Minoritized and Poorly Understood: A Scoping Review of Mental and Physical Health Among Arab Adolescents in Canada and the United States

ABSTRACT

Arab adolescents are both racialized and invisible minorities in Canada and the United States (US), following the war on terror, incomplete ethnic categorization, Islamophobia, and anti‐Arab racism. We conducted a scoping review of physical and psychological health in Arab adolescent populations living in the US and Canada. Inclusion criteria encompassed adolescents and emerging adults aged 10–24 who identified as Arab or having Arab identity and Southwest Asia and North Africa (SWANA) origins. Included scholarly literature reported at least one physical or psychological health outcome and was published in English or Arabic up until 2025. We identified over 200 relevant studies using PubMed, Web of Science, ResearchRabbit.ai, Google Scholar, and Undermind AI. We reviewed 50 total studies that met our inclusion criteria, highlighting the paucity of research on health and biopsychosocial variation among Arab adolescents in North America over a 30‐year period. Despite heterogeneity in the health outcomes reported across studies, many focused on acculturative stress, ethnic identity formation, mental health, and discrimination. Few studies examined physical health and sexual and reproductive health; none examined pubertal, immunological, or linear growth outcomes. We discuss how biocultural and human biological research approaches can contribute to advancing a needed and more holistic understanding of health variation among Arab adolescent populations.

Abbreviations

MENA

Middle Eastern and North African

OMB

Office of Management and Budget

SWANA

Southwest Asian and North African

US

United States

1. Introduction

“We are here, but nobody sees us or asks us what we need” (Agrawal and Sangapala 2021). These words expressed by a young Syrian refugee in Alberta, Canada evoke a small glimpse into the health experience of Arab youth in Canada and the United States (US). Southwest Asian and North African (SWANA) is a decolonial term (as opposed to Middle Eastern and North African or MENA) and refers to individuals with heritage from countries and regions in Southwest Asia and North Africa, many of whom may also identify as Arab (Bishara 2023; Elhouri 2024). Many Arab adolescents who come from or have linguistic/cultural/heritage ties to the 22 Arab League countries in the SWANA region are in the same breath “invisible minorities” (Ahmed 1998; Naber 2000; Saeb 2021) from a research and health standpoint and hypervisible in media and geopolitics (El‐Sayed and Galea 2009; Jaber 2022; Maghbouleh 2025). Arab Americans who share in Arab identity but are residents of the US, are often misclassified and racialized as White due to inappropriate racial categorization (Abboud et al. 2019; Abuelezam et al. 2017; Abuelezam and El‐Sayed 2021; Awad et al. 2022; Maghbouleh et al. 2022). In addition, there may be lack of research on Arab identifying adolescents due to racism and exclusion in North American contexts (Elkassem 2023; Ford and Sharif 2020; Nassar 2023; Salaita 2006). In March 2024, the United States Office of Management and Budget published revisions to the Standards for Maintaining, Collecting, and Presenting Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity, the first since 1997, that now includes Middle Eastern and North African as a new category. While this disaggregation, along with research focusing explicitly on Arab Americans (Abuelezam 2018; Abuelezam and El‐Sayed 2021; Ahmed 1998; Saeb 2021), marks great strides in increasing the visibility of the Arab population in the US, further investigation is needed to better characterize their unique health experiences in the US Although racial and ethnic identifiers in the Canadian context tend to be more granular than the US, there is still a lack of attention and information about health disparities and affirming strengths in health for Arab populations in the Canadian context. Arab adolescents and youth in both contexts may share geographic origins, immigration statuses, languages, socioeconomic backgrounds, religions, cultural traditions, and socio‐ecological upbringings, but they are also highly variable (Elhouri 2024; Kauh et al. 2023). Structural racism, infrastructural violence (Dubal 2012; Dubal et al. 2021), and the long arm of the Global War on Terror (GWT) may impact the short and long‐term health and wellbeing of Arab youths.

Arab adolescents are uniquely situated in that racist, infrastructural, and geopolitical violence may overlay their or their families prior experiences of displacement and armed conflict, racialization, and marginalization to adversely impact the biological and social health of Arab adolescents currently living in Canada and the US At the same time, there are strengths and diverse embodiments of muruuna (Arabic for flexibility/adaptability) (Mansour 2019; Panter‐Brick 2023; Panter‐Brick et al. 2018) and sumud (a Palestinian concept sometimes referred to as steadfastness, resilient resistance, hope during hopelessness and other definitions) (Hammad and Tribe 2021; Lax 2021; Marie et al. 2018; Panter‐Brick et al. 2018; Rmeileh 2021; Ryan 2015) which may be protective toward health for many Arab youth depending on their background and experiences.

Adolescents—defined as ages 10–24 (Sawyer et al. 2018)—are a relatively understudied and hard to reach population, with additional research ethics considerations (Glass and Emmott 2024; Schlegel and Hewlett 2011). Adolescence is a developmentally robust and yet sensitive period encompassing biological and social transitions (Blakemore 2008; Reiches 2019; Schlegel and Hewlett 2011). While the pubertal transition represents a cascade of interrelated processes of heightened hormonal and gonadal development, physical growth, and brain development ages 9–21 (Dorn et al. 2003; Ellison et al. 2012), adolescence extends into emerging adulthood, approximately ages 18–24 based on the social and economic milestones that mark an individual as an “adult” (Reiches 2019). Arab adolescents' health—broadly construed to include psychological and physical health—may be impacted by underlying developmental sensitivities while navigating complex personal, social, political, and economic circumstances as a minoritized, yet poorly understood, youth demographic.

While there is a growing body of research documenting health disparities in adult Arab American and Arab populations in North America (Abouhala et al. 2021; Abuelezam 2018; Abuelezam 2020; Abuelezam et al. 2017, 2019, 2022; Abuelezam and El‐Sayed 2021; Finkton et al. 2013; Elshahat et al. 2024a; Elshahat et al. 2024b; Awad et al. 2022; Kteily‐Hawa et al. 2022; Abuelezam et al. 2020; Sayed et al. 2023), far less is known about adolescent Arab within‐population and comparative between‐population health outcomes. Research among adult Arab and MENA‐identifying individuals in the US suggests there may be higher risks for discrimination, perceived discrimination, certain cancers, and lower self‐rated health. However, comparison studies are scant, with mixed results. Among the few studies that make comparisons between Arab individuals and white, Black, and Latino US populations, Arab adults may have relatively lower hypertension and heart disease rates, cancer prevalence, and may engage in some protective health behaviors (e.g., lower rates of smoking and binge drinking). Some prior literature reviews among Arab Americans suggest Arab youth and adolescents in the US face heightened depression and anxiety and several barriers to mental health access (Abuelezam 2018). Arab youth may face considerable infrastructural and social violence through their hypervisibility, such as anti‐Arab racism and discrimination, border violence, and socioeconomic disadvantage, to name a few.

Thus, attention to Arab adolescents is warranted and may help advance the population health of equity‐deserving populations. In addition, understanding Arab youth health needs should be meaningfully linked to biocultural theories of embodiment (Dufour 2006; Gravlee 2009; Krieger 2020; Leatherman and Goodman 2020), which seek to understand how social realities like discrimination, marginalization, and diverse ecological factors impact biological outcomes (e.g., puberty, growth, disease) and simultaneously attempt to understand how biological changes are manifested and experienced among diverse adolescent populations. As opposed to understanding social and ecological forces that impact health (e.g., Social Determinants of Health), biocultural embodiment considers the biological mechanisms and cultural processes that operate to produce a spectrum of physiological variability and health. For adolescent populations, taking a biocultural approach allows for an exploration of how cultural identity, social expectations, and environmental pressures intersect with developmental and health‐related changes (Glass and Emmott 2024).

We focus on Arab adolescent health in North American contexts of Canada and the US There is the potential for shared experiences and health outcomes based on similarities in immigration or refugee experiences, cultural themes, and social circumstances in North American contexts, as compared to other countries with SWANA‐origin populations. At the same time, there are potential points of divergence across US and Canadian contexts. For instance, there may be distinctions in demographic and population health surveillance and ethnic categories across Canada and the US and differing reasons and consequences of erasure. There may also be differences in healthcare access across and within the US and Canada (e.g., private, market‐driven model vs. publicly funded, single‐payer model). Across both contexts, rurality likely has similar effects with healthcare staffing shortages, rural mortality penalties, and health access barriers that may impart meaningful differences for Arab youth health and well‐being. Additionally, the fear of increased policing and surveillance of Arab populations in the context of the GWT may be similar across both nations. A study by the Vera Institute of Justice in 2008 revealed that many Arab Americans were troubled by increased government scrutiny of their communities following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 (Henderson et al. 2008). These findings are echoed by the experiences of Muslim Canadian communities, who go even further to claim that the state‐led anti‐Muslim surveillance tactics of the Canada Security Intelligence Services (CSIS) produce internal forms of community surveillance (Nagra and Maurutto 2023).

Given the relative lack of knowledge about Arab identifying adolescents and youth, and reasons to suspect there may be health disparities and unique health outcomes for Arab adolescents living in North America, we conducted a scoping review. In it, we follow an adapted JBI protocol (Munn et al. 2022; Peters et al. 2020) of scholarly literature about biocultural health outcomes among Arab adolescents ages 10–24, living in Canada and the US. Our review intends to advance an understanding of mental and physical health for Arab adolescents in both countries, to reveal potential similarities, differences, and recommendations for future health‐related and applied research.

