A national study on teacher beliefs and practices in inclusive preschool education in Taiwan

Abstract

This study investigates Taiwanese preschool educators’ beliefs and teaching practices regarding inclusive education. Emphasizing the integration of children with disabilities into mainstream classrooms, inclusive education is crucial for fostering equitable and accessible learning environments for all children. A questionnaire survey was administered to 4,585 preschool teachers across various regions, exploring their attitudes toward inclusion, instructional strategies, and the challenges they face in implementing inclusive practices. The findings reveal a discernible gap between teachers’ positive views on inclusive education and their actual teaching practices. While educators generally endorse inclusive principles, implementation is hindered by challenges such as inadequate specialized training, insufficient resources, and inconsistent administrative support. The study underscores the necessity of enhanced professional development programs that equip teachers with the pedagogical skills and strategies, including principles of Universal Design for Learning, to effectively support the diverse needs of all students in inclusive settings. These insights contribute to the ongoing discourse on improving inclusive education policies and practices in Taiwan, advocating for a comprehensive approach that bridges theoretical understanding with practical application.

Introduction

Inclusive education prioritises respect for cultural diversity and individual differences. Its goal is to foster a fair and inclusive learning environment where children from different backgrounds and abilities are welcomed and provided equal opportunities for learning and development (UNESCO 2017, 2020). This approach aims to eliminate educational barriers, foster social integration, and ensure that all learners can participate and thrive within the educational framework (Anderson, Boyle, and Deppeler 2014). As a value system, inclusive education is characterised not by specific teaching styles but by foundational belief systems and attitudes, with research highlighting the significance of teacher attitudes in its implementation (Boyle, Anderson, and Allen 2020; Saloviita 2015).

Inclusive education emphasises the commonalities between children with disabilities and their typically-developing peers, advocating that all children, regardless of abilities, should have access to general education and the same learning environment. This guarantees that children with disabilities receive essential support and services in an integrated general education setting (Anderson and Boyle 2019; Sharma and Nuttal 2016). Studies that compared children’s learning experiences in either inclusive or segregated environments found that those in inclusive settings demonstrated better academic performance (Oh-Young and Filler 2015). Additionally, children with disabilities were motivated to engage socially without facing negative repercussions (Anderson and Boyle 2015), while children without disabilities experienced no adverse effects (Szumski, Smogorzewska, and Karwowski 2017).

According to Articles 13 and 14 of the Special Education Act, which was amended in Taiwan in 1997, children with disabilities must be placed in the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) as long as their learning needs can be met (People with Disabilities Rights Protection Act, 2021). Schools must establish standards to identify and provide services for children with special needs in the general education classroom. In 2011, the Ministry of the Interior amended Article 31 of the People with Disabilities Rights Protection Act, mandating educational authorities at all levels to allocate preschool resources, give priority to including children with disabilities in public preschools, and encourage private institutions to accept these children (People with Disabilities Rights Protection Act, 2021). Thus, the Taiwanese government has demonstrated its commitment to improving educational outcomes by placing children with disabilities in inclusive early childhood education settings.

This commitment aligns with General Comment No. 4 (2016) of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD), which emphasises that inclusive education is a fundamental human right, ensuring that children with disabilities receive education alongside their peers in mainstream settings. Both the latest version of the Special Education Act (2023) and its Enforcement Rules (2023) further emphasise that, to promote inclusion, schools should invest resources through multi-departmental and multi-channel efforts. These provisions reflect Taiwan’s transition to inclusive education for children with disabilities, aligning with the ethos of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), which advocates that all children, including those with disabilities, have the right to education in a supportive and inclusive environment (The World Bank 2024; UNESCO 2020; UNICEF 2017). The impact of these regulations on Taiwan’s inclusive preschool education placements is evident. From 2008 to 2012, the number of children with disabilities in itinerant resource programmes increased steadily from 10,341 to 12,486. By 2022, this number had nearly doubled to 25,742, while the number of children with disabilities in inclusive settings had reached 24,199 (Special Education Transmit Net 2022). These figures demonstrate significant progress in Taiwan’s policies in inclusive education.

The effective implementation of inclusive education policies depends not only on legal frameworks but also on the beliefs, attitudes, and practices of educators (Dignath et al. 2022). As the primary facilitators of learning, teachers play a crucial role in fostering inclusive environments (Wilson, Woolfson, and Durkin 2020; Woodcock and Jones 2020). Their views on diversity and inclusion significantly impact the effectiveness of inclusive practices (Wilson et al. 2016). Studies show that teachers’ willingness to embrace inclusive education and their views on diversity are key to turning policies into effective classroom practices (Boyle, Anderson, and Allen 2020).

In Taiwan, as the concept of inclusive education evolves, it is crucial to understand and address the challenges that teachers face in driving progress. Studies show that simply modifying teaching methods is inadequate; real progress must initiate from changing educators’ beliefs and attitudes, which are essential for crafting an inclusive environment (Dignath et al. 2022; Miesera et al. 2019). While teacher beliefs have a significant impact on teaching quality (Dignath et al. 2022; Woodcock and Jones 2020), teaching experience also plays a crucial role in shaping these beliefs (Didion, Toste, and Filderman 2020; Fives and Buehl 2012; Klassen and Chiu 2011). This suggests that while teachers may hold positive beliefs about the concept of inclusive education, these perspectives may shift in actual teaching environments due to other influencing factors, subsequently affecting their practices.

Focus of the study

This study aimed to understand the beliefs and teaching practices of preschool teachers in Taiwan through a questionnaire survey. Using a self-report scale, this study could provide valuable insights into the impact of teachers’ attitudes and beliefs on the extent to which they create an inclusive classroom environment. Specifically, this study would shed light on teacher attitudes and beliefs that may need to be further refined to inform more effective inclusive education strategies in Taiwan.

