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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2025 Sep 16.
Published in final edited form as: Sch Psychol. 2025 Sep 1;41(2):150–160. doi: 10.1037/spq0000709

A Social-Contextual Analysis of African American Adolescents’ Coping Self-Efficacy

Caleb E Flack 1, Christopher R Whipple 2, W LaVome Robinson 3
PMCID: PMC12435913  NIHMSID: NIHMS2101938  PMID: 40892568

Abstract

Coping self-efficacy is linked to adaptive coping skills and improved psychological well-being, yet few studies have examined coping self-efficacy in African American adolescents. This study examined change over time in African American adolescents’ coping self-efficacy and the extent to which social-contextual factors (maternal warmth and community violence exposure) and gender are associated with coping self-efficacy. Participants were 160 African American adolescents who resided in a large Midwestern city. Ninth grade adolescents were followed through 10th grade and reported on coping self-efficacy, maternal warmth, and community violence exposure at four 6-month time intervals. Latent growth modeling (LGM) was used to examine change over time in coping self-efficacy, along with the effects of social-contextual factors and gender on coping self-efficacy. LGM results suggest that, on average, coping self-efficacy linearly declined over the course of ninth and 10th grade. Maternal warmth was associated with higher coping self-efficacy over time, whereas community violence exposure was not associated with coping self-efficacy. Girls reported a lower initial level of coping self-efficacy than boys at the start of ninth grade, but there was no difference in the slope (rate of change) of coping self-efficacy between girls and boys. Implications of study results for research and school-based, culturally and contextually relevant coping skills intervention for African American adolescents are discussed. Study limitations and future directions also are described.

Keywords: African American adolescents, coping self-efficacy, social-contextual factors

Adaptive coping skills are essential for African American adolescents (Cory et al., 2020), as they help protect them from social-contextual challenges such as structural racism (Cunningham et al., 2018). African American adolescents are disproportionately exposed to societal and environmental hardships, such as racial discrimination (English et al., 2020) and community violence (Kravtiz-Writz et al., 2022; Zimmerman & Mesner, 2013), that increase risk of mental health difficulties and maladaptive developmental trajectories (Copeland-Linder et al., 2010; English et al., 2020; Sargent et al., 2020). Adaptive coping skills mitigate the harmful effects of social-contextual stressors and promote well-being (Cory et al., 2020; Sanchez et al., 2013).

In keeping with Lazarus and Folkman’s (1984) definition, we use the term adaptive coping skills to refer to cognitive and behavioral strategies that allow one to successfully manage stress. Adaptive coping is context-dependent, meaning that use of a particular coping skill may be adaptive in one context but not another. For example, problem-focused coping, a coping skill that involves changing problematic aspects of a stressful event, may be adaptive when a stressor is controllable but maladaptive when a stressor is uncontrollable (Chesney et al., 2006). Race and factors associated with race may render differences relative to what is a controllable versus uncontrollable stressor (Sanchez et al., 2013). Research suggests the unique social context of African American youth often requires contextually sensitive adaptive coping skills, and these skills may be counterintuitive to traditional conceptualizations of adaptive coping (Cunningham et al., 2018; Sanchez et al., 2013; Woods-Jaeger et al., 2020).

Coping Self-Efficacy

Coping self-efficacy is defined as an individual’s confidence in their ability to adaptively cope with stress (Chesney et al., 2006). According to self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1977), coping-self efficacy supports the use of adaptive coping skills. Self-efficacy theory suggests that individuals who are more confident in their coping skills tend to expend more effort coping and persist in the face of challenges. Consistent with self-efficacy theory, research suggests that coping self-efficacy is associated with greater use of adaptive coping skills (Chesney et al., 2006), lower stress (ten Brink et al., 2021), and improved psychological well-being (Chesney et al., 2006; Liu et al., 2021; Prelow et al., 2006).

Social Context of Coping Self-Efficacy

The extant research literature is sparse relative to coping self-efficacy in African American adolescents. A phenomenological approach to ecological systems theory (Spencer et al., 1993) and self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1977) suggest that African American adolescents’ social context may influence their coping self-efficacy. A phenomenological approach to ecological systems theory proposes that distal and proximal social-contextual factors influence adolescents’ context appraisals (e.g., appraisal of a context as violent), which in turn influence adolescents’ self-efficacy beliefs and subsequent achievement and health outcomes. Taken together, a phenomenological approach to ecological systems theory and self-efficacy theory suggest that adolescents’ interactions with their peers, family, community, and other important parts of their social context may raise or lower their confidence in their ability to adaptively cope with life challenges. Within the broad scope of social-contextual factors, one factor that may support African American adolescents’ coping self-efficacy is maternal warmth (Gaylord-Harden et al., 2013; McCoy & Bowen, 2015). By contrast, a social-contextual factor that may lessen adolescents’ coping self-efficacy is community violence exposure (Dupéré et al. 2012). Below, we briefly review theory and research on the link between these social-contextual factors and coping self-efficacy, pointing to gaps in the literature on African American adolescents.