2. Materials and Methods

We conducted a scoping review following the JBI Scoping Review protocol to synthesize prior scholarship about Arab youth populations living in Canada and the US and their physical and mental health outcomes (Munn et al. 2022; Peters et al. 2020). The JBI is a network of methodologists who have developed resources and recommendations for scoping reviews. JBI Scoping Review protocols follow these main components: (1) identify research question or objective, (2) define inclusion/exclusion criteria, (3) search for evidence, (4) extract evidence, (5) chart evidence, and (6) present results.

As Arab youth living in North America have generally been understudied, we anticipated a paucity of research and therefore adopted broad search terms for health outcomes pertaining to chronic health conditions, biological or physical outcomes (e.g., growth or body mass index), psychological outcomes, well‐being, and mental health. For similar reasons, we did not limit the type of scholarship (e.g., peer‐reviewed study vs. dissertation) included. We searched PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar initially using search strings similar to the search string below, limiting to studies that were based in Canada or the US:

((“Arab” OR “SWANA” OR “MENA” OR “Southwest Asian and North African” OR “Middle Eastern and North African” OR “Arab American” OR “Arab Canadian” OR “Arabic” OR “Arabic Speaking” OR “Arabic‐Speaking”) AND (“youth” OR “teen” OR “teenager” OR “adolescent” OR “emerging adult” OR “adolescence”) AND (“health” OR “biological” OR “biosocial” OR “mental health” OR “physical health” OR “cultural” OR “psychological” OR “psychosocial” OR “population health”)).

From this initial search, we loaded references into ResearchRabbit.ai, which is a citation‐based tool to search for research literature across several websites, academic, and non‐academic databases. It allows researchers to find similar research (based on topic, titles, and key words), as well as to generate networks of research based on the authors of identified references. We continuously added titles to our review database in ResearchRabbit.ai, from which we were able to add new, relevant titles from ResearchRabbit.ai primarily from May 2024 to early November 2024. Prior to completing abstract screening assignments, all reviewers (4 team members) screened a set of abstracts to ensure consistent review practices, with frequent supervision by author DG. In October and November 2024, the review team screened abstracts based on our inclusion and exclusion criteria. We also searched Undermind AI in 2025 to search for any additional papers relevant to the review. Undermind AI uses a similar approach to ResearchRabbit.ai. The review process was conducted manually in shared Excel documents.

Our inclusion criteria (Table 1) at the abstract phase were as follows: primary focus or inclusion of target population (SWANA/Arab/Arab American adolescents), coverage of a health‐related outcome or research question, qualitative, quantitative, or mixed‐methods study, ages 10–24, written in English or Arabic, and study setting in Canada or the US. We excluded studies that did not meet this criterion, though some studies were retained until they were further inspected during the full‐text review if the abstract did not include sufficient detail. After abstract screening and removal of any excluded articles and duplicates, the team conducted a full‐text review of relevant articles from November 2024 to January 2025. At this stage, studies were excluded if they did not include a sample or sub‐sample of Arab youth or if only one participant identified as Arab.

TABLE 1.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Inclusion

Exclusion

SWANA, SWANA origin, Arab, Arab American, Arab Canadian, Arab Immigrant/refugee, Arab origin, Canadian Arab, MENA, MENA origin, any of the above living in Canada or US Published at any point up until and including 2024 Adolescent or youth (< 24 years old) Peer‐reviewed articles, qualitative, quantitative, mixed methods, clinical, observational, cohort studies, dissertations, government reports, and white papers Focus on health, biological, psychological or biocultural experiences and outcomes Published in English or Arabic Review papers acceptable if they include substantive synthesis of evidence or discussion of youth

Non‐Arab, SWANA, or MENA identifying populations Ages > 24 or < 10 Not youth or adolescent populations Not focused on health or biology Popular media articles Animal studies Published in a language other than English Review papers that do not address adolescence

We synthesized the results of the review in Table 2, where we provide summary information about the studies, including the title, authors, year published, study population and Arab origin, primary independent and dependent variables, methodologies used in the study, and the summary of main findings according to the study authors.

TABLE 2.

Scoping review findings.