Literature review

Implications of early childhood inclusion

The United States National Center on Educational Restructuring and Inclusion (1994) defined inclusive education as

The provision of services to children with disabilities, including those with severe disabilities, at the appropriate age in their neighbourhood school with the necessary support services and supplementary aids for both children and teachers to assure the children’s academic, behavioural, and social success, and to prepare them to participate as full and contributing members of society. (p. 15)

Frequently cited in inclusive education literature (Francisco, Hartman, and Wang 2020; Horn 2001; Lai 2024; McLeskey and Waldron 2000), it aligns with research emphasising the importance of customised interventions and comprehensive support systems for early childhood inclusion.

Since its emergence in the 1990s, inclusive education as a pedagogical approach has emphasised equality and integration by placing children with special educational needs in mainstream classrooms, enabling these children to learn alongside their typically-developing peers. It fosters the inclusion of both children with and without disabilities in the same classroom, creating a unified and inclusive environment that provides equal educational opportunities for all children (Anderson and Boyle 2015; Lai 2024; Sharma and Nuttal 2016). As outlined in the Salamanca Statement, inclusive schools bear the responsibility of providing all children, regardless of their differences or challenges, the opportunity to learn together (UNESCO 1994). To achieve this, teaching methods and curriculum need to be adapted to meet the diverse needs of children, thereby creating an environment that fosters the growth of all (Huang 2021). Moreover, schools that embrace inclusive education should likewise cultivate inclusive cultures and implement inclusive policies and practices (Booth and Ainscow 2002).

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) highlights the fundamental right of children to receive inclusive education, which is crucial for their development and social integration. Article 23 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) states that children with disabilities should be empowered to lead fulfilling lives and receive educational support that promotes their inclusion in society. Similarly, the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) (2016) also emphasises the importance of inclusive education for individuals with disabilities. Article 24 of the CRPD requires educational systems to implement inclusive practices at all levels, ensuring that children with disabilities have access to mainstream schools and the necessary support to thrive both academically and socially. UNESCO (2020) further emphasises the importance of providing individualised support to ensure successful inclusion in early childhood education, highlighting the need for both classroom adaptations and specialised services. Universal Design for Learning (UDL) complements these efforts by offering a framework that addresses the diverse needs of all children, ensuring that educational materials and environments are accessible and effective for everyone (Priyadharsini and Mary 2024).

The early childhood stage is particularly vital as it initiates the process of inclusive education for young children and establishes a foundation for future efforts. In 2009, the United States Council for Exceptional Children (CEC), the Division for Early Childhood, and the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) highlighted access, participation, and support as core principles essential for high-quality inclusive education. Educators are encouraged to collaborate with other professionals to design diverse learning experiences and activities, making necessary adjustments for children who require additional support to meet the needs of both the children and their families (DEC/NAEYC 2009).

Studies show that early childhood inclusion programmes benefit children with disabilities by enhancing social interactions, boosting developmental outcomes, and improving academic readiness (Hanline, Eldridge, and Robbins 2024; Lai 2024; Odom, Buysse, and Soukakou 2011). Furthermore, research indicates that inclusion in early childhood settings strengthens peer relationships and supports language development for children with autism and other developmental conditions (Kasari et al. 2012; Zakai-Mashiach, Dromi, and Al-Yagon 2021). Additionally, practical teacher training and family involvement are also essential for the success of early childhood inclusion (Batu 2010; Guralnick 2015).

When examining educational systems, the placement and support for children with special needs are influenced by the severity of their disabilities, their learning abilities, and the teacher-to-child ratios. Research indicates that inclusive education should focus on four key dimensions: the psychological environment, the physical environment, curriculum and instruction, and support systems (Huang et al. 2017; Lai 2024). The psychological environment should promote acceptance and support the right to education for all children. The physical environment must ensure accessibility and the provision of necessary learning aids tailored to meet the unique needs of children. The curriculum and instruction should enhance teacher skills and foster collaboration between general and specialised education teachers, ensuring that every child is fully engaged while receiving personalised support and assessment. Finally, support systems should highlight the importance of administrative backing and external professional expertise, which include parental involvement and policy development, to provide essential assistance within the educational framework (Ainscow 2020).

Research has also indicated that applying UDL principles in early childhood education significantly enhances inclusive practices for all children (Lohnmann, Hovey, and Gauvreau 2018). Meyer, Rose, and Gordon (2014) explain that UDL enables educators to anticipate and meet children’s diverse needs and preferences, thereby minimising learning barriers. By designing adaptable lessons, teachers can promote full participation in classroom activities for all children, including those with disabilities. Incorporating UDL strategies in the classroom can also enhance children’s engagement and motivation through a range of activities (Hovey, Gauvreau, and Lohmann 2022). They are particularly effective in addressing the diverse learning needs of young children. According to Praveen et al. (2024), applying UDL principles enables teachers to tailor their instruction to meet the varying developmental levels and learning styles of children.

While UDL offers advantages for fostering inclusive early childhood education, challenges persist, including inadequate teacher training and limited resources to address diverse learning needs (Evmenova 2018; Taylor, Neild, and Fitzpatrick 2023). On the other hand, international reports of Taiwan’s implementation of the CRPD suggest that Taiwan primarily views inclusive education as merely a means to integrate students with special needs rather than as a way to meet the needs of all learners (Ministry of Health and Welfare, Social Affairs and Family Republic of China (Taiwan), 2022). This could be rectified by implementing UDL principles not only in the school setting but also throughout society.