Maternal Warmth

African American mothers play a unique and important role in promoting adolescent development (Lambert et al., 2015; Stanik et al., 2013). Maternal warmth (i.e., mothers’ display of warmth and affection in the parent-child relationship) is linked to positive mental health and well-being in African American adolescents (Lambert et al., 2015; Pittman & Chase-Lansdale, 2001). Research findings suggest that maternal warmth may have distinct protective effects on adolescent development relative to parental warmth in general (del Barrio et al., 2016; Stanik et al., 2013). For example, a study by Stanik et al. (2013) found that maternal warmth was uniquely related to lower depressive symptoms in African American adolescents.

Self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1977) and a phenomenological approach to ecological systems theory (Spencer et al., 1993) lend support to the idea that maternal warmth may promote African American adolescents’ coping self-efficacy. According to self-efficacy theory, self-efficacy is partly shaped by the degree of support an individual receives in their social environment (Bandura, 1977). Consistent with this theoretical perspective, previous research suggests that social support is linked to stronger self-efficacy (Vieno et al., 2007). For African American adolescents, a socially supportive mother-child relationship may similarly promote coping self-efficacy. That is, it may be the case that African American Adolescents tend to view a warm, affectionate relationship with their mother as a form of social support they can draw upon to adaptively cope with life stressors. Spencer and colleague’s (1993) phenomenological approach to ecological systems theory posits that adolescents’ perception of their family environment is one context appraisal that shapes self-efficacy. Drawing on this theoretical perspective, adolescents’ perception of the affective quality of their relationship with their mother may be one context appraisal that influences their coping self-efficacy.

There is a paucity of research on the relation between maternal warmth and African American adolescents’ coping self-efficacy. Several studies have examined parenting support more broadly (rather than maternal warmth specifically) in relation to African American adolescents’ self-efficacy. Previous research suggests that supportive parenting is positively associated with several forms of self-efficacy in African American adolescents, including career self-efficacy (Alliman-Brissett et al., 2004) and self-efficacy in school (McCoy & Bowen, 2015). Research also suggests that supportive parenting is associated with usage of coping skills that are situationally adaptive, such as problem-focused coping and support-seeking coping (Gaylord-Harden et al., 2010; Gaylord-Harden et al., 2013). However, previous research has not examined the relation between maternal warmth and coping self-efficacy in African American youth. Examining maternal warmth specifically (as opposed to parenting support more broadly) may yield a more precise understanding of how the mother-adolescent relationship relates to adolescents’ confidence in coping with stress. We assert that research on the link between maternal warmth and coping self-efficacy may offer implications for school-based coping skills intervention for African American adolescents. If there is indeed a link between maternal warmth and stronger coping self-efficacy, this may lend support to coping skills intervention that engages mothers and supports maternal warmth as a way to enhance intervention effects.

Community Violence Exposure

Because of structural racism, African American adolescents are disproportionately exposed to community violence (Kravtiz-Writz et al., 2022; Zimmerman & Mesner, 2013). The risk of community violence exposure is particularly high for African American adolescents living in urban, low-resourced neighborhoods (Kravtiz-Writz et al., 2022; Richards et al., 2015). Community violence exposure (i.e., hearing reports of violence by others, directly witnessing violence, and/or directly experiencing violence) is associated with a range of mental health concerns in adolescence, including anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (Sargent et al., 2020). However, use of adaptive coping skills mitigates the negative effects of community violence exposure (Cory et al., 2020; DiClemente & Richards, 2022).

Community violence exposure can be an uncontrollable, unpredictable, and chronic stressor for African American adolescents in urban, low-resourced areas (Richards et al., 2015). In theory, when adolescents feel they do not have the capacity to adaptively cope with the challenges presented by community violence, their coping self-efficacy may decrease (Bandura, 1977). However, previous research on the relation between community violence exposure and coping self-efficacy in African American adolescents is limited. A study by Dupéré et al. (2012) examined the relation between community violence exposure and self-efficacy among adolescents in an urban area. Dupéré and colleagues’ study sample included African American adolescents and adolescents of other races/ethnicities, though the exact racial/ethnic composition of the sample is not reported, and the findings are not disaggregated by race/ethnicity. Self-efficacy was assessed via adolescent-report on a measure of self-efficacy in being safe in one’s neighborhood (e.g., travelling safely from one place to another) and self-efficacy about one’s future (e.g., becoming a successful person). Results suggest that adolescents living in more violent neighborhoods tended to report lower self-efficacy than their peers in less violent neighborhoods. Additionally, adolescents leaving violent neighborhoods tended to report higher self-efficacy than their peers staying in violent neighborhoods. Taken together, these results suggest a link between community violence exposure and lower self-efficacy in adolescence. However, prior research has not specifically examined the relation between community violence exposure and coping self-efficacy in African American adolescents, suggesting a need for further research to address this gap in the literature.

Research on community violence exposure and coping self-efficacy in African American adolescents may inform school-based coping skills intervention. If community violence exposure indeed reduces coping self-efficacy, this would lend support to the implementation of coping skills intervention with African American youth exposed to community violence, as a means of bolstering their confidence in coping with stress. Studying community violence exposure and coping self-efficacy in African American youth may yield findings that are especially helpful for school psychologists. As qualified school mental health professionals, school psychologists play an important role in supporting African American youth who are directly or indirectly exposed to community violence (Proctor et al., 2021). Through delivery of contextually sensitive intervention, school psychologists can help youth process and adaptively respond to distressing experiences of violence (Proctor et al., 2021).