Title	First author and year	Study aim	Methods	Studied population	Ages and gender/sex	Sample size	Location	Outcome variables	Independent variables or sources of variation	Summary of main findings
Adolescence in immigrant Arab families	Timimi et al. 1995	To explore mental health issues among adolescents in immigrant Arab families and examine the influence of cultural, familial, and societal factors	Qualitative; case studies and analysis of clinical observations	Arab Youth in Western Countries immigrants	16–19 years old Female and Male	N = 3	North America	Mental health challenges, intergenerational and cultural conflicts, help‐seeking behaviors and therapeutic engagement	Cultural transition, family dynamics and parental expectations, sociocultural and gender norms	Adolescents face intergenerational and cultural conflicts as they navigate between Arab familial values and Western societal norms. Mental health issues, such as eating disorders and depression, often emerge as manifestations of these tensions. Families exhibit varying levels of adaptation, with some retreating into traditional values while others engage with the host culture.
Arab American adolescent tobacco use: four pilot studies	Rice et al. 2003	To explore tobacco use patterns, predictors, and the cultural appropriateness of tobacco prevention interventions	Qualitative and quantitative; interviews and questionnaire	Arab American Youth Immigrant background	14–18 years old Female and Male	n = 200	USA; Detroit	Tobacco use behaviors, predictors of smoking, cessation rates	Family and peer smoking, stress, exposure to tobacco advertising, demographic factors (e.g., grades, nativity)	17% of Arab American adolescents smoked in the past 30 days; peer and family influence were strong predictors. Intervention pilot showed a 37.5% quit rate with tailored programming. Stress and acculturation were notable factors influencing smoking.
Arab American adolescent perceptions and experiences with smoking	Kulwicki et al. 2003	To explore motives and meanings of smoking behavior among Arab American adolescents and to use this information to culturally adapt the Project Toward No Tobacco Use (Project TNT) smoking cessation program for this population	Qualitative; interviews	Arab American Majority Lebanese	14–18 years old Male	n = 28	USA	Meanings and experiences of smoking	Tobacco use, parents' birthplace, exposure to tobacco, experiences of tobacco use	Main themes identified: being cool and Nshar Ma'a Al‐Shabab (hanging out with the guys), smoking feels good and provides entertainment, easy accessibility, and a focus on immediate gratification over long‐term consequences. Barriers to quitting include social environment.
Correlates of smoking behavior among Muslim Arab American adolescents	Islam et al. 2003	To investigate the prevalence of smoking and smoking behaviors	Quantitative; cross‐sectional survey	Arab American Youth Muslim	12–19 years old Female and Male	n = 480	USA; Virginia	Self‐reported susceptibility to smoking and smoking behavior	Peer smoking, family smoking, family advice, peer norms, perceived negative consequences, positive beliefs about smoking, religious influence, gender‐specific norms, age	Religious influence and awareness of smoking's negative consequences were protective factors. Culturally specific gender norms increased the risk of susceptibility to smoking in males while religious influence provided more protection against susceptibility in females.
Predictors of Arab American adolescent tobacco use	Rice et al. 2006	To investigate predictors of tobacco use, including cigarette and narghile smoking	Quantitative; community‐based cross‐sectional survey using self‐administered questionnaires.	Arab American Youth Primarily from Lebanese, Iraqi, Yemeni, and Palestinian backgrounds.	14–18 years old Female and Male	n = 1671	USA; Midwest	Tobacco use behaviors: cigarette smoking, narghile use, and predictors	Demographic, psychosocial, sociocultural, and environmental predictors, including age, gender, peer and family smoking, and access to tobacco	29% of adolescents reported ever smoking cigarettes, and 40% tried narghile. Smoking was strongly influenced by peer and family behaviors. Narghile use was a significant predictor of cigarette smoking. Access to tobacco and cultural practices played roles in smoking behaviors.
Overweight and its relationship to Middle Eastern American college students' sociodemographics and physical activity	Kahan and Kahan 2007	To explore the prevalence of overweight and obesity and examine how these conditions are associated with their sociodemographic characteristics and physical activity levels and to inform targeted interventions	Quantitative; 27‐item questionnaire and 7‐day physical activity diary and pedometer	Arab College Students Participants are themselves or have one parent or one grandparent from SWANA region	18–29 years old Female and Male	n = 214	USA; California	Self‐reported height, weight, BMI	Gender, age, physical activity, acculturation, religiosity	Many participants showed insufficient engagement in regular physical activity, which correlated with higher rates of overweight and obesity. Differences in weight status were linked to sociodemographic variables. For example, gender differences were observed, with females generally reporting lower levels of physical activity compared to males. Cultural expectations and dietary patterns, such as high‐calorie traditional foods and family‐centric meals, were discussed as contributing factors to weight challenges. The study emphasizes the need for targeted health promotion strategies that respect cultural values while encouraging healthier behaviors, such as increased physical activity and improved dietary habits.
Perceived Parental Acculturation Behaviors and Control as Predictors of Subjective Well‐Being in Arab American College Students	Henry et al. 2008	To assess the relationship of Arab American college students' well‐being to their perceptions of both their parents' openness to the American culture and their parents' efforts to preserve their Arab culture, as well as the potential moderating effect of their perceptions of parental control	Quantitative; questionnaires (Perceived Parental Acculturation Behaviors Scale, Autonomy‐Control Scale, Index of Well‐Being), hierarchical multiple regression analyses	Arab American college students with origins in Palestine, Jordan, Syria, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Lebanon	18–26 years old Female and Male	n = 90	USA; New York, New Jersey, Michigan, California, Illinois, Ohio, and Washington, DC	Individualistic and collectivistic elements of well‐being	Parental openness to the host culture and parental preservation of native culture and control	Perceived acculturation behaviors and parental control interact to influence students' well‐being, with parental openness to American culture being less beneficial for students with autonomy‐granting parents. In contrast, parental efforts to preserve Arab culture have a stronger positive impact on the well‐being of these students.
Contested Citizenship and Social Exclusion: Adolescent Arab American Immigrants' Views of the Social Contract	Wray‐Lake et al. 2008	To explore how Arab American immigrant adolescents interpret their social positioning, discrimination, and stereotypes in the US	Quantitative and Qualitative; surveys, open‐ended questions.	Arab American Youth Immigrants	11–18 years old Female and Male	n = 99	USA; Midwest	Experiences of prejudice, views on American citizenship, and perception of the social contract	Parental education, cultural identity, and perceived stereotypes of Arabs as enemies of the US	Arab American youth who believe their group is stereotyped as enemies of the US report more experiences of prejudice and express greater cynicism about equal treatment under the social contract.
Self‐concept in Lebanese and Arab‐American pre‐adolescents	Alkhateeb and Alkhateeb 2010	To assess self‐concept	Qualitative and quantitative; questionnaire	Arab American and Lebanese Youth	11–13 years old Female and Male	n = 102	USA; Midwestern School and Lebanon	Self‐concept for: math, school, physical ability, physical appearance, parent relations, peer relations, general self‐concept	Group membership (Arab American vs. Arab adolescents in Lebanon), gender	Arab Americans scored higher than Lebanese counterparts on self‐concept scales, suggesting that bicultural experience does not decrease self‐concept. Self‐concept scale performed well, with the exception of physical ability, which may point to limitations in educational system, especially for modest‐dressing females.
A Structural Model of Racial Discrimination, Acculturative Stress, and Cultural Resources Among Arab American Adolescents	Sawssan R. Ahmed et al. 2011	To establish a link between socio‐cultural adversity and psychological distress	Quantitative; questionnaire, structural equation models, descriptive and bivariate data	Arab American Youth First‐Fourth Generation	13–18 years old Female and Male	n = 240	USA; Michigan	Sociocultural factors, perceived discrimination, coping, psychological symptoms	Racial discrimination, acculturative stress, cultural resources (ethnic identity, religious coping, support)	Depression, anxiety, and internalized and externalized symptoms were correlated with adversity and psychological distress. Cultural resources reduce distress but do not moderate relationship between acculturative stress and discrimination.
A longitudinal family‐level model of Arab Muslim adolescent behavior problems	Aroian et al. 2011	To study the stressors produced in mother‐daughter relationships	Quantitative; questionnaire, longitudinal	Arab American Youth Yemeni, Iraqi, Saudi Arabian, Iraqi, and Lebanese American girls	11–15 years old Female	n = 530 mother daughter dyads	USA; Detroit	Maternal stress, distress, adolescent behavior problems	Year of migration, child age, mother‐daughter relationship, coping style	Social support was positively associated with maternal and child coping. Maternal avoidant coping mediated effect of maternal stress on maternal distress but was unrelated to adolescent behavior problems.
Arab American College Students Physical Activity and Body Composition: Reconciling Middle East–West Differences Using the Socioecological Model	Kahan 2011	To examine Arab American college students' physical activity and body composition	Qualitative: Focus group interviews, thematic analysis	Arab American College Students Connection to 9 Arab countries	College‐aged; inferred ages 18–25 Female and Male	n = 21	USA; California	Physical activity participation, body composition perceptions, and eating behaviors	Acculturation, religiosity, gender, and cultural norms	Gender differences in physical activity participation were evident, with men being more active and women encountering more barriers. Acculturation shaped physical activity and dietary habits. Parental and societal norms contributed to mixed messages about weight and body image, particularly for females.
Lead Poisoning Among Arab American and African American Children in the Detroit Metropolitan Area, Michigan	Nriagu et al. 2011	Assess the effects of acculturation factors on blood lead levels in the study population	Quantitative; Cross‐sectional	Arab American and Chaldean	6 months to 15 years Female and Male	n = 429	USA; Detroit Metropolitan Area	Blood lead levels	Age, gender, ethnicity, primary language spoken at home, parental education, household income, household smoking, home ownership, age and condition of house, exposure to home health remedies	Many acculturation‐related factors were associated with elevation in blood lead including paternal education, language spoken at home (English only, English and Arabic, or Arabic only), home ownership, smoking in the home, and exposure of child to home health remedies. The difference in blood lead between Arab American children from families where Arabic only versus Arabic and English is spoken at home was found to be statistically significant, suggesting that immigrant children are at a heightened risk of lead poisoning.
The Relationship Between Perceived Parental Rejection and Adjustment for Arab, Canadian, and Arab Canadian Youth	Rasmi et al. 2012	Understand how parent‐youth relationships are related to adjustment in light of adapting to a new life in Canada and post‐9/11 discrimination	Quantitative; questionnaire, group differences, hierarchical regression	Arab Canadian, Euro Canadian, and Egyptian/Lebanese Arab college students	Mean ages presented ~18–20 years old Female and Male	n = 407, including Arab Canadians (n = 129), Euro Canadians (n = 147), and Egyptian/Lebanese Arab adolescents (n = 131)	Canada, Egypt, Lebanon	Psychological well‐being, life satisfaction, risk behavior	Gender, age, perceived parental rejection, and nationality/ethnicity	Greater perceived parental rejection related to lower psychological well‐being, life satisfaction, and higher propensity for risky behavior. No significant differences between Arab Canadians and Arabs, though European Canadians had poorer adjustment in relation to parental rejection compared to Arab Canadians.
Acculturation, Acculturative Stress, Religiosity and Psychological Adjustment among Muslim Arab American Adolescents	Goforth et al. 2014	To examine the correlation between psychological adjustment and acculturation, acculturative stress, religiosity, and social desirability	Quantitative; questionnaire	Arab American Youth Muslim	11–21 years old Female and Male	n = 128	USA; Midwest	Discrimination and acculturative stress, social desirability	Psychological adjustment, religiosity	Religiosity was correlated with perceived discrimination stress and acculturative stress. More religiosity was correlated with less acculturative stress.
“Judging a body by its cover”: young Lebanese Canadian women's discursive constructions of the “healthy” body and “health” practices	Abou‐Rizk et al. 2014	To understand how young Lebanese‐ Canadian women think about their bodies, the relationship between this construction and obesity conversations	Qualitative; participant‐centered conversations	Lebanese‐Canadian women NA	18–25 years old Female	n = 20	Canada; Montreal and Ottawa	Obesity discourse	Body image, notions of health	A healthy body was conflated with the “ideal” body which was one which reflects upper‐class white womanhood and conforms to normative beauty standards.
Longitudinal Study of Daily Hassles in Adolescents in Arab Muslim Immigrant Families	Aroian et al. 2014	To examine changes in daily hassles over time in Arab Muslim immigrant adolescents and the impact of factors like gender and mother's refugee status	Quantitative; longitudinal, survey	Arab Youth Muslim, first and second‐generation immigrants	11–15 years old Female and Male	n = 454	USA; Midwest	Daily hassles in domains of school, parents, peers, neighborhood, and resources	Mother's immigration status (refugee vs. non‐refugee), child's gender, father's employment	School and parent hassles were the most stressful domains over 3 years, increasing over time. Refugee mothers' children reported more school and neighborhood hassles but fewer parent hassles. Father's unemployment correlated with greater school and neighborhood hassles.
Influence of Country of Birth and Ethnicity on Body Mass Index Among Canadian Youth: A National Survey	Kukaswadia et al. 2014	To test independent and joint effects of time since immigration and ethnicity on Body Mass Index	Quantitative; Survey, Multi‐level linear regression	National Survey of Canadian Health Behavior in School‐Aged Children—Cycle 6 (2010) Foreign‐born and Canadian‐born Arab and West Asian youth	11–16 years old Female and Male	n = 20 078 overall, n = 300 Arab or West Asian	Canada; 8 provinces, 3 territories, 436 schools	Body Mass Index Percentiles	Country of birth, ethnicity, time since immigration, control variables for school‐level and individual‐level variables	Foreign‐born Arab/SWANA youth had lower BMI percentiles compared to Canadian‐born peers of the same ethnicity. Time since immigration was not associated with BMI percentiles.