Relationship between preschool educators’ beliefs and teaching practices

Research has demonstrated that teachers’ beliefs profoundly impact their behaviour, cognition, and decision-making in teaching (Beach and Willows 2017; Dignath et al. 2022; Lin 1999). However, discrepancies often exist between teachers’ beliefs and their classroom practices (Miguel 2019). Clark and Peterson (1986) provide a thorough resource for understanding the cognitive dimensions associated with teachers’ instructional decision-making. Their model highlights several factors but specifically focuses on teacher beliefs, contextual influences, and the decision-making process (Clark and Peterson 1986). Central to this model are teachers’ beliefs, which inform their general convictions about teaching, learning, and their students’ abilities, potentially shaping their instructional practices. This is supported by other studies, which suggest that, when teachers value differentiated instruction, they are more likely to adjust their lessons to meet the diverse needs of their students (Dignath et al. 2022).

In addition to personal beliefs, the model emphasises contextual factors that affect the teaching situation. These factors include the school’s culture, administrative policies, resource availability, and societal norms, which together shape instructional practices and significantly influence teachers’ thoughts and decisions (Clark and Peterson 1986). Supportive school leadership has been found to facilitate teachers’ involvement in innovative teaching practices, fostering a culture of professional growth and experimentation (Fullan 2001).

The model also examines the cognitive components of decision-making. Teachers conduct various cognitive activities, such as problem-solving, reflection, and evaluation, in the decision-making process (Clark and Peterson 1986). This focus on cognitive activity serves to emphasise the layered nature of teaching decisions, which take shape as a result of the relationship between beliefs and various real-world and immediate factors, rather than as unique events. This suggests that the process of decision-making is not linear nor straightforward, but is rather a dialogue with constant revisions of strategies in response to evolving classroom dynamics. For example, a teacher may start a lesson with certain assumptions about real-world strategies, but may change their approach instantly as they notice the children’s involvement and comprehension throughout the lesson. This balance is crucial to good teaching, enabling teachers to meet the immediate needs of their children, while adhering to their core educational principles.

Teacher cognition consists of three layers: (1) cognitive foundations; (2) cognitive planning that occurs before and after action; and (3) cognitive processing that occurs during an action (Clark and Peterson 1986). The variables, such as teacher behaviour and observed effects, consist of children’s behaviour, the classroom environment, and the effects on learning. As such, there is a bidirectional relationship between teachers’ cognition and the (outward) effects, presenting a strong correlation between teachers’ beliefs and actions. Furthermore, Clark and Peterson (1986) stressed how extraneous constraints and incidental variables, that is, the teacher situation, the school organisational milieu, and the larger social and cultural setting, shape the reciprocal relations among the realm of thought activity, the domain of action, and the sphere of manifest effects under the framework.

In the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) (Ajzen 1991, 2019) shown in Figure 1, which shares many similarities with Clark and Peterson (1986) work as it concerns the development of behavioural intentions and the processes that shape them. TPB is one of the social cognitive theories frequently employed to explain the psychological determinants of health behaviours. Specifically, the theory suggests that beliefs about behaviour, normative expectations, and control beliefs are determinants of intention and are among the primary antecedents of actual behaviour. For preschool inclusion, teachers’ perceptions and attitudes toward inclusion significantly impact their instructional approaches and practices. Teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion lead them to engage in proactive behaviours to facilitate the participation of all children (Ainscow 2020; Dignath et al. 2022; Miesera et al. 2019).

Figure 1.

Theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen 2019).

Studies on the model point to a demonstrable correlation between teachers’ beliefs and their instructional practices, where their beliefs have a significant impact on how they behave in the classroom. Additionally, they receive feedback on their children’s learning results, which in turn influences their beliefs, allowing for ongoing interaction as a whole. However, beliefs and teaching are strongly correlated, and both can yield different outcomes based on external conditions and restrictions. Fang (1998) identified three types of relationships: teachers’ beliefs and teaching practices, the mutual influence between beliefs and behaviours, and the influence of external factors on teachers’ beliefs and students’ linguistic behaviour. Subsequently, Niu (2022) investigated the mentalisation and preparedness of teachers for inclusive education, demonstrating that attitude and belief are the primary factors influencing teachers’ nature, skills, and actions. Wang (2000) indicated that regular interaction, which is inherent in teaching, continually promotes self-reflection during lessons and allows teachers to alter their strategies through associations with the children.

Moreover, teachers’ implicit inclusive beliefs have an impact on early childhood inclusion in preschools. Florian (2008) claimed that preschool teachers with a positive implicit theory of inclusion recognise its need and are more engaged with children with disabilities and inclusive teaching strategies. In this case, teachers are better equipped to implement inclusive practices, ensuring that children receive the necessary support and have their needs met, while complying with the requirements. In contrast, when teachers hold a negative implicit theory, they are less inclined to participate in the early implementation phase. Teachers’ restrictive attitudes toward collective participation in preschools were often influenced by their fears of inadequacy and negative perceptions of special education (Avramidis and Norwich 2002; Sharma, Loreman, and Forlin 2008). Therefore, recognising and addressing teachers’ beliefs is crucial for promoting successful early childhood inclusion.

In summary, beliefs about inclusion significantly impact teachers’ attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control. Collectively, these elements shape their intentions and actions in the classroom. According to the TPB (Ajzen 1991), teachers who hold positive attitudes toward inclusive education, recognise supportive social norms, and have confidence in their ability to implement inclusive practices are more likely to engage in behaviours that promote an inclusive environment. This theoretical framework elucidates the motivations and actions teachers adopt to support all children, highlighting the necessity of a nurturing ecosystem for effective inclusion.