Change Over Time in Coping Self-Efficacy

African American adolescents face unique social-contextual challenges that may affect how their coping self-efficacy changes over time (Copeland-Linder et al., 2010; English et al., 2020; Spencer et al., 1993). Research shows that African American adolescents commonly experience racial discrimination and that these experiences can negatively impact mental health and well-being (English et al., 2020), particularly so in the absence of adaptive coping responses (Cunningham et al., 2018). African American adolescents living in urban, low-resourced areas often experience the cumulative effects of stress exposure from racial discrimination in tandem with other social-contextual stressors (e.g., community violence, neighborhood concerns; Copeland-Linder et al., 2010). Adolescence is a particularly vulnerable time for African American youth relative to experiences of racial discrimination, as adolescents tend to become more aware of and sensitive to experiences of race-based discrimination while still developing skills for adaptively coping with those experiences (English et al., 2020; Umaña-Taylor et al., 2014). Importantly, many African American adolescents thrive in spite of exposure to chronic stress because of powerful protective factors (Prelow et al., 2007). However, self-efficacy theory suggests that when adolescents perceive social-contextual stressors as exceeding their coping capacity, their coping self-efficacy may decline over time (Bandura, 1977).

Research on change over time in coping self-efficacy among African American adolescents in urban, low-resourced neighborhoods may shed light on how coping self-efficacy develops in the context of unique social-contextual risk and protective factors. Importantly, studying change over time in coping self-efficacy could offer implications for school-based coping skills intervention for African American youth. Such research may suggest an opportune time for implementation of coping skills intervention based on the developmental trajectory of coping self-efficacy. However, previous longitudinal research on African American adolescents’ coping self-efficacy is lacking.

Gender Differences in Coping Self-Efficacy

An intersectional theory perspective (Crenshaw, 1989) suggests the importance of examining gender differences in coping self-efficacy in African American adolescents. Research on gender differences may shed light on how multiple intersecting, marginalized identities impact African American adolescents’ self-perceptions of their coping skills. At present there is a paucity of research, especially longitudinal research, on gender differences in coping self-efficacy in African American adolescents.

One study by Carlson and Grant (2008) found gender differences in coping behavior among African American adolescents. Specifically, girls tended to use more coping behavior that involved expressing emotions than boys. However, Carlson and Grant did not test for gender differences in change over time in coping behavior and did not examine coping self-efficacy. McKay et al. (2014) examined gender differences in several forms of self-efficacy in a sample of adolescents. Findings suggest that girls, on average, reported significantly lower social self-efficacy (confidence in socializing) but higher emotional self-efficacy (confidence in managing emotions) than boys. However, the racial/ethnic composition of the study sample was not reported. A longitudinal study by Booth et al. (2022) explored change over time in academic self-efficacy (confidence in one’s ability to succeed academically) in adolescence. Results suggest that girls tended to report lower academic self-efficacy than boys over time. Drawing on an intersectionality perspective, Booth et al. (2022) further examined academic self-efficacy based on both gender and ethnicity (White versus ethnically minoritized). Results suggest that ethnically minoritized girls typically reported lower academic self-efficacy compared to ethnically minoritized boys and White girls and boys. However, data in the study by Booth et al. were collapsed across all students categorized as ethnically minoritized and thus the relevance of the findings for African American adolescents specifically is uncertain. Further research is needed on gender differences in coping self-efficacy among African American adolescents.

The Present Study

This longitudinal study examined coping self-efficacy in African American adolescents living in urban, low-resourced neighborhoods, to inform research and practice on culturally and contextually sensitive coping skills intervention for African American adolescents. This study investigated change over time in African American adolescents’ coping self-efficacy and the extent to which social-contextual factors (maternal warmth and community violence exposure) and gender are associated with coping self-efficacy. The research questions were:

  1. To what extent does African American adolescents’ coping self-efficacy change over time?

  2. To what extent are social-contextual factors (maternal warmth and community violence exposure) associated with African American adolescents’ coping self-efficacy?

  3. To what extent are there gender differences in coping self-efficacy in African American adolescents?

Method

Participants and Setting

All 160 adolescents in the current sample identified as African American, and they attended one of four public high schools in a large Midwestern city. Of the participating adolescents, 57.5% self-reported as female and 42.5% self-reported as male, with an average age of 14.5 years (SD = .58). Most adolescents (75.2%) reported that their mother had graduated from high school, and 21.9% of adolescents reported that their mother had graduated from college or with an associate’s/technical degree. A majority of adolescents (80.5%) reported that their mother was their primary financial provider, and 87.5% of adolescents reported that their mother lived in the same household as them. Among the participating adolescents, 18.1% reported that both their mother and father lived with them, 20.7% reported that a grandparent lived with them, and 18.1% reported that an aunt/uncle lived with them. Adolescents’ average household size was 5.45 people (SD =1.93).

Procedure

The present study received approval from the DePaul University Institutional Review Board and the school district’s Research Review Board. This study was conducted as part of a randomized controlled trial (RCT) of a culturally adapted coping skills intervention for African American ninth-grade students (Grant HD072293). Participants in the current study sample are African American students (N = 160) randomly assigned to the standard care control condition of the RCT.