Immigrant Arab adolescents in ethnic enclaves: physical and phenomenological contexts of identity negotiation	Kumar et al. 2015	To engage in an ecocritical engagement with the evolution of Arab American identity in a post 9/11 world	Qualitative; interviews, thematic coding	Arab American Youth First generation; Syrian, Iraqi, Lebanese, and Yemeni youth	13 years old (Eighth graders) Female and Male	n = 45	USA	Arab American identity	Religion, nationality, gender	Personal lives and media alike involve stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination which effects sense of self
Measuring depression and stigma towards depression and mental health treatment among adolescents in an Arab American community	Jaber et al. 2015	To assess depression prevalence, stigma, and willingness to seek mental health treatment	Quantitative; surveys	Arab American Youth Origins in Lebanon, Yemen, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia.	12–17 years old Female and Male	n = 98	USA; Dearborn	Depression levels & severity, stigma scores	Willingness to seek help, randomized into two groups of videos: control group and educational video about mental health seeking	14% had moderate/severe depression; high stigma; no differences in depression and stigma based on video assignment
The acculturation gap‐distress model: Extensions and application to Arab Canadian families	Rasmi et al. 2015	To examine the acculturation gap‐distress model in Arab Canadian immigrant families, particularly its impact on intergenerational conflict and ethnocultural identity conflict	Quantitative; surveys	Arab Canadian Youth Immigrants, primarily from SWANA countries like Egypt, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia.	18–25 years old Female and Male	n = 113	Canada	Intergenerational conflict, ethnocultural identity conflict	Acculturation gaps in cultural orientation and values, parent‐youth relationships	“Reversed” acculturation gaps (youth more oriented to Arab culture than parents) are associated with higher levels of intergenerational and ethnocultural identity conflict. Strong parent‐youth relationships reduce these conflicts.
Parent–Child Conflict, Acculturation Gap, Acculturative Stress, and Behavior Problems in Arab American Adolescents	Goforth et al. 2015	To examine the associations between acculturation gap, acculturative stress, parent–child conflict, and behavioral problems in a sample of Arab American families	Quantitative; questionnaires (Vancouver Index of Acculturation, Parent–Child Conflict, Societal, Academic, Familial, and Environment Acculturative Stress Scale, Marlowe‐Crowne Social Desirability Scale, and Achenbach Youth Self‐Report), hierarchical multiple regressions and paired‐samples t test	Arab American Muslim Adolescents with origins from Lebanon, Yemen, Iraq, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Jordan	11–18 years old Female and Male	n = 76 adolescents; n = 46 parents	USA	Behavioral functioning	Acculturation, including heritage and mainstream orientation, parent–child conflict, and societal, academic familial, and environmental acculturative stress	The acculturation gap between parents and children in heritage cultural orientation significantly predicted adolescent behavior problems, while a gap in mainstream cultural orientation did not predict behavioral problems. Additionally, social desirability significantly predicted adolescent behavioral problems for both mainstream and heritage cultural orientation. Furthermore, adolescent‐reported parent–child conflict partially mediated the relationship between acculturative stress and behavioral problems, while parent‐reported conflict partially mediated the relation between acculturation gap and behavioral problems.
Association of acculturative stress, Islamic practices, and internalizing symptoms among Arab American adolescents	Goforth et al. 2016	To explore the relationship between acculturative stress, religious practices, and internalizing symptoms	Quantitative; surveys and regression analyses.	Arab American Youth Muslim	11–18 years old Female and Male	n = 88	USA; Midwest	Internalizing symptoms	Acculturative stress, organizational religious practices, private religious practices, and gender	Acculturative stress is positively associated with internalizing symptoms. Organizational religious practices, but not private religious practices, are linked to reduced acculturative stress. Gender moderates the relationship, with females experiencing higher internalizing symptoms under acculturative stress.
What are we missing? Risk behaviors among Arab American adolescents and emerging adults	Munro‐Kramer et al. 2016	To examine health risk behaviors, protective factors, and sexual activity	Qualitative and quantitative; event life history calendars, questionnaire	Arab American Youth and Young Adults	15–23 years old Female and Male	n = 57	USA; Midwest	Health risk behaviors (e.g., substance use, sexual activity, physical violence) and protective factors (e.g., hope, spirituality)	Age, gender, cigarette smoking, hope, and spirituality	Youth engaging in risk behaviors had significant negative life events and fewer protective factors. Cigarette smoking was the strongest predictor of sexual activity. Hope pathways were linked to increased sexual activity, while spirituality was associated with abstinence.
Daily hassles, mother–child relationship, and behavior problems in Muslim Arab American adolescents in immigrant families	Aroian et al. 2016	To determine effects of dynamic maternal‐child relationship and daily hassles on adolescent behavior	Quantitative; Survey, Cross‐Lagged Structural Equation Modeling	Arab Muslim Immigrant mothers and their children Mostly from Iraq and Lebanon	11–15 years old Female	n = 454 mother–child dyads	USA; Detroit	Adolescent behavioral problems	Family peer relationships, daily hassles, demography and migration, parental relationship styles	Reciprocal relationship between mother–child relationship and behavioral problems, participants with more educated fathers had better mother–child relationships and fewer behavioral problems
School‐Based Considerations for Supporting Arab American Youths Mental Health	Goforth et al. 2017	To give an overview of existing research on Arab American youths' academic performance and mental health, and offer culturally responsive, school‐based strategies within multi‐tiered support systems	Literature review	Arab American Youth Origins tied to SWANA countries	Female and Male	N/A, literature review	USA	Mental health outcomes, academic performance, school‐based support effectiveness, cultural responsiveness	N/A	Arab American youth face unique challenges related to cultural identity, discrimination, and lack of representation, which impact their mental health and academic performance. Current research highlights disparities in academic outcomes and increased mental health risks for Arab American students, often exacerbated by stigma, bullying, and systemic barriers. Recommendations for Schools: Schools can better support these youth by implementing culturally responsive practices within multi‐tiered systems of support (MTSS), emphasizing strategies that respect cultural identity and reduce stigma. The study advocates for integrating cultural awareness and sensitivity into school mental health services to promote equity and inclusivity for Arab American and broader SWANA populations.
Use of the emergency department as a first point of contact for mental health care by immigrant youth in Canada: a population‐based study	Saunders et al. 2018	To examine how immigrant youth in Ontario use emergency departments for mental health care and assess predictors influencing their reliance on this care pathway	Quantitative; population‐based cohort study, administrative and health data	Immigrant and refugee youth Includes youth of Middle Eastern origin within the broader immigrant population studied.	10–24 years old Female and Male	n = 118 851 overall (n = 1099 Middle East origins)	Canada; Ontario	First contact with mental health care via the emergency department	Immigrant status, duration of residence, region of origin, income quintile, primary care access	Immigrant youth, particularly recent immigrants and refugees (inclusive of Middle Eastern youth), are more likely to use emergency departments as a first contact for mental health care, indicating barriers to outpatient services.
Ecologies of care: mental health and psychosocial support for war‐affected youth in the US	Bennouna et al. 2019	Identify common challenges that adolescent newcomers from the MENA region, and their families, encounter regarding acculturative stress and psychosocial adjustment and to assess the mental and psychosocial support that these individuals receive	Qualitative; semi‐structured interviews and focus group discussions	Youth enrolled in high school that were either born in conflict‐affected MENA countries or born during their family's displacement from such countries. Caregivers of these youth Key informants responsible for services, programming, or policy related to the above population	13–23 years old Female and Male	n = 87 (30 youth)	USA; Austin, Texas and Harrisonburg, Virginia	Mental health and psychosocial wellbeing, acculturative adjustment in US school and communities, support received from educators, parents, and peers	Bioecological theory, including microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem factors. These include, but are not limited to, peer‐networks, language barriers, access to services, and anti‐Arab or anti‐refugee sentiment	Students received direct educational, mental health, and psychosocial support from various actors within their microsystem, mesosystem, and exosystem to overcome the acculturative and psychosocial challenges that are associated with resettling in the US. Some of these challenges include language barriers, unfamiliar school systems, discrimination, interrupted schooling, and difficulty accessing culturally appropriate mental health care.
Middle Eastern and North African (MENA) American youth reports of their parenting experiences: associations with mental and physical health	Ibrahim et al. 2019	To examine common parenting behaviors on MENA youth mental and physical health and improve existing scales of parenting behavior with attention to MENA parents	Quantitative and Qualitative; Survey, Focus Groups, Confirmatory Factor Analysis, Structural Equation Models	US College Students Included MENA‐American, mixed immigration status (born outside of US, born in US)	18–25 years old Female and Male	n = 314	USA; Multiple states	Physical health, somatic symptoms, mental health (depression, anxiety, and stress)	Parental acceptance, rejection, and control, acculturation rating	Youth who reported higher maternal acceptance had better mental health. Youth rating higher maternal rejection and harsh parenting had worse physical health. Associations between parenting and physical health were moderated by Arab orientation showing the best physical health in relation to accepting parenting and the worst health in response to rejection and harsh parenting. No differences by gender.
Self‐reported physical and psychological symptoms among victims and perpetrators of bullying in Arab American Adolescents	Albdour et al. 2020	To explore the relationship between bullying experiences and health outcomes of Arab American adolescents	Quantitative; a series of questionnaires (e.g., Adolescent Peer Relation Instrument, Children's Somatization Inventory, Kessler Psychological Distress Scale)	Arab American Adolescents	12–16 years old Female and Male	n = 150	USA; two sites in Southeast Michigan	Bullying perpetration and victimization, physical symptoms, psychological symptoms, perceived stress	Gender, years in the US, age	Bullying perpetration and victimization are associated with adverse health outcomes in Arab American adolescents, independent of life stress and demographic variables. Additionally, perpetration and victimization were positively correlated with one other.
The Relationship between Religion, Gender, and Substance Use in Arab American Muslim Emerging Adults	McAuslan et al. 2020	Examining reported rates of three types of substance use (tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana) and the impact of religiosity and gender in reported use	Quantitative; online survey	Arab American Muslim	18–29 years old Female and Male	n = 179	USA	Substance use	Religiosity, gender, and social desirability	Men were more likely than women to report any type of substance use, as well as more frequent use of each substance at each time point. Higher levels of religiosity were related to lower levels of alcohol and marijuana use for both men and women. Religiosity was unrelated to tobacco use for males, but was related to less tobacco use for females. Gender and religiosity independently influence substance use rates.
Violence Against Immigrant Youth in Canada: Why More Research Is Needed	Adhia et al. 2020	To assess risks of violence among immigrant and refugee youth in Canada and analyze protective factors and systemic barriers influencing these outcomes	Quantitative; population‐based cohort study	Immigrant and refugee youth and Canadian‐born youth. Includes youth from Somali and Middle Eastern origins	10–24 years old Female and Male	Covers nearly 23 million person‐years (2008–2016) of youth data.	Canada; Ontario	Incidence of violent injuries requiring hospital care or resulting in death	Immigration status (immigrant, refugee, Canadian‐born), socioeconomic status, neighborhood income, and rurality	Immigrant youth had a 51% lower rate of violent injuries compared to Canadian‐born youth. Refugee youth had a higher risk of violent injuries than immigrant youth. Somali youth experienced disproportionately higher rates of violence compared to other immigrant groups and Canadian‐born peers. Family cohesion, social support, and immigrant communities were identified as protective factors.
Arab American Adolescents' Responses to Perceived Discrimination: A Phenomenological Study	Balaghi et al. 2021	To examine how Arab American Muslim adolescents respond to and cope with perceived discrimination	Qualitative; phenomenological approach	Muslim US citizens Lebanese, Syrian, Turkish, and Iraqi heritage	13–17 years old Female and Male	n = 10	Ethnic enclave in the Midwest USA	Coping experiences with discrimination	Age, racial group, ethnic group, national origin, gender, religious identification, and race	Certain strategies—like maintaining an active social media presence, focusing on self‐care, and seeking social support—can help adolescents cope with the harmful effects of perceived discrimination by offering psychological benefits such as a sense of control, empowerment, and emotional backing. Additionally, other approaches, including resignation, humor, and rationalization, may be less effective or even harmful, as they can undermine one's identity, cultural values, and connection to their community.
Mental Health Issues Affecting Refugee Youth in Canada who Experienced Family Loss and Separation in their Country of Origin	Alamgir et al. 2021	To explore mental health challenges faced by unaccompanied refugee youth in Canada who experienced family loss and separation, and to identify their coping mechanisms and available services	Qualitative; scoping literature review and focus group discussions	Unaccompanied refugee youth Includes youth primarily from the Middle East, particularly Syrian refugees.	16–24 years old	NA	Canada	Mental health conditions (PTSD, depression, anxiety), coping mechanisms, and access to services	Family loss, migration experiences, settlement challenges, stigma, access to mental health resources	Refugee youth commonly suffer from PTSD, depression, and anxiety. Family loss, separation, and migration stressors have cumulative mental health impacts. Youth develop positive coping mechanisms but face barriers to mental health services due to stigma and systemic challenges.
