), (Trotta et al., 2022). Some of the active constituents of Spirulina have been reported to possess strong antioxidant activity and provokes free radical scavenging enzyme system. The protective role of Spirulina may be attributed to the presence of beta -carotene, enzyme superoxide dismutase or selenium and blue pigment phycocyanin (Bashandy et al., 2011). Beta-carotene of Spirulina may reduce cell damage, especially the damage to DNA molecules, thus playing the role in the repair of regeneration process of damaged liver cells (Abdelfatah et al., 2024). Nephrotoxicity, a well-established consequence of Cd exposure, was also evident in our study. Elevated serum creatinine levels and renal histological abnormalities, such as tubular degeneration, were observed in Cd-intoxicated broilers. These changes likely reflect Cd-induced impairment of glomerular filtration and direct tubular toxicity (Bharavi et al., 2010), (Wallin et al., 2014). Spirulina co-treatment attenuated these effects, as evidenced by improved renal function markers and preservation of normal renal architecture, indicating a nephroprotective effect. This is owing to the accelerated regeneration of the extent of tubular degeneration under the influence of biliprotein pigment known as phycocyanin drug that can be found in spirulina and that exerted probably a diuretic activity(Gargouri et al., 2018). Furthermore, Cd-exposed birds exhibited neurotoxic effects, including perivascular cuffing and neuronophagia in brain histology. Such changes were absent in control and spirulina-only groups, and co-treatment with spirulina appeared to alleviate the neuropathological alterations, suggesting potential neuroprotective benefits. Studies suggest that Spirulina has protective effects in the treatment of neuro-degenerative disorders (Abd El-Baky et al., 2009; Moradi-Kor et al., 2020a). It has been reported that Spirulina reduces oxidative stress in the hippocampus and protects against damaging neurobehavioral effects (Moradi-Kor et al., 2020a). Our study also revealed a reduction in Cd accumulation in the muscle, liver, and kidney tissues following spirulina supplementation. This suggests a possible role of spirulina in facilitating Cd detoxification or inhibiting its absorption and accumulation (Bloch & Ghosh, 2022). Beyond the biochemical and histological findings meat quality parameters exhibited significant improvements in the current research, including improved color, decreased drip loss, cooking loss, and increasing WHC. The outcomes of our research were supported by an earlier study, which concluded that Spirulina might influence the quality of Japanese quail meat by reducing exudative loss (Cheong et al., 2016) . Lu et al., (2014) showed that including antioxidants in meals was a great way to promote development, somewhat restore the body's overall antioxidant fitness, and reduce exudative loss. Perna et al., (2019) showed how antioxidants preserve the functioning of membranes, which increases their significance as semipermeable barriers, as opposed to drip loss. According to Wang et al., (2020), dietary antioxidant inclusion also stops exudative loss from pale, soft, exudative muscles in stress-predisposed pigs.

Conclusion

Taken together, our findings suggest that Spirulina platensis holds considerable promise as a natural dietary supplement to counteract cadmium-induced toxicity in broiler chickens. By enhancing antioxidant defenses, spirulina restored the altered biochemical parameters, meat quality, and growth performance in Cd-intoxicated chickens. In addition, spirulina improved the histological structure of liver, kidney and brain tissues and protected against Cd-induced hepatic, renal and neural damage. It also decreased Cd residual concentration in muscle, liver, and kidney tissues. Spirulina could be a beneficial supplement in chicken ration to prevent potential Cd chloride toxicity. While the outcomes are encouraging, further studies are needed to better understand the precise molecular mechanisms behind spirulina's protective effects.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thanks to the Department of Animal Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU), Mymensingh-2202, Bangladesh, for providing the laboratory facilities. We are also extending our gratitude to the Department of Environmental science, BAU, Mymensingh 2202, Bangladesh, for their research assistance. This work was supported by the fund of Ministry of Education (MoE), People's Republic of Bangladesh (grant no LS20221989).