All ninth-grade students at the four participating high schools were invited to participate in the current study. Students were recruited for study participation by trained research staff at student enrollment days and during the academic school day. Interested students were provided with a student assent form and parent/guardian permission form. The consent rate (i.e., the percentage of students who returned signed student assent and parent/guardian permission forms out of the total number of students approached) was 78.5%. Participating students reported on coping self-efficacy, maternal warmth, and community violence exposure at a baseline assessment during fall of ninth grade (T1), six months after baseline (T2), 12 months after baseline (T3), and 18 months after baseline (T4). As part of the baseline assessment (T1), participating students also reported on sociodemographic characteristics for themselves (e.g., race, gender) and their mother (e.g., maternal education).

Measures

Coping Self-Efficacy

The Coping Self-Efficacy Scale (Chesney et al., 2006) measured coping self-efficacy. The Coping Self-Efficacy Scale is a 13-item, self-report, Likert-type scale designed to measure one’s confidence in adaptively coping with life challenges. Items assess confidence in using problem-focused coping (e.g., “make a plan of action and follow it when confronted with a problem” ), stopping unpleasant emotions and thoughts (e.g., ”make unpleasant thoughts go away”), and getting support from family and friends (e.g., “get emotional support from friends and family”). Response options range from 0 to 10 (0 = cannot do at all, 5 = moderately certain can do, and 10 = certain can do). Item scores are summed to create a total coping self-efficacy score, with higher scores indicating greater coping self-efficacy. The Coping Self-Efficacy Scale has demonstrated internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and both concurrent and predictive validity (Chesney et al., 2006). In previous research with adolescents, the Coping Self-Efficacy Scale has evidenced adequate reliability (Liu et al., 2021). The present study used adolescents’ total coping self-efficacy score to measure coping self-efficacy. The total coping self-efficacy score evidenced excellent internal consistency in the present sample (sample α = .90, .92, .93, and .94 at T1, T2, T3, and T4, respectively).

Maternal Warmth

The parental warmth/acceptance subscale of the Children’s Report of Parent Behavior Inventory (CRPBI; Schaefer, 1965; Schluderman & Schluderman, 1970) measured maternal warmth. The parental warmth/acceptance scale is a 10-item, self-report, Likert-type scale that measures perceptions of parental warmth in parent-child interactions. Respondents are asked to rate how well subscale items (e.g., “my mother is a person who believes in showing her love for me”, “my mother is a person who makes me feel better after talking over my worries with her”) describe their mothers, with response options ranging from 1 = not at all like her to 3 = a lot like her. Items are summed to compute a subscale score, with higher scores representing greater perceived maternal warmth. The CRPBI has evidence of internal consistency, reliability and validity (Schwarz et al., 1985; Wei & Kendall, 2014). In the present sample, the parental warmth/acceptance subscale of the CRPBI demonstrated excellent internal consistency (sample α = .94 at T1, T2, T3, and T4).

Community Violence Exposure

The Children’s Report of Exposure to Violence (CREV; Cooley et al., 1995) measured community violence exposure. The CREV is a 25-item, self-report inventory of the frequency of past-year community violence exposure, including reports of violence by others (e.g., “how many times have you been told a stranger was beaten up?) , directly witnessing violence (e.g., “how many times have you seen a stranger being shot or stabbed?”), and directly experiencing violence (e.g.,” how many times have you been robbed or mugged?”). Response options on the CREV range from 0 = no, never to 4 = every day. Items on the CREV are summed to compute a total score, with higher scores reflecting more exposure to community violence. The CREV has demonstrated construct validity, test-retest reliability, and internal consistency reliability (Cooley et al., 1995). We used the CREV total score to measure community violence exposure in the present study. In our sample, the CREV total score showed excellent internal consistency (sample α = .93, .96, .96, and .95 at T1, T2, T3, and T4, respectively).

Analysis Plan

This study employed latent growth modeling (LGM) using a structural equation modeling framework, performed in R with the lavaan package (Rosseel, 2012). We examined two unconditional growth models to determine the form of the growth trajectory of coping self-efficacy (Research Question 1). First, we examined a linear, unconditional growth model. The intercept was specified as adolescents’ initial level of coping self-efficacy at T1. Factor loadings for the intercept were fixed at 1 for T1, T2, T3, and T4. Factor loadings for the slope were fixed at 0 at T1, 1 at T2, 2 at T3, and 3 at T4, representing a linear trajectory of coping self-efficacy with four equally spaced measurement occasions. Next, we examined a quadratic growth model. A quadratic term was added to the linear model with factor loadings fixed at 0 at T1, 1 at T2, 4 at T3, and 9 at T4. To identify the best-fitting unconditional growth model, we compared the fit of the linear and quadratic growth models using the Bayesian Information Criteria (BIC). The linear growth model (BIC = 5910.47) showed better fit than the quadratic growth model (BIC = 6197.62) based on the BIC. Thus, we proceeded with the linear growth model as our chosen model.

We next examined a conditional growth model to determine the extent to which gender, maternal warmth, and community violence exposure are associated with coping self-efficacy (Research Questions 2 and 3). Gender was added as a time-invariant covariate predicting the coping self-efficacy intercept and slope. Maternal warmth and community violence exposure were added as time-varying covariates predicting coping self-efficacy at T1, T2, T3, and T4. We controlled for socio-demographic covariates (gender, maternal education [mother is or is not a high school graduate], and maternal financial support [mother is or is not an adolescent’s primary financial provider]) in the conditional growth model.