Psychosocial well‐being, mental health, and available supports in an Arab enclave: Exploring outcomes for foreign‐born and US‐born adolescents	Seff et al. 2021	To assess psychosocial and mental health support for US‐born and foreign‐born MENA adolescents	Quantitative and Qualitative; Survey, focus groups, key informant interviews	Arab Youth Middle Eastern and North African identity connection; US or Foreign‐born	14–19 years old (inferred from study sample taking place in US high school) Female and Male	n = 176	USA.; Detroit; School system	Hope, prosocial behaviors, resilience, depressive, anxiety, externalizing symptoms, stressful life events, perceived social support, and sense of school belonging	Comparison between US‐born and foreign‐born adolescents with MENA identities	No differences for US‐born and foreign‐born MENA adolescents, though resilience decreased for males who spent more time in the US. Role of gender expectations and hierarchies for males adding stressors to male experience from qualitative interviews.
The impact of 9/11 and the War on Terror on Arab and Muslim children and families	Sirin et al. 2021	To synthesize the discrimination experienced by Arab and Muslim children and families	Literature review	Arab children and families Immigrants	NA	NA	USA	Islamophobia, anti‐Arab racism, anti‐immigrant sentiment, othering	Rise in cyberbullying, psychological dimensions of bullying, coping mechanisms for discrimination, resiliency	Arabs and Muslims experience discrimination across many contexts and in different places. The post‐ 9/11 levels of bigotry are still experienced by this community at the same rates. Religious and ethnic affiliations help children build resiliency.
Understanding sexual and reproductive health needs of immigrant adolescents in Canada: A scoping review	Louie‐Poon et al. 2021	To explore the sexual and reproductive health information needs of immigrant adolescents in Alberta, Canada, and strategies to improve access to these services	Qualitative; semi‐structured interviews.	Immigrant adolescents in Canada Participants from SWANA countries such as Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, and Kuwait.	14–19 years old Female and Male	n = 21	Canada; Alberta	Barriers to SRH access, SRH needs, sources of knowledge, and strategies to improve SRH services	Cultural barriers, structural barriers, financial barriers, and reliance on digital resources	Immigrant adolescents face cultural and structural barriers to accessing SRH services. Parents' conservative attitudes and structural inaccessibility hinder service utilization. Digital platforms are highly preferred for SRH education due to anonymity and convenience.
The role of ethnic enclaves in Arab American Muslim adolescent perceived discrimination	Balaghi and Balaghi 2022	To examine the role of religious enclaves in Arab American youth development as well as the role of enclaves in discrimination	Multiple Method Qualitative; interviews and journaling, longitudinal, interpretative phenomenological analysis	Arab American Youth	13–16 years old Female and Male	n = 10	USA	Discrimination experiences	Ethnic enclaves, sociodemographics	Arab American youth face more discrimination online than in real life due to limited exposure to other people. The density of the enclave coincides with lesser experiences of perceived discrimination. This also prevents in group discrimination. Colourism also plays a role in perceived discrimination both within and outside of the enclave.
Current and Cumulative Stress Experiences: A Model for Arab American Young Adults	Albdour et al. 2022	To test a model of cumulative and current stressor effects on the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical (HPA) axis functioning and health‐related quality of life (HRQL)	Quantitative; cross‐sectional design, structural equation modeling	Arab American Youth	18–24 years old Female and Male	n = 160	USA; Midwest	Hair cortisol levels, HRQL	Current stress, cumulative stress, gender, and immigration generation	Both cumulative and current stress negatively impact HRQL. Cumulative stress is inversely associated with cortisol levels, while current stress positively correlates with cortisol. Stress effects differ by gender and immigration generation.
Depression and anxiety symptoms among Arab/Middle Eastern American college students: Modifying roles of religiosity and discrimination	Abuelezam et al. 2022	To examine mental health outcomes of Arab/Middle Eastern college students in the Healthy Minds Study	Quantitative; longitudinal	Arab or Middle Eastern College Students	< 21 years old	n = (n = 2494 Arab or Middle Eastern and 84 423 white)	USA	Depression and anxiety symptoms	Middle Eastern and North African vs. White, effect modification by religiosity and discrimination	Odds of anxiety and depression were higher for Arab/Middle Eastern compared to white college students, with discrimination heightening odds and religiosity acting as a protective factor.
Advancing an individual‐community health nexus: Survey, visual, and narrative meanings of mental and physical health for Arab emerging adults	Glass et al. 2023	To explore perspectives of self‐rated mental and physical health	Qualitative and Quantitative; visual ethnography, PhotoVoice, survey	Arab and Arab American Youth Middle Eastern, West Asian, Iraqi, Egyptian/Malaysian, Arab‐ Jordanian, Palestinian, Arab American	18–25 years old Female, Male, and Gender Non‐Conforming	n = 25	USA; Washington	Identity, coping, social supports, health outcomes like self‐rated health	Themes such as individual‐community health nexus, lifestyle, health challenges, embedded health	Self‐rated health does not address the complexity, variation, and change that individuals come across regarding health
Association of adversities and mental health among first‐ and second‐generation Arab American young adults	Albdour et al. 2023	To test effects of bully victimization, discrimination, and adverse childhood experiences on mental health	Quantitative; cross‐sectional	Arab American Young Adults	18–24 years old Female and Male	n = 162	USA; Midwest	Mental Health Scores	Adverse childhood experiences, perceived ethnic discrimination, bullying victimization, and current perceived stress	Bully victimization and mental health were negatively associated for first‐generation Arab immigrants, but not for second generation. Female gender, greater adverse childhood events, and perceived discrimination were associated with lower mental health scores.
Ethnic identity, negative media portrayal, and psychological well‐being in Arab‐American youth: Mediation analysis	Dari et al. 2024	To determine, through mediation analysis, the impact of ethnic identity on the relationship between negative media portrayal and psychological well‐being	Quantitative; psychometric instruments such as Luhtanen and Crocker collective self‐esteem scale, Rosenberg self‐esteem scale; Saleem et al. exposure to media stereotypes scale	MENA; almost entirely Muslim	12–15 years old Female and Male	n = 109	USA; Midwest	Perception of media portrayal and psychological well‐being	Ethnic identity, religion, gender, age, national origin, refugee status	This study shows an indirect relationship between negative media stereotypes and psychological well‐being. More specifically, it demonstrated that an increase in media stereotypes can significantly lower ethnic identification, which in turn can lead to lower psychological well‐being, confirming the deleterious effects of media stereotypes.
“Hope for a better tomorrow”: Using photovoice to understand how Arab adolescents enact critical consciousness	Smith‐Appelson et al. 2023	To fill gaps in the current critical consciousness literature	Qualitative; interviews	Arab American youth	14–17 years old Female and Male	n = 11	USA; Charter School	Critical consciousness, risk factors‐ loss of home country, experience bullying and discrimination, suicidal ideation, coping mechanisms	Gender roles, class, education quality, discrimination	Participants displayed critical thinking and understanding of contradictions, showing a need for research on how critical consciousness affects gender roles.
Seeking approval first: Mental health care utilization and engagements among MENA adolescents in the United States	Qushua et al. 2023	To examine barriers MENA adolescents face in accessing mental health care and explore strategies for overcoming them	Qualitative, key informant interviews with school‐based mental health providers and focus groups with adolescents.	MENA adolescents in the US and school‐based mental health providers	14–17 years old Female and Male	n = 34	USA; Detroit, Harrisonburg and Chicago	Barriers to and engagement strategies for accessing mental health care	Cultural norms, stigma, gender roles, language barriers	MENA adolescents face stigma, confidentiality concerns, and cultural barriers to mental health care. Family expectations and societal norms (e.g., maintaining reputation, gender socialization) significantly influence help‐seeking behavior.
A Relational Approach to Understanding Psychosocial Wellbeing, Including Suicidal Ideation, among MENA‐background Adolescents	Meyer et al. 2024	To study the psychosocial well‐being and suicide risk	Qualitative; in‐depth reflections	MENA American students Palestinian, Algerian, and Yemeni American students	14–17 years old Female and Male	n = 11	USA; Detroit, Harrisonburgand Chicago	Student mental health and well‐being, including suicidal ideation	Acculturation, family context, community, and school	Concepts of defeat and entrapment emerged throughout, themes showing community and family‐level factors impact adolescent suicidal ideation and that navigating cross‐cultural identities for newcomers influenced mental health. Adolescents expressed agreement about parental value on education, despite feeling pressured to attain certain educational benchmarks.
Consequences of high school bullying on stress and health of Arab American college students	Albdour et al. 2024	To examine how high school bullying perpetration, victimization, and physical fights influence current stress levels and the physical and mental health	Quantitative: cross‐sectional survey	Arab American Youth College Students Ancestry in one of 22 Arab countries	18–24 years old Female and Male	n = 162	USA; Midwest, college	Stress levels, physical health, and mental health	Bullying perpetration, victimization, physical fights, gender, and family income	High school victimization significantly predicts stress, physical, and mental health outcomes in college. Perceived stress fully mediates the relationship between victimization and health outcomes. Bullying perpetration and physical fights had no significant direct health impacts.
STARx healthcare transition readiness scores among Arabic‐speaking youth with chronic conditions	Abumohsen et al. 2024	Determine if healthcare transition readiness scores by Arabic‐speaking youth would differ from a USA cohort	Quantitative; self‐administered Questionnaire	Arabic‐speaking Youth and Caregivers	10–16 years old Female and Male	n = 107 youth and caregiver dyads	USA	Healthcare transition readiness scores (caregivers' ability to support youth in managing their health during the transition to adult care)	Age, gender, disease type	Caregivers rated themselves lower than the youth on overall readiness, disease knowledge, and self‐management suggesting they may feel less confident. However, the youth rated themselves lower in healthcare communication, potentially indicating gaps in provider interactions.
Supporting social emotional learning and wellbeing of displaced adolescents from the middle east: a pilot evaluation of “forward with peers” intervention	Seff et al. 2024	To explore the feasibility and potential effectiveness of an integrated SEL and life skills program	Quasi‐experimental pilot evaluation; “Forward with Peers”—a 10‐week school‐based program that aims to foster culturally responsive SEL and reduce stigma around mental health.	First‐ and second‐generation Arab refugee and immigrant adolescents enrolled in Arabic classes	Average age of 15 years old Female and Male and Other	n = 69 students—intervention arm n = 39 students—control arm	USA; Detroit Metropolitan Area	Hope (as measured by CHS), resilience (as measured by CYRM‐12), loneliness, suicide ideation, perceived school belonging (as measured by Psychological Sense of School Membership), and perceived social support (as measured by multidimensional scale of perceived social support)	Intervention v. control group, time, and demographics (age, gender, country of birth, and employment)	Participants in the intervention arm experienced statistically significant improvements in overall perceived social support and support from those close to the participants, as compared to the control group. There were also marginally significant gains in resilience and perceived family support. These results suggest that culturally tailored, school‐based SEL programs like FwP can strengthen psychosocial well‐being and protective factors among Arab refugee and immigrant adolescents.
The role of temporality in adolescent refugees' sense of well‐being	Kira et al. 2024	To examine the roles of temporal continuities and discontinuities in adolescent refugees' sense of well‐being	Qualitative; Photovoice	Adolescent recent refugees originating from Iraq and Syria	12–18 years old Female and Male	n = 14	USA; MENA and Arab American ethnic enclave in the Midwest	Experiences of well‐being	Continuous (e.g., food, toys, buildings, and surrounding nature) and discontinuous (e.g., educational opportunities and basic human rights) temporalities.	Resources from the past were tightly connected to the present, positive well‐being. Additionally, temporal continuity between the present and future was important to participants' sense of well‐being. Adolescent refugees linked their present educational opportunities to future goals centered on helping others, supported by parents and teachers. Reflecting on past hardships, they expressed gratitude for current freedoms and resources. Their experiences fostered empathy and a broadened sense of justice towards all marginalized groups.
Running up that hill: Applying the challenge model of resilience to understand the impact of the COVID‐19 pandemic on youth resettled as refugees	Elashmawy et al. 2025	To assess the impact of childhood adversity on COVID‐19‐related stress in a sample of youth refugees who endorsed varying rates of trauma exposure. To test Zimmerman's challenge model of resilience	Quantitative; Adversity was measured using LEC‐5 and HTQ; posttraumatic stress symptoms were assessed using the UCLA Child/Adolescent PTSD Reaction Index for DSM‐5; anxiety symptoms were assessed using The Screen for Child Anxiety‐Related Emotional Disorders tool	Syrian youth resettled as refugees.	10–17 years old Female and male	n = 66	USA; Southeast Michigan	COVID‐19‐related stress, posttraumatic stress symptoms, and anxiety symptoms	Cumulative trauma exposure and age	Youth who experienced high levels of adversity reported significantly more distress compared to those with low‐to‐moderate or minimal‐to‐no exposure. While those with low‐to‐moderate adversity showed slightly less distress than those with minimal‐to‐no exposure, this difference was not statistically significant. These results offer partial support for the challenge model of resilience.

