Skip to main content
PMC home page
Environmental Health Perspectives logoLink to Environmental Health Perspectives
. 2003 Jun;111(7):954–961. doi: 10.1289/ehp.5990

Organochlorines, lead, and mercury in Akwesasne Mohawk youth.

Lawrence M Schell 1, Lech A Hubicki 1, Anthony P DeCaprio 1, Mia V Gallo 1, Julia Ravenscroft 1, Alice Tarbell 1, Agnes Jacobs 1, Dawn David 1, Priscilla Worswick 1; Akwesasne Task Force on the Environment1
PMCID: PMC1241531  PMID: 12782498

Abstract

Most humans have detectable body burdens of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), and p,p'-dichlorophenyldichloroethylene p,p'-DDE), a metabolite of p,p'-dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT). Native American communities may be at increased risk of exposure through subsistence-based diets and greater physical contact with contaminated soil and water. In this article we describe the levels of toxicants (PCBs, p,p'-DDE, HCB, mirex, lead, and mercury) among youth 10-17 years old (n = 271) of the Akwesasne Mohawk Nation. Ultratrace, congener-specific PCB analysis of human serum quantitated 83 PCB congeners (plus 18 as pairs/triplets), in addition to p,p'-DDE, HCB, and mirex, and included all major Aroclor-derived congeners typically present in human samples. Twenty congeners (in 16 chromatographic peaks) were detected in 50% or more of the individuals sampled [geometric mean (GM) of the sum of these congeners = 0.66 ppb]. Thirteen congeners (in 10 peaks) were detected in 75% or more of the samples (GM = 0.51 ppb). Of the 20 congeners detected in 50% or more of the samples, 17 had five or more chlorine substitutions. International Union for Pure and Applied Chemistry congeners 118, 101(+90), and 153 were detected in nearly all participants (GM = 0.06 ppb, 0.05 ppb, 0.09 ppb, respectively). p,p'-DDE and HCB were detected in 100% and 98% of the samples (GM: p,p'-DDE = 0.37 ppb; HCB = 0.03 ppb). Mirex was detected in approximately 46% of the samples (GM = 0.02 ppb). No cases of elevated lead level were observed. One participant had a mercury level marginally higher than the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's current level of concern (0.50 microg/dL). Although differences in analytic methods and participant ages limit comparability, toxicant levels from the Mohawk youth are lower than those associated with severe food contamination (Yusho and Yu-cheng) but similar to other chronically exposed groups.

Full Text

The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (148.5 KB).