We used four fit indices to evaluate the fit of the growth models: the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), comparative fit index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), and standardized root mean square residual (SRMR). RSMEA values less than or equal to .05 indicate a good fit between a model and observed data (MacCallum et al., 1997). CFI and TLI values greater than or equal to .95 and SRMR values less than or equal to .08 also indicate a good model fit (Hu & Bentler, 1999).

We employed Mardia’s multivariate kurtosis and skewness tests to test the assumption of multivariate normality on continuous study variables. Both tests yielded a rejection of the null hypothesis (p’s < .01), indicating a violation of the multivariate normality assumption. Thus, we used maximum likelihood with robust standard errors as the estimator to account for multivariate non-normality. To handle missing data, we used multiple imputation with predictive mean matching in the mice R package (van Buuren & Groothuis-Oudshoorn, 2011). Multiple imputation has been shown to reduce bias and improve efficiency when relevant auxiliary information is available (Madley-Dowd et al., 2019). To provide relevant auxiliary information, we used all variables in the growth models in the imputation model, including socio-demographic covariates. We imputed 20 data sets with 10 iterations each. The percentage of missing data is shown in Table 1.

Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics

Study variable n % Missing M SD
Coping self-efficacy
   T1 160 0.0 73.09 27.08
   T2 144 10.0 67.97 29.21
   T3 119 25.6 65.24 29.25
   T4 103 35.6 64.62 28.31
Maternal warmth
   T1 160 0.0 24.06 5.63
   T2 143 10.6 24.08 5.78
   T3 119 25.6 24.45 5.78
   T4 103 35.6 24.25 5.55
Community violence exposure
   T1 160 0.0 26.98 16.13
   T2 144 10.0 23.40 20.26
   T3 119 25.6 21.97 19.72
   T4 103 35.6 23.70 18.73
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Note. Descriptive statistics are based on pre-imputation dataset. The full sample size was 160 participants.

Results

Tables 1 and 2 present descriptive statistics and correlation coefficients, respectively, for continuous study variables. Community violence exposure at T1 was statistically significantly higher than community violence exposure at T3 (p = .011), but there were no other statistically significant differences in community violence exposure between study timepoints. The variation in community violence exposure over time, from T1 to T3, lends support to our decision to include community violence exposure as a time-varying (as opposed to time-invariant) covariate in the conditional growth model.

Table 2.

Bivariate Pearson Correlation Coefficients

Study variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1. CSE T1 1
2. CSE T2 .53** 1
3. CSE T3 .55** .57** 1
4. CSE T4 .47** .57** .62** 1
5. MW T1 .26** .15 .25** .13 1
6. MW T2 .23** .30** .27** .14 .46** 1
7. MW T3 .28** .28** .28** .22* .58** .59** 1
8. MW T4 .27** .19* .31** .29** .32** .37** .50** 1
9. CVE T1 .02 .06 −.01 −.07 −.12 −.07 −.11 −.08 1
10. CVE T2 .01 .10 .05 .02 −.05 .03 −.02 .04 .51** 1
11. CVE T3 .04 −.01 .07 −.05 −.02 −.06 −.01 .04 .58** .53** 1
12. CVE T4 .15 .01 .11 .01 .00 .07 −.05 .02 .45** .44** .64** 1
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Note. N = 160. Correlation coefficients are based on post-imputation data sets and are pooled across 20 imputations. CSE = coping self-efficacy; MW = maternal warmth; CVE = community violence exposure.

*

p <.05.

**

p <.01.

The unconditional linear growth model (Figure 1) demonstrated good model fit (RMSEA = .000 [.000, 0.099], CFI = 1.000, TLI = 1.000, SRMR = .035). The intercept estimate (b = 71.76, SE = 2.37, b* = 3.39, p = .000) indicated that, on average, adolescents reported an initial coping self-efficacy score of 71.76. The linear slope of coping self-efficacy was negative (b = −2.57, SE = 0.83, b* = −0.50, p = .002), suggesting that, on average, there was a linear decline in adolescents’ report of coping self-efficacy during ninth and 10th grade. Figure 2 displays model-based estimates of coping self-efficacy during ninth and 10th grade based on the unconditional linear growth model. The covariance between the intercept and slope of coping self-efficacy was not statistically significant (b = −20.09, SE = 31.41, b* = −0.19, p = .523), suggesting that adolescents’ initial level of coping self-efficacy in ninth grade was not related to their rate of change over time in coping self-efficacy during ninth and 10th grade.

Figure 1. Unconditional Latent Growth Model of Coping Self-Efficacy.

Figure 1

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Note. N = 160. CSE = coping self-efficacy; T1 = baseline assessment during fall of ninth grade; T2 = six months after baseline; T3 = 12 months after baseline; T4 = 18 months after baseline.

Figure 2. Model-Based Estimates of Coping Self-Efficacy.

Figure 2

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Note. N = 160. Model-based estimates for coping self-efficacy are from the unconditional linear growth model. T1 = baseline assessment during fall of ninth grade; T2 = six months after baseline; T3 = 12 months after baseline; T4 = 18 months after baseline.