2.1. Research Ethics Board Statement

This scoping review did not entail human subjects' research.

3. Results

3.1. Study Characteristics

In our scoping review, we initially identified over 200 relevant studies. In the abstract stage, we retained 86 according to our inclusion and exclusion criteria described above. After full‐text review, we excluded studies that did not include a sample or sub‐sample of Arab or MENA/SWANA identifying youth, who were over the age of 25, or where primary outcomes or focus areas were not about health. The reviewed studies came to a total of 50 papers, spanning varied health outcomes.

The reviewed studies (n = 50) were published over a 30‐year period between 1995 and 2025. Most of the studies (n = 42) researched US‐based Arab youth populations, primarily in the Midwest (e.g., Michigan), but spanned several states. Eight studies took place among Canadian Arab youth populations, and one review paper referenced “North America” to broadly include Arab immigrants in the US and Canada (Table 2).

Study participants across studies varied from ages 6 months to 29 years old, though each paper focused on or included youth ages 10–24 who identified as Arab, Arab American, SWANA or MENA‐origin, or a combination of identifiers, and had heterogeneous immigration statuses, religions, nationalities, and multi‐ethnic identities. All but four studies included more than one gender, typically referred to interchangeably as female or male. The reviewed studies varied in sample size (n range = 3–2494), with most studies focusing primarily on Arab or Arab American youth. There were only a few studies that featured large, nationally representative, or comparative samples with subgroup analyses of SWANA or MENA‐identifying adolescents (Abuelezam et al. 2022; Kukaswadia et al. 2014; Saunders et al. 2018; Rasmi et al. 2012). The methods used across studies varied considerably, with over half of the studies using quantitative approaches (surveys, questionnaires); several studies using qualitative methods such as focus groups, interviews, and photo elicitation or a mix of qualitative and quantitative methods, two studies that were literature reviews, and one study that was a literature review and included focus group discussions (Table 2).

Overall, the aims of the reviewed studies were very heterogeneous in scope, methodology, topic, target population (e.g., Arab, SWANA, MENA), and health‐related outcomes (See Table 2). A majority of the studies (n = 32) focused on outcomes related to mental well‐being, mental health ratings, psychological symptoms, psychological adjustment, acculturative stressors, coping, discrimination, racism, and social conflict experiences, and fewer studies focused on physical health, biological health, identity formation, family relationships, and behavioral problems.

Several study authors focused on relationships between acculturative stress, gender, parent–child relationships, education, cultural background, and religiosity on psychological and psychosocial outcomes such as mental health, psychological symptoms, or adjustment (Abuelezam et al. 2022; Alamgir et al. 2021; Goforth et al. 2014, 2016; Glass et al. 2023; Goforth et al. 2015; Henry et al. 2008; Albdour et al. 2023; Mariam Ibrahim et al. 2019; Meyer et al. 2024; Qushua et al. 2023; Jaber et al. 2015; Timimi et al. 1995; Seff et al. 2021), discrimination, social conflict (Abuelezam et al. 2022; Ahmed et al. 2011; Balaghi and Balaghi 2022; Wray‐Lake et al. 2008; Albdour et al. 2024; Rasmi et al. 2012; Ahmed et al. 2022; Sirin et al. 2021), self‐concept (Alkhateeb and Alkhateeb 2010; Smith‐Appelson et al. 2023), perceived stress and hassles (Albdour et al. 2022, 2024; Aroian et al. 2016, 2014; Albdour et al. 2024), ethnocultural identity formation and conflict (Rasmi et al. 2015; Kumar et al. 2015), school experiences (Goforth et al. 2017; Sana Ben Ali and Ali 2012) and behavioral problems (Aroian et al. 2016, 2011; Goforth et al. 2015).