In Taiwan, due to policy influences and teacher training, preschool educators play a crucial role in creating inclusive early education environments. To enhance the competencies of preschool educators in inclusive education, the government provides specialised courses and seminars that equip them with essential knowledge and skills, thereby increasing their ability to lead inclusive classrooms. As teachers’ teaching beliefs and attitudes significantly impact their instructional practices, this study examines the extent to which preschool educators’ beliefs about inclusive education are reflected in their teaching practices.

Research method and instrument

This study examined inclusive preschool teachers across Taiwan, including the Penghu, Kinmen, and Lienchiang areas. It involved preschool educators, including teachers, caregivers, and assistants, from both public and private preschools that serve children with disabilities. Utilising data from the Ministry of Education’s Special Education Reporting System, 18,479 children with disabilities were identified as enrolled in preschools in 2020. Additionally, local government education bureaus provided information on the number of teachers in classrooms serving children with disabilities. Since this data only included preschools enrolling children with disabilities, telephone follow-ups were conducted using public and private preschool directories from each county and city. Ultimately, the total number of inclusive preschool teachers was determined to be 8,186.

To ensure the representativeness of the sample, stratified sampling was used to classify teachers according to four regions: Northern Taiwan (22.1%, 1,810 teachers), Central Taiwan (31.1%, 2,547 teachers), Southern Taiwan (36.9%, 3,018 teachers), and Eastern/Outlying Islands (9.9%, 811 teachers). A questionnaire was distributed to all 8,186 teachers, addressing their backgrounds, teaching experience, and issues related to inclusive education. A total of 4,585 valid responses were collected, resulting in a response rate of 56%. This method ensured comprehensive data collection and reliable outcomes.

The ex post facto method was employed to study preschool teachers in inclusive classrooms across Taiwan through a questionnaire survey. It aimed to assess their inclusive beliefs and teaching practices while examining the effects of various teacher-related variables, such as teaching type, credentials, educational attainment, expertise in special education, teaching experience, familiarity with inclusion, access to special education-related services, and administrative support. Additionally, the study investigated the gaps between teachers’ inclusive beliefs and teaching practices, employing correlation analysis to uncover relationships among influencing factors.

This study employed a self-developed ‘Scale of Inclusive Education Beliefs and Practices for Early Childhood Teachers’ as the research instrument. The scale was created based on a comprehensive literature review, aimed at effectively examining early childhood teachers’ beliefs about inclusive education and their practical applications in the classroom. The design process drew on both domestic and international studies related to inclusive education for young children, incorporating elements like curriculum design and teaching principles suitable for all children. It underscored that high-quality early childhood education is a crucial prerequisite for inclusive education. After completing the scale, eight experts and scholars in relevant fields conducted content validity evaluations, ensuring its professionalism and applicability.

The instrument consisted of two scales: ‘Teachers’ Inclusive Education Beliefs’ and ‘Teachers’ Inclusive Education Practices’. The ‘Teachers’ Inclusive Education Beliefs’ scale included items related to the fundamental knowledge of inclusive education, the concept of equal educational rights, curriculum and teaching principles, children’s learning, a basic understanding of Individualised Education Plans (IEPs), administrative support in meeting individual needs, and placement attitudes. On the other hand, the ‘Teachers’ Inclusive Education Practices’ scale addressed classroom management and family support, interaction opportunities, the practical implementation of curriculum and teaching, support for children’s learning, teaching strategies, and equitable education.

Respondents provided answers based on their perceptions and actual experiences using a five-point Likert scale. The options for the ‘Beliefs’ scale included: strongly disagree (1), disagree (2), neutral (3), agree (4), and strongly agree (5); the options for the ‘Practices’ scale comprised: never (1), rarely (2), sometimes (3), often (4), and always (5). Reverse-scored items were calculated inversely, with higher scores indicating better performance on the respective scale.

To evaluate the structure and reliability of the scale, an Exploratory Factor Analysis was conducted. Factor analysis aims to explain a set of correlated variables using a few latent factors, while retaining as much information as possible from the original data. The analysis results showed that the Cronbach’s α values for most factors exceeded 0.70 although a few factors (e.g. ‘Teaching Strategies’ and ‘Equitable Education’) did not, but were still above 0.50. However, the α value for ‘Placement Attitudes’ was relatively low at below 0.50. Overall, the Cronbach’s α value for the entire scale exceeded 0.05, indicating a certain degree of reliability.

Research results

Significant differences in inclusive beliefs and teaching practices between public and private preschool teachers

Among the six factors identified in the inclusive beliefs scale, private preschool teachers rated significantly higher than their public counterparts in three areas: ‘basic knowledge about inclusion’, ‘concepts of equal right to education’, and ‘basic understanding of IEPs’. This suggests that private preschool teachers have stronger beliefs regarding inclusion. In terms of teaching practices, private preschool teachers also excelled compared to public teachers in several key areas, including ‘classroom management and family support’, ‘encouragement of interactions and provision of opportunities’, ‘practical application of curriculum and teaching’, and ‘supporting children’s learning’. Public preschool teachers achieved significantly higher scores than private teachers only in ‘placement attitudes’ on the inclusive beliefs scale, as well as ‘equal education’ on the teaching practices scale.

Prior studies with Taiwanese preschool teachers suggest that teacher type, whether public or private preschool educators, did not result in significant differences in their teaching beliefs (Wang and Shen 2011). Generally, public school teachers held more open and accepting attitudes toward inclusion compared to private school teachers. However, findings from the current study reveal that private preschool teachers scored higher in both inclusive beliefs and teaching practices than their public preschool counterparts.