Table 3 presents model parameters for both the unconditional and conditional linear growth models. The conditional linear growth model showed good model fit (RMSEA = .000 [.000, 0.039], CFI = 1.000, TLI = 1.000, SRMR = .060). Maternal warmth was associated with higher coping self-efficacy (p’s < .05) at each of the four study timepoints during ninth and 10th grade, after controlling for socio-demographic covariates. A one standard deviation increase in maternal warmth was associated with between a 0.14 and 0.20 standard deviation increase in coping self-efficacy across the four timepoints. Community violence exposure was not associated with coping self-efficacy at any of the four study timepoints (p’s > .05). Gender was associated with the intercept of coping self-efficacy (b = −13.53, SE = 4.51, b* = −0.33, p = .003). On average, girls reported an initial coping self-efficacy score in the ninth grade that was approximately a third of a standard deviation lower than boys. Gender did not, however, significantly predict the slope of coping self-efficacy (b = 2.67, SE = 1.72, b* = 0.26, p = .121).

Table 3.

Model Parameters for Latent Growth Models of Coping Self-Efficacy

Parameter Unconditional growth model Conditional growth model
b (SE) b* p b (SE) b* p
Intercept 71.76 (2.37) 3.39 .000 48.31 (19.72) 2.41 .014
Slope −2.57 (0.83) −0.50 .002 −0.94 (7.13) −0.18 0.896
Intercept-slope covariance −20.09 (31.41) −0.19 .523 −4.88 (27.89) −0.06 .861
Time-varying covariates
   Maternal warmth (T1) 0.96 (0.34) 0.20 .004
   Maternal warmth (T2) 0.75 (0.27) 0.16 .006
   Maternal warmth (T3) 0.66 (0.28) 0.14 .018
   Maternal warmth (T4) 0.81 (0.35) 0.17 .023
   Community violence exposure (T1) 0.09 (0.14) 0.06 .502
   Community violence exposure (T2) 0.11 (0.10) 0.08 .249
   Community violence exposure (T3) 0.12 (0.10) 0.09 .230
   Community violence exposure (T4) −0.03 (0.11) −0.02 .769
Time-invariant covariates
   Adolescent gender (intercept) −13.53 (4.51) −0.33 .003
   Adolescent gender (slope) 2.67 (1.72) 0.26 .121
   Maternal education (intercept) −3.88 (4.98) −0.09 .435
   Maternal education (slope) 0.89 (1.75) 0.08 .612
   Maternal financial support (intercept) 14.91 (6.57) 0.29 .023
   Maternal financial support (slope) −2.82 (2.23) −0.22 .209
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Note. N = 160. Model parameters for unconditional linear growth and conditional linear growth model of coping self-efficacy are shown. Estimates for time-varying covariates represent effects of time-varying covariates on coping self-efficacy at T1, T2, T3, and T4. Estimates for time-invariant covariates represent effects of time-invariant covariates on intercept and slope growth factors for coping self-efficacy. The time invariant covariates are: adolescent gender (1 = female, 0 = male), maternal education (1 = high school graduate, 0 = not high school graduate), and maternal financial support (1 = mother is adolescent’s primary financial provider, 0 = mother is not adolescent’s primary financial provider). T1 = baseline assessment during fall of ninth grade; T2 = six months after baseline; T3 = 12 months after baseline; T4 = 18 months after baseline.

Discussion

The present study is the first, to our knowledge, to examine change over time in African American adolescents’ coping self-efficacy and extends prior research on the developmental trajectory of other forms of self-efficacy (e.g., academic self-efficacy) in adolescents representing diverse races/ethnicities (e.g., Booth et al., 2022). Results suggest that African American adolescents’ coping self-efficacy had a negative, linear trajectory during ninth and 10th grade. Thus, adolescents’ coping self-efficacy, on average, declined over the course of their first two years in high school. Given that coping self-efficacy is linked to the utilization of adaptive coping skills (Chesney et al., 2006) and positive mental health and well-being (Chesney et al., 2006; Liu et al., 2021), the decline in coping-self efficacy observed in our study may be cause for concern. This decline in coping self-efficacy may be partially explained by the fact that African American adolescents, particularly those in urban, low-resourced neighborhoods, are disproportionately exposed to social-contextual stressors because of structural racism (Copeland-Linder et al., 2010; English et al., 2020; Kravtiz-Writz et al., 2022). It may be the case that some adolescents perceived the chronicity and/or severity of social-contextual stressors they faced as exceeding their coping capacity, thus causing a decline in coping self-efficacy over time. Future research is needed to better understand social-contextual stressors that may contribute to a decline in coping self-efficacy as well as protective factors that offset a decline and promote coping self-efficacy.