Other study authors focused on outcomes related to barriers to health access (mental and physical) (Qushua et al. 2023), smoking behavior and tobacco use (Kulwicki et al. 2003; Islam et al. 2003; Rice et al. 2003, 2006), hair cortisol levels, physical health (Albdour et al. 2022; Glass et al. 2023; Mariam Ibrahim et al. 2019; Abumohsen et al. 2024), sexual and reproductive health (Kandahari et al. 2023; Louie‐Poon et al. 2021), violent injury incidence and emergency room use (Adhia et al. 2020; Saunders et al. 2018), health‐risk behaviors such as suicidal ideation and substance use (Meyer et al. 2024; Munro‐Kramer et al. 2016) and outcomes related to body perceptions and body composition (Kukaswadia et al. 2014; Kahan and Kahan 2007; Kahan 2011; Abou‐Rizk et al. 2014).

Half of all studies (n = 25) were written by scholars in the discipline of psychology or published in a psychology‐related journal, encompassing clinical, cultural, school‐based, and developmental psychology (Goforth et al. 2014, 2016; Aroian et al. 2016, 2011; Balaghi and Balaghi 2022; Alkhateeb and Alkhateeb 2010; Henry et al. 2008; Wray‐Lake et al. 2008; Albdour et al. 2024; Ibrahim et al. 2019; Meyer et al. 2024; Rasmi et al. 2015, 2012; Kumar et al. 2015; Timimi et al. 1995; Ahmed et al. 2011; Smith‐Appelson et al. 2023). A large number of studies (n = 20) came from public health, medical, or nursing disciplines (Abuelezam et al. 2022; Alamgir et al. 2021; Kukaswadia et al. 2014; Avanti Adhia et al. 2020; Kahan and Kahan 2007; Kahan 2011; Aroian et al. 2014; Munro‐Kramer et al. 2016; Saunders et al. 2018; Kandahari et al. 2023; Louie‐Poon et al. 2021; Islam et al. 2003; Rice et al. 2003, 2006; Abumohsen et al. 2024). (Albdour et al. 2022, 2023; Kulwicki et al. 2003; Qushua et al. 2023; Jaber et al. 2015; Seff et al. 2021; Sirin et al. 2021). A handful of articles (n = 5) came from disciplines such as medical anthropology, education, sports science, and gender studies (Glass et al. 2023; Ben Ali and Ali 2012; Abou‐Rizk et al. 2014).

3.2. Social‐Psychosocial Health

One of the primary health areas focused on in this review was social‐psychological health, broadly construed. A majority of the reviewed articles focused on cultural, behavioral, social, or psychological factors (n = 33) and suggested that Arab youth face numerous psychological challenges including depression, anxiety, eating disorders, internalizing, and externalizing behaviors. Study authors report that issues such as balancing familial values (sometimes emphasized as Arab or origin‐country values) and Western societal norms, perceived parental rejection, forms of acculturative stress, and bullying in school contribute to or are associated with depression, psychological wellbeing, and psychological distress (Goforth et al. 2016, 2015; Albdour et al. 2023, 2024; Meyer et al. 2024; Qushua et al. 2023; Timimi et al. 1995; Rasmi et al. 2012). For instance, one of the studies by Goforth et al. (2015) involving 46 parent–child dyads showed that acculturative stress and the acculturation gap between parents and children in heritage cultural identity significantly predicted adolescent behavior problems, as assessed by YSR‐Total Problems. More specifically, adolescent‐reported parent–child conflict partially mediated the relationship between acculturative stress and behavior problems, while parent‐reported parent–child conflict mediated the relation between the acculturation gap and behavior problems.

At the same time, there were also protective factors and experiences discussed by study authors. For example, maternal acceptance was associated with better mental health scores among US Arab college students (Ibrahim et al. 2019) and both cultural resources (e.g., religious supports, coping, ethnicity‐based affiliations) and positive self‐concept may be drawn upon to reduce psychological burdens (Abuelezam et al. 2022; Alkhateeb and Alkhateeb 2010; Ahmed et al. 2011; Sirin et al. 2021). An earlier study by Ahmed et al. (2011) found adversity and psychological distress were associated with internalizing and externalizing symptoms, depression, and anxiety. Cultural resources were associated with reduced distress but did not moderate the relationship between discrimination and acculturative stress (Ahmed et al. 2011). A more recent study by Balaghi and Balaghi (2022) on perceived online and in‐person discrimination suggested that in dense Arab American enclaves, youth may be protected from out‐group discrimination due to lack of exposure to other groups but may also experience greater perceived discrimination in online spaces (Balaghi and Balaghi 2022). Relatedly, a study by Abuelezam et al. (2022) comparing Arab or Middle Eastern and white college students found the odds of depression and anxiety were higher for Arab and Middle Eastern students, with discrimination having a strengthening effect and religiosity having a protective effect (Abuelezam et al. 2022).

Our review also indicated that Arab youth face barriers to mental healthcare access. In a study that included Middle Eastern and North African adolescents in a larger Canadian study, immigrant youth were more likely than their Canadian counterparts to utilize emergency rooms for mental health needs, suggesting there are barriers to utilization of outpatient mental health services (Saunders et al. 2018). Other authors suggest that stigma about mental health disorders, acculturative stress, and gender socialization pose significant barriers to mental health access for Arab youth, especially for newcomers affected by family separation, migration stress, and traumatic exposures (Alamgir et al. 2021; Meyer et al. 2024). Overall, psychological health for Arab adolescents across US and Canadian contexts is dynamic, but Arab adolescents may be at heightened risk for mental health problems. The studies point to infrastructural vulnerabilities related to immigration status and experience, and social vulnerabilities arising from both relationships within families and with peers, in the context of acculturative stressors and discrimination. On balance, numerous strengths were identified that may relate to mental health outcomes for Arab adolescents. For example, the reviewed papers imply that improving social safety and further exploring potentially protective factors such as cultural proximity, religiosity, within and between‐group prosociality, and inclusion may help counteract mental ill‐health.

3.3. Physical Health

In the reviewed studies, comparatively fewer studies included analysis of biological factors or aspects of physical health (n = 15). Of those that did examine physical health, most were focused on participant‐reported physical health, self‐rated health, or somatic symptoms (Albdour et al. 2022, 2023, 2024; Glass et al. 2023; Goforth et al. 2017; Ibrahim et al. 2019), followed by body composition and obesity (Kukaswadia et al. 2014; Kahan and Kahan 2007; Kahan 2011), discourse about body image and obesity (Abou‐Rizk et al. 2014), smoking (Islam et al. 2003; Rice et al. 2003, 2006), sexual and reproductive health (Louie‐Poon et al. 2021), chronic conditions (Abumohsen et al. 2024) and hair cortisol levels (Albdour et al. 2022).

There were relatively low levels of physical activity for Arab youth (Kahan and Kahan 2007) with females reporting less than males (Kahan and Kahan 2007; Kahan 2011) in Arab adolescents in the US. In Canada, one study found foreign‐born Arab adolescents had higher BMI percentiles than Canadian‐born youth, with no relationship to time since immigration; however, however (Kukaswadia et al. 2014). Among emerging adult Lebanese females (ages 18–25) in Canada, qualitative findings suggested that there is pressure to conform to beauty and body image standards of upper‐class white womanhood and that participants tended to conflate body ideals with thinness (Abou‐Rizk et al. 2014).

In a study of parenting styles and emerging adult physical and mental health outcomes, Ibrahim et al. (2019) found moderation of parenting styles and health by Arab orientation. For example, youth with greater orientation toward their Arab identity had the best physical health in association with accepting parenting styles and at the same time, showed the worst physical health in response to rejection and harsh parenting (Ibrahim et al. 2019).

Other research on cumulative and current stress suggested that both cumulative and current stressors negatively impact health‐related quality of life and that bully‐victimization may play a strong role in health outcomes related to stress, physical and mental health (Albdour et al. 2022, 2024). One study examined hair cortisol in relation to current and cumulative stressors, finding that whereas current stressors were associated with higher hair cortisol, cumulative stressors showed an inverse relationship to hair cortisol (Albdour et al. 2022). To our knowledge, none of the reviewed studies discussed studies or outcomes related to pubertal development, physical/linear growth, or disease incidence or prevalence among Arab youth in North American contexts. Overall, the topical focus of the reviewed studies that focused on physical health was variable and sparse in terms of density of papers per topic. However, given the reviewed physical health topics, there does seem to be concern for adolescent behaviors that are related to smoking, sexual activity, and obesity, as well as concern for adolescents' subjective experiences of health (e.g., self‐rated health) and biosocial signatures (e.g., cortisol, somatic symptoms) of psychosocial stress arising from infrastructural vulnerabilities, racism, bullying, and discrimination. While there were no trends per se among studies studying physical health outcomes, the cumulative results suggest aspects of physical health are of concern, warrant further investigation, and may be related to similar and distinct protective profiles as mental health. For example, warm parenting and prosociality may hold benefits for both mental and physical health outcomes among Arab adolescents.