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Arquette Mary, Cole Maxine, Cook Katsi, LaFrance Brenda, Peters Margaret, Ransom James, Sargent Elvera, Smoke Vivian, Stairs Arlene. Holistic risk-based environmental decision making: a Native perspective. Environ Health Perspect. 2002 Apr;110 (Suppl 2):259–264. doi: 10.1289/ehp.02110s2259. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Brock J. W., Burse V. W., Ashley D. L., Najam A. R., Green V. E., Korver M. P., Powell M. K., Hodge C. C., Needham L. L. An improved analysis for chlorinated pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in human and bovine sera using solid-phase extraction. J Anal Toxicol. 1996 Nov-Dec;20(7):528–536. doi: 10.1093/jat/20.7.528. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Brouwer A., Longnecker M. P., Birnbaum L. S., Cogliano J., Kostyniak P., Moore J., Schantz S., Winneke G. Characterization of potential endocrine-related health effects at low-dose levels of exposure to PCBs. Environ Health Perspect. 1999 Aug;107 (Suppl 4):639–649. doi: 10.1289/ehp.99107s4639. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Bush B., Snow J., Koblintz R. Polychlorobiphenyl (PCB) congeners, p,p'-DDE, and hexachlorobenzene in maternal and fetal cord blood from mothers in Upstate New York. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol. 1984 Sep;13(5):517–527. doi: 10.1007/BF01056331. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Carpenter D. O., Arcaro K. F., Bush B., Niemi W. D., Pang S., Vakharia D. D. Human health and chemical mixtures: an overview. Environ Health Perspect. 1998 Dec;106 (Suppl 6):1263–1270. doi: 10.1289/ehp.98106s61263. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Chiarenzelli J., Pagano J., Scrudato R., Falanga L., Migdal K., Hartwell A., Milligan M., Battalagia T., Holsen T. M., Hsu Y. Enhanced airborne polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) concentrations and chlorination downwind of Lake Ontario. Environ Sci Technol. 2001 Aug 15;35(16):3280–3286. doi: 10.1021/es010519a. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. DeCaprio A. P., Tarbell A. M., Bott A., Wagemaker D. L., Williams R. L., O'Hehir C. M. Routine analysis of 101 polychlorinated biphenyl congeners in human serum by parallel dual-column gas chromatography with electron capture detection. J Anal Toxicol. 2000 Sep;24(6):403–420. doi: 10.1093/jat/24.6.403. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. DeKoning E. P., Karmaus W. PCB exposure in utero and via breast milk. A review. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 2000 May-Jun;10(3):285–293. doi: 10.1038/sj.jea.7500090. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. DeVoto E., Fiore B. J., Millikan R., Anderson H. A., Sheldon L., Sonzogni W. C., Longnecker M. P. Correlations among human blood levels of specific PCB congeners and implications for epidemiologic studies. Am J Ind Med. 1997 Dec;32(6):606–613. doi: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0274(199712)32:6<606::aid-ajim6>3.0.co;2-n. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Duarte-Davidson R., Wilson S. C., Jones K. C. PCBs and other organochlorines in human tissue samples from the Welsh population: II--Milk. Environ Pollut. 1994;84(1):79–87. doi: 10.1016/0269-7491(94)90073-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Fitzgerald E. F., Deres D. A., Hwang S. A., Bush B., Yang B. Z., Tarbell A., Jacobs A. Local fish consumption and serum PCB concentrations among Mohawk men at Akwesasne. Environ Res. 1999 Feb;80(2 Pt 2):S97–S103. doi: 10.1006/enrs.1998.3908. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Fitzgerald E. F., Hwang S. A., Brix K. A., Bush B., Cook K., Worswick P. Fish PCB concentrations and consumption patterns among Mohawk women at Akwesasne. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 1995 Jan-Mar;5(1):1–19. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Fitzgerald E. F., Hwang S. A., Bush B., Cook K., Worswick P. Fish consumption and breast milk PCB concentrations among Mohawk women at Akwesasne. Am J Epidemiol. 1998 Jul 15;148(2):164–172. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009620. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Goran M. I., Kaskoun M., Johnson R., Martinez C., Kelly B., Hood V. Energy expenditure and body fat distribution in Mohawk children. Pediatrics. 1995 Jan;95(1):89–95. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Greizerstein H. B., Gigliotti P., Vena J., Freudenheim J., Kostyniak P. J. Standardization of a method for the routine analysis of polychlorinated biphenyl congeners and selected pesticides in human serum and milk. J Anal Toxicol. 1997 Nov-Dec;21(7):558–566. doi: 10.1093/jat/21.7.558. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Greizerstein H. B., Stinson C., Mendola P., Buck G. M., Kostyniak P. J., Vena J. E. Comparison of PCB congeners and pesticide levels between serum and milk from lactating women. Environ Res. 1999 Apr;80(3):280–286. doi: 10.1006/enrs.1999.3956. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Hansen L. G. Stepping backward to improve assessment of PCB congener toxicities. Environ Health Perspect. 