This may be attributed to the implementation of the Early Childhood Education and Care Act in 2011, which led to the integration of preschool and kindergarten, as well as the impact of a declining birth rate. The Ministry of the Interior (2023) released population statistics indicating that the number of newborns was only 135,000, marking a historic low. This situation may have prompted many private preschools to accept children with disabilities, similar to public preschools, in order to maintain adequate enrolment. Similarly, following the implementation of the preschool-kindergarten integration policy, analysis of environmental factors suggests that the environments and teacher attitudes in many private preschools have become more supportive of children with disabilities aged 2 to 3 years. In contrast, the environments in most public preschools have largely remained unchanged post-integration; specifically, public preschools typically offer only a few classes for children under 3 years old, making them appropriate only for those aged 3 and older. Although two teachers are typically assigned to each class, with 24 children per class, the presence of children with disabilities may complicate class management if teachers do not adapt their co-teaching methods. Table 1 shows the effect of the type of preschool on teachers’ inclusive beliefs and teaching practices.

Table 1.

Effect of preschool attributes on inclusive beliefs and teaching practices.

Item	Attribute	N	Mean	SD	T value	Significance
Basic knowledge about inclusion	Public	2864	19.43	2.98	−4.035***	0.00
	Private	1526	19.81	2.99
Concept of equal right to education	Public	2909	23.14	3.49	−4.161***	0.00
	Private	1556	23.59	3.34
Curriculum, teaching, and children’s learning	Public	2900	23.19	2.49	0.819	0.413
	Private	1558	23.12	2.60
Basic understanding of IEPs	Public	2941	12.81	1.73	−2.205*	0.028
	Private	1580	12.93	1.78
Meeting children’s individual needs through administrative support	Public	2910	20.83	2.47	1.226	0.22
	Private	1557	20.74	2.43
Placement attitudes	Public Private	2900 1559	14.81 14.57	1.57 1.61	4.684***	0.00
Classroom management and family support	Public	2871	39.16	4.64	−2.551*	0.011
	Private	1523	39.54	4.79
Provision of opportunities and encouragement of interactions	Public	2880	29.23	3.20	−2.795**	0.005
	Private	1523	29.51	3.28
Practical implementation of curriculum and teaching	Public	2848	35.17	4.31	−3.314***	0.001
	Private	1507	35.63	4.28
Support for children’s learning	Public	2834	19.20	2.25	−7.032***	0.00
	Private	1512	19.71	2.28
Teaching strategies	Public	2955	7.75	1.39	−1.905	0.057
	Private	1588	7.84	1.55
Equal education	Public Private	2904 1545	9.61 8.98	2.29 2.29	8.687***	0.00
Inclusive beliefs scale total	Public	2739	114.23	8.74	−1.995*	0.046
	Private	1454	114.81	9.03
Teaching practices scale total	Public	2703	140.18	13.65	−2.969**	0.003
	Private	1423	141.53	13.91
Total	Public	2535	254.44	20.00	−3.01**	0.003
	Private	1329	256.50	20.40

Significant differences in inclusive beliefs and teaching practices based on credentials in early childhood education

The study indicated significant differences (p < 0.001) among varying types of credentials within early childhood education, particularly in areas derived from the inclusive beliefs scale: ‘basic knowledge about inclusion’, ‘curriculum, teaching, and children’s learning’, ‘addressing children’s individual needs through administrative support’, and ‘placement attitudes’. Educare teachers and assistants outperformed early childhood education teachers in the area of ‘basic knowledge about inclusion’. However, early childhood education teachers excelled in ‘curriculum, teaching, and children’s learning’, ‘meeting children’s individual needs through administrative support’, and ‘placement attitudes’ when compared to educare teachers and assistants. On the other hand, on the teaching practices scale, early childhood education teachers outperformed educare teachers and assistants in ‘provision of opportunities and encouragement of interactions’, ‘practical implementation of curriculum and teaching’, and ‘equal education’. Furthermore, early childhood education teachers achieved significantly higher overall scores on the teaching practices scale compared to educare teachers and assistants.

To a certain extent, this study’s findings suggest that educare teachers and assistants in early childhood education have more comprehensive beliefs about inclusive education than early childhood education teachers. However, on the teaching practices scale, those with early childhood education credentials scored higher. This discrepancy may be attributed to the existing trainings for preschool teachers. In Taiwan, teacher training for early childhood education and childcare includes basic content on special and inclusive preschool education. Additionally, municipal-level seminars and professional development courses often focus on practical strategies for implementing inclusive practices. Consequently, all teachers have a basic understanding of inclusive education concepts, regardless of their qualifications. However, in actual practice, educare teachers and assistants in early childhood education may lack the knowledge of methods and strategies necessary to implement inclusive education. Table 2 presents the results on the effect of teachers’ credentials in early childhood education on their inclusive beliefs and teaching practices.

Table 2.

Effect of credentials in early childhood education on inclusive beliefs and teaching practices.