Footnotes

SPIRULINA PROTECTS AGAINST CADMIUM TOXICITY

References

  1. Abdalla O., Eissa I., Kilany O., Elbahar S. Advanced immunological studies on the effect of Spirulina in cultured tilap. Suez Canal Veterinary Medical Journal. SCVMJ. 2014;19(1) doi: 10.21608/scvmj.2014.76112. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  2. Abd El-Baky H.H., El Baz F.K., El-Baroty G.S. Enhancement of antioxidant production in Spirulina platensis under oxidative stress. Acta Physiologiae Plantarum. 2009;(3):31. doi: 10.1007/s11738-009-0273-8. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  3. Abd EL-Dayem G., Saleh G., Abd EL- Elwahab R. Impact of dietary Spirulina (arthrospira) platensis on growth performance, gene expression and antioxidant status of quail challenged with salmonella enteritidis. Mansoura Veterin. Med. J. 2021;22(2) doi: 10.21608/mvmj.2021.66416.1040. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  4. Abdelfatah S.H., Yassin A.M., Khattab M.S., Abdel-Razek A.S., Saad A.H. Spirulina platensis as a growth booster for broiler; insights into their nutritional, molecular, immunohistopathological, and microbiota modulating effects. BMC Veterin. Res. 2024;20(1) doi: 10.1186/s12917-023-03858-z. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Adegoke A.V., Abimbola M.A., Sanwo K.A., Egbeyale L.T., Abiona J.A., Oso A.O., Iposu S.O. Performance and blood biochemistry profile of broiler chickens fed dietary turmeric (Curcuma longa) powder and cayenne pepper (Capsicum frutescens) powders as antioxidants. Veterin. Anim. Sci. 2018;6 doi: 10.1016/j.vas.2018.07.005. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Ahmed Alengebawy., Sara Taha A., Sundas R.Qureshi, Man-Qun W. Heavy metals and pesticides toxicity in agricultural soil and plants: ecological risks and Human health implications. Toxics. 2021:9. doi: 10.3390/toxics9030042. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Akyolcu M.C., Ozcelik D., Dursun S., Toplan S., Kahraman R. Accumulation of cadmium in tissue and its effect on live performance. Journal De Physique. IV : JP. 2003;(I):107. doi: 10.1051/jp4:20030236. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  8. Al-Asgah N.A., Abdel-Warith A.W.A., Younis E.S.M., Allam H.Y. Haematological and biochemical parameters and tissue accumulations of cadmium in oreochromis niloticus exposed to various concentrations of cadmium chloride. Saud. J. Biolog. Sci. 2015;22(5) doi: 10.1016/j.sjbs.2015.01.002. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Alengebawy A., Abdelkhalek S.T., Qureshi S.R., Wang M.Q. Heavy metals and pesticides toxicity in agricultural soil and plants: ecological risks and human health implications. Toxics. 2021;9(3) doi: 10.3390/toxics9030042. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Ali S., Bashir S., Mumtaz S., Shakir H.A., Ara C., Ahmad F., Tahir H.M., Faheem M., Irfan M., Masih A., Ulhaq M., Andleeb S. Evaluation of cadmium chloride-induced toxicity in chicks via hematological, biochemical parameters, and cadmium level in tissues. Biolog. Trace Elem. Res. 2021;199(9) doi: 10.1007/s12011-020-02453-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Aljohani A.S.M. Heavy metal toxicity in poultry: a comprehensive review. Front. Veterin. Sci. 2023;Vol. 10 doi: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1161354. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Al-Waeli A., Zoidis E., Pappas A.C., Demiris N., Zervas G., Fegeros K. The role of organic selenium in cadmium toxicity: effects on broiler performance and health status. Animal. 2013;7(3) doi: 10.1017/S1751731112001590. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Aprianto M.A., Muhlisin, Kurniawati A., Hanim C., Ariyadi B., Anas M.Al. Effect supplementation of black soldier fly larvae oil (Hermetia illucens L.) calcium salt on performance, blood biochemical profile, carcass characteristic, meat quality, and gene expression in fat metabolism broilers. Poult. Sci. 2023;(10):102. doi: 10.1016/j.psj.2023.102984. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Bashandy S.A., Alhazza I.M., El-Desoky G.E., Al-Othman Z.A. Hepatoprotective and hypolipidemic effects of Spirulina platensis in rats administered mercuric chloride. Afr. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 2011;5(2) doi: 10.5897/ajmr10.330. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  15. Bharavi K., Reddy A.G., Rao G.S., Reddy A.R., Rao S.V.R. Reversal of cadmium-induced oxidative stress in chicken by herbal adaptogens Withania somnifera and Ocimum sanctum. Toxicol. Int. 2010;17(2) doi: 10.4103/0971-6580.72671. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Bloch K., Ghosh S. Cyanobacteria mediated toxic metal removal as complementary and alternative wastewater treatment strategy. Integrat. Environ. Technol. Wastew. Treatm. Sustain. Develop. 2022 doi: 10.1016/B978-0-323-91180-1.00002-8. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  17. Cheong D.S.W., Kasim A., Sazili A.Q., Omar H., Teoh J.Y. Effect of supplementing spirulina on live performance, carcass composition and meat quality of Japanese quail. Walailak J. Sci. Technol. 2016;13(2) [Google Scholar]