One social-contextual factor that might contribute to a decline in coping self-efficacy among African American adolescents is racial discrimination. Research has shown that African American adolescents frequently experience racial discrimination (English et al., 2020) and that these experiences increase risk for mental health difficulties (Cunningham et al., 2018; English et al., 2020). As their racial identify develops, adolescents tend to become more sensitive to experiences of race-based discrimination (English et al., 2020; Umaña-Taylor et al., 2014). Meanwhile, their skills for adaptively coping with discrimination are often still developing (Umaña-Taylor et al., 2014). It may be the case that when adolescents believe their coping resources are overwhelmed by chronic exposure to racial discrimination, their coping self-efficacy in turn declines over time. Additional social-contextual factors, such as poverty, may further challenge adolescents’ coping self-efficacy, particularly for adolescents living in urban, low-resourced neighborhoods (Copeland-Linder et al., 2011). Further research on social-contextual factors and coping self-efficacy among African American adolescents is needed.

It is important to note that African American adolescents in ninth grade contend not only with social-contextual stressors such as racial-discrimination, but also typical academic stressors associated with the transition to high school. Research suggests that early high school is a time when adolescents may be at risk for academic and behavior difficulties (Nygaard & Ormiston, 2024). When students enter high school, they typically face greater academic demands and may experience pressure to achieve academically in pursuit of postsecondary opportunities (Nygaard & Ormiston, 2024). As the focus of classrooms shifts to more formal academic instruction, high school students may experience declining emotional support from classmates and teachers, potentially increasing their risk for difficulties with self-esteem and mental health (De Wit et al., 2011). For African American adolescents experiencing normative academic stress during early high school alongside social-contextual stressors, it may be especially challenging to adaptively cope and feel confident about doing so. Thus, the effects of typical academic stress in early high school, combined with the effects of challenging social-contextual stressors, may help to explain the decline in coping self-efficacy observed among African American adolescents in the present study. It should be noted, however, that our study did not examine if specific social-contextual stressors (other than community violence exposure) relate to coping self-efficacy. Future research should address this gap in the literature.

Our finding that coping self-efficacy tends to decrease over the course of ninth and 10th grade suggests that the start of ninth grade may be an important time for school psychologists to provide coping skills preventive intervention to African American adolescents. Doing so may help to prevent a decline in coping self-efficacy that might otherwise occur. Indeed, previous research indicates that early intervention in ninth grade can help students adjust to high school and improve academic and behavior outcomes (Flannery et al., 2020; Woods & Pooley, 2016). One evidence-based coping skills intervention for African American adolescents is the Adapted-Coping with Stress course (A-CWS; Robinson, 2019; Robinson et al., 2024; Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2024). The A-CWS, culturally adapted for African American adolescents using participatory methods, is a culturally and contextually sensitive school-based preventive intervention designed to help African American adolescents build adaptive coping skills to mitigate the adverse effects of social-contextual stressors, such as racial discrimination. Implementing an evidence-based, culturally adapted coping skills intervention such as the A-CWS may be one way to prevent a potential decline in coping self-efficacy.

Indeed, recent school psychological research underscores the value of culturally adapted intervention for African American youth (Heidelburg, Leverett, et al., 2025; Heidelburg, Sipior, et al., 2025). Research supports that by using strengths-based, culturally adapted intervention, school psychologists can promote African American students’ positive racial identity and support their well-being (Heidelburg, Sipior, et al., 2025). Given the benefits of culturally adapted intervention, it is imperative that school psychologists receive robust multicultural training (Malone & Ishmail, 2020). School psychology trainers themselves must be knowledgeable on culturally sensitive practice and participate in ongoing professional development so they can support trainees’ skill development (Malone & Ishmail, 2020).

Another important contribution of this study is the examination of the association between social-contextual factors (maternal warmth and community violence exposure) and African American adolescents’ coping self-efficacy (Research Question 2). Findings show that adolescent-reported maternal warmth is associated with stronger coping self-efficacy during ninth and 10th grade. Previous research supports that maternal warmth is related to positive mental health and well-being in African American youth (Lambert et al., 2015; Pittman & Chase-Lansdale, 2001). Our finding extends prior research by providing initial evidence that maternal warmth may support African American adolescents’ confidence in their ability to adaptively cope with stress. It may be the case that African American adolescents who experience warmth and affection in their relationship with their mother are more likely to feel they can turn to their mother for support in the face of life challenges and thus feel more confident in their coping ability. It should be noted that although maternal warmth may be a protective factor for coping self-efficacy, maternal warmth was not sufficient to sustain adolescents’ initial level of coping self-efficacy in the present sample.

The results of our study may lend support to a coping skills intervention approach that engages mothers of African American adolescents. Previous research suggests that engaging parents in coping skills intervention for adolescents can yield benefits for adolescent mental health outcomes (Dardas et al., 2018). Providing structured opportunities for parents and adolescents to jointly (rather than separately) participate in intervention sessions and interact positively with one another appears to be particularly helpful in improving parenting practices and reducing adolescent mental health concerns (Dardas et al., 2018). In the context of a school-based coping skills intervention for African American adolescents such as the A-CWS, it may be beneficial for school psychologists to deliver select intervention content on coping skills (e.g., social support coping) to both adolescents and mothers. Previous research indicates such intervention content should be delivered flexibly to alleviate barriers to parent participation in school-based intervention (Kurian et al., 2022). Research supports that lessons designed for adolescents and their mothers should be culturally and contextually sensitive (Robinson et al., 2024) and build on family strengths (Berkel et al., 2024).