Item		N	Mean	SD	T value	Significance
Basic knowledge about inclusion	No	1869	19.97	2.96	7.769***	0.00
	Yes	2511	19.26	2.98
Concept of equal right to education	No	1892	23.39	3.37	1.487	0.137
	Yes	2563	23.24	3.50
Curriculum, teaching, and children’s learning	No	1895	22.99	2.51	−3.999***	0.00
	Yes	2553	23.30	2.54
Basic understanding of IEPs	No	1923	12.83	1.79	−0.691	0.49
	Yes	2590	12.87	1.71
Meeting of children’s individual needs through administrative support	No	1897	20.58	2.52	−5.323***	0.00
	Yes	2561	20.97	2.38
Placement attitudes	No Yes	1899 2551	14.55 14.86	1.61 1.56	−6.303***	0.00
Classroom management and family support	No	1861	39.10	4.84	−2.41*	0.016
	Yes	2527	39.45	4.58
Provision of opportunities and encouragement of interactions	No	1860	29.14	3.38	−3.392***	0.001
	Yes	2535	29.48	3.10
Practical implementation of curriculum and teaching	No	1843	35.12	4.38	−2.904**	0.004
	Yes	2505	35.50	4.22
Support of children’s learning	No	1849	19.39	2.27	0.219	0.827
	Yes	2490	19.38	2.27
Teaching strategies	No	1930	7.82	1.47	1.387	0.166
	Yes	2604	7.76	1.42
Equal education	No Yes	1884 2558	8.91 9.74	2.26 2.29	−12.068***	0.00
Inclusive beliefs scale total	No	1778	114.38	9.11	−0.407	0.684
	Yes	2405	114.50	8.66
Teaching practices scale total	No	1737	139.58	14.08	−4.436***	0.00
	Yes	2382	141.49	13.42
Total	No	1623	254.06	20.64	−2.984**	0.003
	Yes	2233	256.02	19.74

Significant differences in inclusive beliefs and teaching practices based on credentials in special education

On the inclusive beliefs scale, teachers with credentials in special education outperformed preschool teachers without such credentials in ‘basic knowledge about inclusion’, ‘curriculum, teaching, and children’s learning’, ‘basic understanding of IEPs’, ‘meeting of children’s individual needs through administrative support’, and ‘placement attitudes’, with the difference being significant (p < 0.001). Similarly, on the teaching practices scale, teachers with credentials in special education scored significantly higher (p < 0.001) than those without in terms of ‘classroom management and family support’, ‘provision of opportunities and encouragement of interactions’, ‘practical implementation of curriculum and teaching’, and ‘equal education’. The results indicate that teachers with credentials in special education significantly outperformed those without credentials, both in inclusive beliefs and teaching practices. These findings also reaffirm that, although inclusive education is promoted in regular education settings, preschool teachers who hold both early childhood and special education credentials could implement inclusive education more effectively. Table 3 below summarises the results on the effect of teachers’ credentials in special education on their inclusive beliefs and teaching practices.

Table 3.

Effect of credentials in special education on inclusive beliefs and teaching practices.

Item		N	Mean	SD	T value	Significance
Basic knowledge about inclusion	No	4133	19.61	2.99	4.622***	0.00
	Yes	247	18.71	2.97
Concept of equal right to education	No	4206	23.28	3.43	−1.859	0.064
	Yes	249	23.71	3.62
Curriculum, teaching, and children’s learning	No	4196	23.11	2.51	−5.737***	0.00
	Yes	252	24.05	2.66
Basic understanding of IEPs	No	4258	12.84	1.75	−3.036**	0.002
	Yes	255	13.18	1.61
Meeting of children’s individual needs through administrative support	No	4207	20.76	2.45	−5.424***	0.00
	Yes	251	21.62	2.30
Placement attitudes	No Yes	4199 251	14.70 15.17	1.59 1.54	−4.584***	0.00
Classroom management and family support	No	4140	39.23	4.67	−4.204***	0.00
	Yes	248	40.52	4.99
Provision of opportunities and encouragement of interactions	No	4148	29.29	3.21	−3.656***	0.00
	Yes	247	30.06	3.40
Practical implementation of curriculum and teaching	No	4103	35.26	4.27	−5.101***	0.00
	Yes	245	36.69	4.55
Support for children’s learning	No	4098	19.37	2.26	−1.045	0.296
	Yes	241	19.53	2.37
Teaching strategies	No	4278	7.78	1.45	−1.882	0.06
	Yes	256	7.95	1.39
Equal education	No Yes	4189 253	9.34 10.26	2.30 2.37	−6.195***	0.00
Inclusive beliefs scale total	No	3945	114.33	8.88	−3.605***	0.00
	Yes	238	116.45	8.15
Teaching practices scale total	No	3893	140.41	13.62	−4.872***	0.00
	Yes	226	145.35	14.87
Total	No	3644	254.79	20.12	−5.123***	0.00
	Yes	212	262.06	19.35

Preschool teachers’ inclusive beliefs and teaching practices

Based on the data from Tables 4 and 5 below, teachers in early childhood classrooms demonstrated a high level of agreement with most items on the inclusive beliefs scale, suggesting a considerable understanding and endorsement of inclusive education principles. However, results on the teaching practices scale revealed a contradiction between early childhood teachers’ beliefs and practices. The items ‘The children in the class can complete the tasks I assign to them’, ‘I display the classroom rules and schedule in various formats (e.g. text and images) in the classroom, tailored to the individual needs of children with disabilities’, ‘I often provide individualised teaching and tutoring to children with disabilities, both in and outside the classroom’, and ‘I often invite the parents of children with disabilities to participate in and learn about learning activities in class’, had average scores that were lower than those of the other items. Additionally, ‘I believe that providing children with disabilities with pull-out one-on-one instruction in inclusive classes tailored to their IEP goals is crucial’, had an average score of 4.08.

Table 4.

Preschool educators’ inclusive beliefs.