  18. El-Shall N.A., Jiang S., Farag M.R., Azzam M., Al-Abdullatif A.A., Alhotan R., Dhama K., Hassan F.U., Alagawany M. Potential of Spirulina platensis as a feed supplement for poultry to enhance growth performance and immune modulation. Front. Immunol. 2023;Vol. 14 doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1072787. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Fernandes R., Campos J., Serra M., Fidalgo J., Almeida H., Casas A., Toubarro D., Barros A.I.R.N.A. Exploring the benefits of Phycocyanin: from spirulina cultivation to its widespread applications. Pharmaceuticals. 2023;16(4) doi: 10.3390/ph16040592. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Gargouri M., Soussi A., Akrouti A., Magné C., El Feki A. Ameliorative effects of spirulina platensis against lead-induced nephrotoxicity in newborn rats: modulation of oxidative stress and histopathological changes. EXCLI J. 2018:17. doi: 10.17179/excli2017-1016. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Haque M.I., Ahmad N., Miah M.A. Comparative analysis of body weight and serum biochemistry in broilers supplemented with some selected probiotics and antibiotic growth promoters. J. Adv. Veterin. Anim. Res. 2017;4(3) doi: 10.5455/javar.2017.d226. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  22. Heyno E., Klose C., Krieger-Liszkay A. Origin of cadmium-induced reactive oxygen species production: mitochondrial electron transfer versus plasma membrane NADPH oxidase. New Phytolog. 2008;179(3) doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2008.02512.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Honikel K.O. Reference methods for the assessment of physical characteristics of meat. Meat Sci. 1998;49(4) doi: 10.1016/S0309-1740(98)00034-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Khalil S.R., Salem H.F.A., Metwally M.M.M., Emad R.M., Elbohi K.M., Ali S.A. Protective effect of Spirulina platensis against physiological, ultrastructural and cell proliferation damage induced by furan in kidney and liver of rat. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safe. 2020:192. doi: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2020.110256. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Khan Z., Elahi A., Bukhari D.A., Rehman A. Cadmium sources, toxicity, resistance and removal by microorganisms-A potential strategy for cadmium eradication. J. Saud. Chem. Soc. 2022;26(6) doi: 10.1016/j.jscs.2022.101569. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  26. King D.A., Hunt M.C., Barbut S., Claus J.R., Cornforth D.P., Joseph P., Brad Kim Y.H., Lindahl G., Mancini R.A., Nair M.N., Merok K.J., Milkowski A., Mohan A., Pohlman F., Ramanathan R., Raines C.R., Seyfert M., Sørheim O., Suman S.P., Weber M. American meat science association guidelines for meat color measurement. Meat Muscl. Biol. 2022;6(4) doi: 10.22175/mmb.12473. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  27. Kurd F., Samavati V. Water soluble polysaccharides from Spirulina platensis: extraction and in vitro anti-cancer activity. Int. J. Biolog. Macromol. 2015;74 doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2015.01.005. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Lu T., Harper A.F., Zhao J., Dalloul R.A. Effects of a dietary antioxidant blend and vitamin E on growth performance, oxidative status, and meat quality in broiler chickens fed a diet high in oxidants. Poult. Sci. 2014;(7):93. doi: 10.3382/ps.2013-03826. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Mallamaci R., Storelli M.M., Barbarossa A., Messina G., Valenzano A., Meleleo D. Potential protective effects of Spirulina (Spirulina platensis) against In vitro toxicity induced by heavy metals (Cadmium, Mercury, and Lead) on SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells. Int. J. Molecul. Sci. 2023;(23):24. doi: 10.3390/ijms242317076. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Mashkoor J., Al-Saeed F.A., Guangbin Z., Alsayeqh A.F., Gul S.T., Hussain R., Ahmad L., Mustafa R., Farooq U., Khan A. Oxidative stress and toxicity produced by arsenic and chromium in broiler chicks and application of vitamin E and bentonite as ameliorating agents. Front. Veterin. Sci. 2023;10 doi: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1128522. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. M’Bemba-Meka P., Lemieux N., Chakrabarti S.K. Role of oxidative stress, mitochondrial membrane potential, and calcium homeostasis in nickel subsulfide-induced human lymphocyte death in vitro. Sci. Tot. Environ. 2006;369(1–3) doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2006.04.007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Mirzaie S., Zirak-Khattab F., Hosseini S.A., Donyaei-Darian H. Effects of dietary Spirulina on antioxidant status, lipid profile, immune response and performance characteristics of broiler chickens reared under high ambient temperature. Asian-Austral. J. Anim. Sci. 2018;31(4):556–563. doi: 10.5713/AJAS.17.0483. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Moradi-Kor N., Dadkhah M., Ghanbari A., Rashidipour H., Bandegi A.R., Barati M., Kokhaei P., Rashidy-Pour A. Protective effects of spirulina platensis, voluntary exercise and environmental interventions against adolescent stress-induced anxiety and depressive-like symptoms, oxidative stress and alterations of bdnf and 5ht-3 receptors of the prefrontal cortex in female rats. Neuropsychiatr. Dis. Treatm. 2020;16 doi: 10.2147/NDT.S247599. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Mustari A., Alam M., Khatun M., Rockybul Alam M., Alam Miah M., Haque Chowdhury E. Coral fossil: A potential adsorbent of natural source for cadmium removal in broilers. Saud. J. Biolog. Sci. 2023;30(9) doi: 10.1016/j.sjbs.2023.103742. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Niture S., Lin M., Qi Q., Moore J.T., Levine K.E., Fernando R.A., Kumar D. Role of autophagy in cadmium-induced hepatotoxicity and liver diseases. J. Toxicol. 2021;2021 doi: 10.1155/2021/9564297. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Perna A., Simonetti A., Grassi G., Gambacorta E. Effect of a cauliflower (Brassica oleraceae var. Botrytis) leaf powder-enriched diet on performance, carcass and meat characteristics of growing rabbit. Meat Sci. 2019:149. doi: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2018.11.013. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Ponnampalam E.N., Kiani A., Santhiravel S., Holman B.W.B., Lauridsen C., Dunshea F.R. The importance of dietary antioxidants on oxidative stress, meat and milk production, and their preservative aspects in farm animals: antioxidant action, animal health, and product quality—invited review. Animals. 2022;12(23) doi: 10.3390/ani12233279. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Rashid A., Schutte B.J., Ulery A., Deyholos M.K., Sanogo S., Lehnhoff E.A., Beck L. Heavy metal contamination in agricultural soil: environmental pollutants affecting crop health. Agronomy. 2023;13(6) doi: 10.3390/agronomy13061521. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  39. Satarug S. Dietary cadmium intake and its effects on kidneys. Toxics. 2018;6(1) doi: 10.3390/toxics6010015. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Steinke K., Huff M. Evidence and inhibitor studies of involvement of src and EGFR in estrogen receptor induced ERK1/2 activation in ovarian cancer cell proliferation stimulated by cadmium chloride. FASEB J. 2020;34(S1) doi: 10.1096/fasebj.2020.34.s1.03609. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  41. Surai F P. Antioxidant systems in poultry biology: superoxide dismutase. J. Anim. Res. Nutrit. 2016;01(01) doi: 10.21767/2572-5459.100008. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  42. Trotta T., Porro C., Cianciulli A., Panaro M.A. Beneficial effects of spirulina consumption on brain health. Nutrients. 2022;14(3) doi: 10.3390/nu14030676. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Vinodhini R., Narayanan M. The impact of toxic heavy metals on the hematological ar ch of ar ch. J. Environ. Health Sci. Eng. 2009;6(1) [Google Scholar]
  44. Wallin M., Sallsten G., Lundh T., Barregard L. Low-level cadmium exposure and effects on kidney function. Occup. Environ. Med. 2014;(12):71. doi: 10.1136/oemed-2014-102279. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Wang C., Wang J., Qi S., Xu C., Wang Y., Wang H. Effect of dietary inclusion of antioxidants and organic trace minerals on growth performance, carcass characteristics, and meat quality of finishing pigs with pre-slaughter transportation. Canad. J. Anim. Sci. 2020;100(3) doi: 10.1139/cjas-2019-0177. [DOI] [Google Scholar]

Further reading

  1. Moradi-Kor N., Ghanbari A., Rashidipour H., Bandegi A.R., Yousefi B., Barati M., Kokhaei P., Rashidy-Pour A. Therapeutic effects of spirulina platensis against adolescent stress-induced oxidative stress, brain-derived neurotrophic factor alterations and morphological remodeling in the amygdala of adult female rats. J. Exper. Pharmacol. 2020;12 doi: 10.2147/JEP.S237378. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Poultry Science are provided here courtesy of Elsevier

RESOURCES