1998 Feb;106 (Suppl 1):171–189. doi: 10.1289/ehp.98106s1171. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Harris S. G., Harper B. L. A Native American exposure scenario. Risk Anal. 1997 Dec;17(6):789–795. doi: 10.1111/j.1539-6924.1997.tb01284.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Karmaus W., DeKoning E. P., Kruse H., Witten J., Osius N. Early childhood determinants of organochlorine concentrations in school-aged children. Pediatr Res. 2001 Sep;50(3):331–336. doi: 10.1203/00006450-200109000-00007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Liem A. K., Fürst P., Rappe C. Exposure of populations to dioxins and related compounds. Food Addit Contam. 2000 Apr;17(4):241–259. doi: 10.1080/026520300283324. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Matthews H. B., Dedrick R. L. Pharmacokinetics of PCBs. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 1984;24:85–103. doi: 10.1146/annurev.pa.24.040184.000505. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Mazhitova Z., Jensen S., Ritzén M., Zetterström R. Chlorinated contaminants, growth and thyroid function in schoolchildren from the Aral Sea region in Kazakhstan. Acta Paediatr. 1998 Sep;87(9):991–995. doi: 10.1080/080352598750031671. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. McFarland V. A., Clarke J. U. Environmental occurrence, abundance, and potential toxicity of polychlorinated biphenyl congeners: considerations for a congener-specific analysis. Environ Health Perspect. 1989 May;81:225–239. doi: 10.1289/ehp.8981225. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Nawrot Tim S., Staessen Jan A., Den Hond Elly M., Koppen Gudrun, Schoeters Greet, Fagard Robert, Thijs Lutgarde, Winneke Gerhard, Roels Harry A. Host and environmental determinants of polychlorinated aromatic hydrocarbons in serum of adolescents. Environ Health Perspect. 2002 Jun;110(6):583–589. doi: 10.1289/ehp.02110583. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Osius N., Karmaus W., Kruse H., Witten J. Exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and levels of thyroid hormones in children. Environ Health Perspect. 1999 Oct;107(10):843–849. doi: 10.1289/ehp.99107843. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Palinkas L. A., Russell J., Downs M. A., Petterson J. S. Ethnic differences in stress, coping, and depressive symptoms after the Exxon Valdez oil spill. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1992 May;180(5):287–295. doi: 10.1097/00005053-199205000-00002. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Patandin S., Dagnelie P. C., Mulder P. G., Op de Coul E., van der Veen J. E., Weisglas-Kuperus N., Sauer P. J. Dietary exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins from infancy until adulthood: A comparison between breast-feeding, toddler, and long-term exposure. Environ Health Perspect. 1999 Jan;107(1):45–51. doi: 10.1289/ehp.9910745. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Ramil Criado M., Pereiro I. Rodríguez, Cela Torrijos R. Determination of polychlorinated biphenyl compounds in indoor air samples. J Chromatogr A. 2002 Jul 19;963(1-2):65–71. doi: 10.1016/s0021-9673(02)00643-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Safe S. H. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs): environmental impact, biochemical and toxic responses, and implications for risk assessment. Crit Rev Toxicol. 1994;24(2):87–149. doi: 10.3109/10408449409049308. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Schecter A., Stanley J., Boggess K., Masuda Y., Mes J., Wolff M., Fürst P., Fürst C., Wilson-Yang K., Chisholm B. Polychlorinated biphenyl levels in the tissues of exposed and nonexposed humans. Environ Health Perspect. 1994 Jan;102 (Suppl 1):149–158. doi: 10.1289/ehp.94102s1149. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Seegal R. F. Epidemiological and laboratory evidence of PCB-induced neurotoxicity. Crit Rev Toxicol. 1996 Nov;26(6):709–737. doi: 10.3109/10408449609037481. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Staessen J. A., Nawrot T., Hond E. D., Thijs L., Fagard R., Hoppenbrouwers K., Koppen G., Nelen V., Schoeters G., Vanderschueren D. Renal function, cytogenetic measurements, and sexual development in adolescents in relation to environmental pollutants: a feasibility study of biomarkers. Lancet. 2001 May 26;357(9269):1660–1669. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(00)04822-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Stehr-Green P. A. Demographic and seasonal influences on human serum pesticide residue levels. J Toxicol Environ Health. 1989;27(4):405–421. doi: 10.1080/15287398909531312. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Swanson G. M., Ratcliffe H. E., Fischer L. J. Human exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs): a critical assessment of the evidence for adverse health effects. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 1995 Feb;21(1):136–150. doi: 10.1006/rtph.1995.1018. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Environmental Health Perspectives are provided here courtesy of National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences

RESOURCES