Item	Inclusive beliefs	Mean	SD
1	I believe that the core of inclusive education is that people are born equal and have an equal right to education.	4.31	0.66
2	I believe that children with disabilities have the right to learn alongside their typically-developing peers.	4.21	0.74
3	I believe that all children should receive an education in a regular classroom setting and have access to shared educational resources.	3.86	0.93
4	I believe that most children with disabilities perform better in inclusive classes than in special education classes.	3.61	0.87
5	I believe that children who may have disabilities, even without an official diagnosis, still require resources and special services in classes.	4.25	0.72
6	The best approach to implementing inclusive education is to do it.	3.66	0.90
7	For society, inclusive education is a policy that benefits children with disabilities but does not help typically-developing children.	2.60	1.00
8	Although inclusive education is an admirable concept, implementing it in regular classes can be challenging due to teachers’ often limited time for providing individualised instruction.	2.09	0.89
9	I believe that a comprehensive IEP is very important for children with disabilities.	4.24	0.69
10	A well-designed IEP can enhance teachers’ instruction in the classroom.	4.22	0.69
11	I believe that the content and goals of an IEP should be established in collaboration between professionals (speech therapists, occupational therapists, physical therapists, social workers, regular teachers, and special education teachers) and parents.	4.40	0.64
12	I believe that teachers should utilise school resources—human, material, and financial—to support the needs of children with disabilities.	4.20	0.70
13	I believe that children with disabilities have better learning achievement in a separate, special education class than in an inclusive class.	2.96	0.97
14	I believe that a kindergarten’s support for the implementation of inclusive education, through both teaching resources and human resources, is very important.	4.32	0.63
15	I believe that individualised learning is a learning model that every child requires.	4.12	0.74
16	I believe that teaching children with and without disabilities in the same classroom is feasible.	3.62	0.79
17	I believe that the design of a learning environment should comply with the needs of the children using it as much as possible.	4.05	0.72
18	I believe that adjustments to class environments should be made according to the individual needs of children in the class.	4.08	0.69
19	When children with disabilities are enrolled in regular classes, providing trained, full-time teaching assistants is crucial to improving the quality of inclusive education.	4.31	0.66
20	Inclusive education refers to placing children with disabilities in regular classes and providing them with educational support and services tailored to their needs, encouraging interactions with peers, and enhancing their learning.	4.28	0.64
21	I believe that when children with and without disabilities are in the same class, everyday teaching is very time-consuming.	3.50	0.95
22	I believe that when children with and without disabilities are in the same class, teaching is challenging.	3.05	0.96
23	I believe that children with special needs are more likely to be segregated in an inclusive classroom than children without disabilities.	2.94	0.97
24	I believe that children with disabilities require more attention from the teacher than do children without disabilities.	4.19	0.71
25	I believe that the core of inclusive education lies in whether teachers can adjust or revise the curriculum based on children’s abilities.	4.03	0.72
26	I believe that inclusive education involves implementing IEP goals in daily practice and classroom settings.	4.09	0.67
27	I believe that preschool educators (including teachers and educators) should proactively seek training in special education to help children with disabilities.	4.23	0.65
28	I believe that the parents of children with disabilities require more support and services from teachers than do parents of children without disabilities.	4.20	0.68
29	I would rather that the abilities of the children in my class were roughly equivalent.	2.42	0.90
30	I believe that typical children, after socialising with children with disabilities, will be more accepting of their differences and will learn to respect individuals different from themselves.	4.17	0.79
31	I believe that inclusive education is not suitable for all children with disabilities and that whether or not inclusion is appropriate should be determined by the child’s abilities.	1.89	0.87

Table 5.

Preschool educators’ teaching practices.

Item	Teaching practices	Mean	SD
1	The children in the class can complete the tasks I assign to them.	3.68	0.72
2	When I issue commands or instructions, they are tailored to meet each child’s individual needs.	3.76	0.65
3	I introduce the needs of the children with disabilities to the typically-developing children in my class, allowing the typically-developing children to understand their classmates with disabilities better.	4.03	0.68
4	I display the classroom rules and schedule in various formats (e.g. text and images) in the classroom, tailored to the individual needs of children with disabilities.	3.77	0.73
5	When teaching, I consider the diverse learning styles and individual needs of each child.	3.95	0.61
6	In my class, I provide children with disabilities with opportunities to develop self-esteem and self-confidence.	4.15	0.57
7	To cultivate an attitude of self-responsibility, I will ask children with disabilities to complete the same tasks or learning activities as their peers.	3.10	1.07
8	During group discussions, I give each child an opportunity to speak or share.	4.23	0.65
9	I typically assign a child with a disability to work with a typically-developing child to help them adapt in the class.	4.24	0.63
10	I regularly review whether the IEP goals have been met and revise any that are not suitable.	3.97	0.68
11	In class, I teach using group, team, or individual learning activities.	4.28	0.61
12	I discuss and set IEP content and goals with parents.	4.04	0.72
13	I reference the lesson goals in textbooks on the market and adjust them to fit the children with disabilities in my class.	3.80	0.89
14	I typically assign children with a favourable learning performance in my class to interact with children with disabilities.	4.17	0.64
15	Due to insufficient time to prepare for class, I cannot care for the learning needs of my children with disabilities.	2.88	0.93
16	I use various teaching materials and resources to enable children with disabilities to learn through different approaches.	3.97	0.62
17	I often provide individualised teaching and tutoring to children with disabilities, both in and outside the classroom.	3.78	0.71
18	I believe that providing children with disabilities with pull-out one-on-one instruction in inclusive classes tailored to their IEP goals is crucial.	4.08	0.64
19	Typically, I proactively search for resources and gather helpful information on special education.	3.92	0.67
20	I will guide children with and without disabilities to interact and play together.	4.17	0.60
21	Before class, I ensure that children with disabilities are focused.	3.95	0.66
22	I promote special education to parents of children in the class to help them understand the significance of inclusive education.	3.90	0.71
23	I display respect and esteem for children with disabilities in front of the other children.	4.08	0.64
24	Because children with disabilities may interrupt the class, for class discussions, I seat them in the back of the classroom to prevent other children from being affected.	3.41	1.11
25	Each child clearly understands the class goals, rules, and schedule.	3.96	0.66
26	I often use imitations or demonstrations, along with oral feedback, to help children with disabilities develop their social and emotional skills.	3.99	0.79
27	I can effectively assist children with disabilities in successfully transitioning between lessons and activities.	3.91	0.60
28	I can stimulate motivation to learn in children with disabilities and increase their frequency of participating in activities.	3.87	0.62
29	In the classroom, I will provide visual cues, gestures, or labels to help all the children understand the posted schedule or timetable.	3.99	0.62
30	I will often encourage and help children with disabilities discover and solve problems.	4.03	0.59
31	I will often refer to the IEP goals in daily life and provide opportunities for children to learn.	3.89	0.66
32	I often invite the parents of children with disabilities to participate in and learn about learning activities in class.	3.68	0.74
33	I often discuss and share some intervention methods and their effectiveness for children’s behavioural problems with the parents of children with disabilities.	3.95	0.66
34	When children with disabilities begin to have behavioural problems in class, I will help the typically-developing children understand the reasons behind their behaviours.	4.03	0.59
35	I will design goal-oriented activities or games to allow children with disabilities to develop friendships with typically-developing children.	4.00	0.63
36	I feel that the children with disabilities in my class have made close friends with their classmates.	3.88	0.77