The present study’s results suggest that adolescent-reported community violence exposure was not associated with coping self-efficacy during ninth and 10th grade. A previous study by Dupéré et al. (2012) found that community violence exposure was linked to lower self-efficacy in being safe in one’s neighborhood and lower future self-efficacy. Our results suggest that community violence exposure may not have a similar detrimental effect on coping self-efficacy. It also may be the case that community violence exposure does not have a direct effect on adolescents’ coping self-efficacy, but rather an indirect effect on coping self-efficacy through more proximal variables, such as adolescents’ perceptions of safety and security in their community. Future research is needed to better understand the extent to which community violence exposure possibly indirectly affects coping self-efficacy. School psychologists play a key role in helping youth adaptively cope with community violence (Proctor et al., 2021), and further study on community violence and coping self-efficacy may be one way to advance school psychological service delivery in this area of practice.

Our study also tested for gender differences in coping self-efficacy in African American adolescents (Research Question 3). Our findings reveal that girls report a lower initial level of coping self-efficacy than boys at the beginning of ninth grade. However, no difference between girls and boys in the slope (rate of change) of coping self-efficacy over the course of ninth and 10th grade are evident. Our results build on prior work showing gender differences in African American adolescents’ coping behavior (Carlson & Grant, 2008) by providing evidence of gender differences in coping self-efficacy. From an intersectionality theory perspective (Crenshaw, 1989), it is important to consider how African American adolescent girls’ intersecting marginalized identities may influence their self-perceptions of their coping ability. It may be the case that societal messages rooted in genderism and racism lessen the coping self-efficacy of African American adolescent girls relative to boys. Further qualitative and quantitative research is needed to better understand whether and how African American girls’ coping self-efficacy is impacted by dual experiences of societal genderism and racism. Results of the current study have implications for coping skills intervention for African American adolescent girls. Our results suggest that it may be especially important for school psychologists to provide culturally and contextually relevant coping skills intervention to African American adolescent girls in ninth grade to support their coping self-efficacy.

Limitations and Future Research

The present study has limitations that should be considered. First, we assessed maternal warmth via adolescent-report. Future research should assess maternal warmth via mother-report and direct observations of mother-child interactions. Second, our findings on maternal warmth and coping self-efficacy are correlational and do not warrant a clear causal interpretation. Though previous theory (Bandura 1977; Spencer et al., 1993) suggests a possible causal effect of maternal warmth on coping self-efficacy, our findings do not demonstrate that maternal warmth causes stronger coping self-efficacy. Third, we did not collect data on mothers’ age or race/ethnicity. Future research on the role of maternal warmth in African American adolescent development should collect and report these data. Fourth, our study examined adolescents’ overall coping self-efficacy but did not focus on specific dimensions of coping self-efficacy. Fifth, this study did not examine paternal warmth. African American fathers play a critical role in supporting adolescent development (Tyrell & Masten, 2022), and research suggests that paternal warmth is a protective factor for African American youth (Stanik et al., 2013). Further study on relations between paternal warmth and coping self-efficacy is warranted to better understand the extent to which African American fathers influence their children’s self-perceptions of their coping skills. Future research is also needed to examine the extent to which parental warmth more generally, including warmth from mothers, fathers, and other parental figures, relates to adolescents’ coping self-efficacy. Sixth, this study did not examine racial discrimination or other social-contextual stressors apart from community violence exposure.

This study augments the existing coping self-efficacy research literature and supports the need for further examination of the role of social-contextual factors, more broadly, in the developmental trajectories of African American adolescents’ coping, particularly so for coping self-efficacy. Arguably, one’s sense of coping self-efficacy impacts one’s utilization of various coping skills (Bandura, 1977; Chesney et al., 2006). Thus, the importance of coping self-efficacy for African American youth who often encounter societally levied adversities that diminish their sense of hope (Odafe et al., 2017) and self-efficacy (Prelow et al., 2006) cannot be overstated. Future research should explore the extent to which other social-contextual stressors, particularly stressors associated with race (e.g., racial discrimination), relate to African American adolescents’ coping self-efficacy.

Conclusion

The present study builds on previous research by showing that coping self-efficacy, on average, declined during ninth and 10th grade for African American adolescents who reside in urban, low-resourced neighborhoods. Study results also provide initial evidence that maternal warmth is linked to stronger coping self-efficacy among African American adolescents. Additionally, African American girls reported lower coping self-efficacy than boys at the start of ninth grade, suggesting a need for further research to better understand how African American girls’ intersecting identities may influence their self-perceptions of coping ability. Taken together, the current study’s results have important implications for school-based, culturally and contextually relevant intervention to support African American adolescents’ coping self-efficacy.

Impact and Implications Statement.

This study found that African American adolescents’ confidence in their ability to cope with stress declined during ninth and 10th grade. However, African American adolescents who reported greater warmth in their relationship with their mother generally reported more confidence in their ability to cope with stress. Study results suggest it may be helpful for schools to implement coping skills intervention with African American adolescents in early high school and engage adolescents’ mothers in coping skills intervention.

Acknowledgments

The research reported in this publication was supported by the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (Grant HD072293) and the National Institute of Mental Health (Grant MH118382), both awarded to W. LaVome Robinson. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health.

The authors sincerely thank the adolescents who participated in this project, along with their parents. They also genuinely appreciate the collaboration of the participating schools and health centers. The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

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