The findings suggest that a considerable number of educators held persistent misconceptions about instructional approaches designed to support children with special needs in the early childhood setting. Specifically, these misunderstandings pertained to the implementation of IEPs and their application in facilitating the learning experiences of these children in everyday classroom activities, which also explains why teachers in several studies or practical situations have expressed that they do not have sufficient time to instruct children with disabilities and are unable to meet their needs (Huang 2021; Lai and Huang 2025; Liu 2020; Lu 2017). This might also explain why the item ‘I believe that teaching children with and without disabilities in the same classroom is feasible’ on the inclusive beliefs scale only had an average score of 3.62.

The core philosophy and teaching method of inclusive education involves incorporating IEP goals into children’s daily activities by modifying and adjusting the curriculum. This approach offers them practice opportunities. However, UDL advocates for the creation of learning environments that serve all children, rather than relying on individual modifications. Thus, the findings underscore the importance of enhancing professional development and training for early childhood educators, including itinerant special education teachers, to develop the essential concepts and skills necessary for delivering tailored education within inclusive settings. This study’s outcomes align with findings reported in 2025 (Lai and Huang 2025).

Discussion

The current study found that the majority of preschool teachers believe strongly in early childhood inclusion; however, a gap still exists in its practical implementation. Based on the theories reviewed earlier in this article, although preschool teachers may maintain a positive attitude toward inclusive education, indicating their support for the inclusive philosophy, this attitude does not always translate into actual behaviour. This may be due to challenges encountered in practice, such as a lack of resources or support. Moreover, as more children with disabilities are included in regular early childhood classrooms, the pressures from expectations set by society, the school administration, and parents, coupled with insufficient support from the workforce or peers, might impact practices in early childhood inclusion classrooms. Lastly, when preschool teachers experience a lack of support in necessary professional development or training, it can undermine their confidence in implementing best practices in early childhood inclusion and hinder their ability to translate their beliefs into concrete teaching actions.

The results of this study indicate that preschool teachers are presently unable to effectively utilize UDL strategies in their classroom instruction and curriculum development. This observation corroborates the findings of prior research, including Evmenova (2018) and Taylor, Neild, and Fitzpatrick (2023), both of whom similarly highlighted the insufficient application of UDL principles among preschool educators. Therefore, adopting UDL principles and integrating UDL-aligned instructional methods into early childhood professional development courses are essential for addressing this gap.

Early childhood education programmes in higher education may need to be re-evaluated to incorporate UDL into the curriculum design for pre-service teachers. Additionally, many preschool teachers face significant challenges in translating theoretical concepts into practical applications. Therefore, it is suggested that both professional development courses and university curricula include practical experience. This approach not only enables teachers to gain valuable experience but also enhances their confidence in teaching within inclusive early childhood classrooms.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the results of this study highlight that implementing inclusive education requires more than understanding its core principles; it necessitates the integration of comprehensive concepts and inclusive strategies. The preschool teachers expressed a keen interest in understanding what and how to teach in an inclusive classroom setting. It is crucial to facilitate strategic and skilful teaching practices within these environments, allowing educators to continuously self-assess the meaningful implementation of inclusive education. In Taiwan, preschool educator trainings often emphasise only the theoretical aspects of inclusive education. Developing more practical courses or practicums that blend theory with hands-on experience can significantly enhance preschool educators’ ability to apply these concepts in real-world settings. By doing so, they can better integrate UDL principles, which focus on providing multiple means of engagement, representation, and action and expression, ensuring that all children have equal opportunities to learn.

The journey toward implementing inclusive education is an ongoing, iterative process that involves continuous self-reflection and adjustments in practice by teachers. Throughout this process, educators may encounter setbacks and challenges. However, with a strong foundation of beliefs and support from professional supervisors, teachers can refine and develop their teaching strategies to successfully create an inclusive environment. This support enables them to gain valuable experience, reinforcing their understanding and application of inclusive education principles. Ultimately, this empowers them to truly achieve the goals and values of inclusive education, fostering a more inclusive learning environment in early childhood settings. By embedding UDL concepts into the curriculum, educators can create adaptable learning experiences that cater to the diverse needs of all children, ensuring that inclusive early childhood education is not just a goal but a reality.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Data availability statement

Data is available upon reasonable request