4. Discussion

There are growing efforts to understand the state of health, well‐being, and disparities for Arab populations in North America (N. Abuelezam 2018; Abuelezam and El‐Sayed 2021; Childress et al. 2024; Fleischer and Sadek 2024), but our review, to our knowledge, is the first focusing specifically on physical and mental health among Arab adolescent and youth populations in both Canada and the US. Overall, we reviewed 50 studies that focused on outcomes or factors related to Arab adolescent and youth health in Canada and the US, from an original pool of over 200 studies. With Arab health research currently classified as being in a detection phase (See Kilbourne and colleagues' framework on health disparities research) our review contributes to initially delineating the scope of health issues facing this equity‐deserving population (Fleischer and Sadek 2024; Kilbourne et al. 2006). Of the reviewed studies, there was a greater focus on mental or psychological health, in relation to acculturation, racism/discrimination, and parent–child dynamics, and relatively less of a focus on physical, developmental, or sexual health. This makes sense in that the pervasive effects of anti‐Arab sentiment in North American contexts may first show up in mental ill‐health. However, knowing that biological and mental health are never truly separate (Syme and Hagen 2020), and that infrastructural and social violence can affect all aspects of health, there is still much future research to be done in relation to physical health, growth, sexual and reproductive health, and illness/disease behavior and risks.

The reviewed studies explored heterogeneous health outcomes, showing both risk and protective factors toward mental and physical health among Arab youth. Overall, the reviewed studies identified depression, anxiety, and mental ill‐health as a problem for Arab adolescents, consistent with prior reviews (Abuelezam 2018) and potentially protective effects like warm parenting practices, cultural proximity, religiosity, positive coping practices, and identity formation, among others. Acculturation experiences or stress and how they manifest in parent–child relationships was one pertinent theme emphasized in our review. Acculturative stress may arise when internal or environmental demands of cultural adaptation to mainstream culture or different social norms surpass the expectations or self‐perceived capacity held by parents, family members, and peers entering a new culture (Arbona et al. 2010; Baeza‐Rivera et al. 2022). Acculturative stress may overlap changes in puberty and neurological maturation that heighten sensitivity toward parenting styles and peer relationships, which could be explored further among Arab youth populations (Berry et al. 1987; Broesch and Hadley 2012; Carter and Seaton 2024; Worthman and Trang 2018). Additionally, a source of conflict between parents and youth may occur when youth have stronger affinities for Arab identity compared to their parents (Rasmi et al. 2015). Some of the reviewed studies focused on Arab or Arab American youth offered support for the hypothesis that cultural resources such as personal closeness to Arab identity, geographic proximity (e.g., living in Arab majority area), and supportive parenting styles may be protective for both mental and physical health (Ahmed et al. 2011).

Cultural affinities and congruity with heritage cultures may be protective toward health. However, depending on the social and economic demands placed upon adolescents, dissonance may be helpful and have positive downstream effects on health in other contexts. Understanding contextualized dynamics of cultural congruity and dissonance (Dressler 2017, 2020) on biosocial outcomes for Arab adolescents in Canada and the US is a fruitful future direction for research. Rather than viewing acculturation as something that happens or does not, something that is static and always producing ill effects, a more dynamic explanation is necessary. This can help elucidate how Arab adolescents navigate, change, and create cultural models and niches, as well as new types of embodiment and strategies to navigate their lives. This may also help to foster actionable understandings of resiliency. While resilience has been studied at length among various nationalities of Arab youth in conflict, displacement, refugee camp settings (Hammad and Tribe 2021; Mansour 2019; Panter‐Brick et al. 2018), Arab adolescents living in North America might directly benefit from research exploring local meanings and enactment of resiliency in these community contexts, accounting for more dynamic and changing perspectives on acculturation and acculturative stress. This would provide greater opportunities for community engaged research, for example with youth research advisory boards (Abubakar et al. 2024; Glass and Emmott 2024; Moreno et al. 2021).

Understanding heterogeneity within Arab adolescent populations is important for advancing adolescent health research in equity‐deserving populations. Future research within North American contexts would benefit from moving away from strict binaries that suggest “Arab” or “SWANA” are distinct and can be disentangled from “Western” values and expectations (Abubakar et al. 2024). Instead, future multidisciplinary research studies should use behavioral, social‐ecological, and biocultural study designs to better understand norms and expectations of adolescence, conflict and congruence, perceived and received care, and investment in care and their effects on not only mental health, but also physical health, growth, and development. Acculturation, though widely studied, is difficult to measure and its effects on individuals, within families, and communities are likely highly heterogeneous. In addition, acculturation is often studied as something that happens to youth, versus youth being active participants in learning and creating social relationships and cultural knowledge. Future research may leverage related research in cultural evolutionary studies and human behavioral ecology to better articulate how SWANA youth navigate and co‐produce acculturation (Broesch and Hadley 2012; Lew‐Levy and Amir 2024). Dynamic relationships between social, behavioral, developmental, and biological researchers can be leveraged to implement biocultural, bioethnographic (Roberts and Sanz 2018), and cultural‐behavioral models to better understand Arab youth health, behavior, and outcomes in respective Canadian and US contexts. It is also worth noting that the experiences of Arab youth may differ from Arab American youth, or in the case of Canada, the Arab newcomer experience may differ from the experiences and outcomes of Arab youth who are not newcomers. Future research should keep these contexts and nuances in mind in their biocultural work (Abuelezam and El‐Sayed 2021; Beydoun 2013; El‐Sayed and Galea 2009; Majaj 2008; Naber 2000).

Biocultural frameworks are well suited for moving forward with studies of Arab youth health, as they emphasize the ways that adolescent health is impacted by both cultural and biological factors, at multiple timescales (both historically, between populations, and within an individual's growth and development) (Figure 1). Biocultural models also enable researchers to explicitly study the causal role of infrastructural (e.g., border violence, immigration stressors) and social (e.g., discrimination, racialization) violence on varied adolescent biological, cultural, and biocultural outcomes through implementation of present and deep‐time perspectives and theory, contextualization of biology, and understanding the causal relationship between history and geopolitics on health. The confluence between physical and mental health is one area where there is great potential for implementing a biocultural model. As demonstrated in our review, Arab female adolescents may be less likely to stay physically active compared to boys, conferring potential gendered disparities in health and access to physical activities⁷². However, mental and physical health are symbiotic (Ohrnberger et al. 2017; Syme and Hagen 2020), and qualitative research in our review suggests that for Lebanese females, body image ideals are related to thinness (Abou‐Rizk et al. 2014). Though we cannot generalize to all Arab youth, taken together, the juxtaposition of thinness as an ideal and potentially lower physical activity among females may confer risks for disadvantaged health, psycho‐emotional burdens of feeling rejected or unable to meet body ideals, and risks for eating disorders for Arab adolescent females. Dynamics such as these and how they relate to racialization and body ideals in comparison to majority groups should be explored further. Biocultural researchers may also take into account immigration experiences as well as historical and recent trauma, especially for Arab youth who may have lived through armed conflict or forced displacement and may have experienced food and water insecurity.

FIGURE 1.

Biocultural schema to advance health equity for arab youth in Canada and the US.

Our review highlighted a paucity of research on physical health more broadly. In fact, less than half of the studies accounted for or examined any biological or physical factors (n = 16) and a majority focused on cultural, social, behavioral, and psychological factors (n = 34). Of those that did focus on physical health, they were focused primarily on smoking behavior, risk factors for smoking, obesity, and physical health effects of parenting styles. The relative bias toward social and psychological health may be explained by many of the reviewed studies coming from the discipline of psychology. Of the reviewed studies, there was virtually no exploration of childhood growth or pubertal development among Arab youth in Canada and the US. This may be partially attributed to stigma in regard to puberty and sexuality (Ghandour et al. 2023) among many Arab communities, but nevertheless may play an essential role in moderating relationships between early life stressors and adolescent health outcomes through heightened sensitivity to social context or possibly through neuroendocrine mechanisms (Pervanidou and Chrousos 2018). This may also be related to the study designs employed in the reviewed articles, which are rarely longitudinal. Future research should engage Arab youth communities over time to understand how social and ecological challenges and changes may be impacting biocultural developmental and health outcomes for Arab youth, especially as it pertains to puberty and other life transitions (Figure 1). Taking a life history and lifespan approach for emerging adults and older adolescents with attention to sexual and reproductive health will be important (Carter and Seaton 2024; Kteily‐Hawa et al. 2022).

Moreover, greater attention to biocultural models of physical health also has the potential to jointly improve understanding of how adolescent bodies are affected by change and inequalities, but also on the mechanisms that are implicated in the relationship between the brain and the body. The psychological impacts of anti‐Arab sentiment, racism, and inequalities are very much salient, but could be made more comprehensive through further demonstration and investigation of their effects on physical health and physiology. Only one study in our review examined neuroendocrine variability in relation to current and cumulative life stress. Future research could implement studies of neuroendocrine and inflammation markers that are related to pubertal development and experiences of energetic and psychosocial stress, allowing researchers to meaningfully link the biology of embodiment to infrastructural inequalities, early childhood experiences, and health outcomes for Arab adolescents (See Figure 1). Going beyond locating the biological signatures of inequality and stress, future researchers may also explore relationships between various biomarkers, constructs of resilience and social safety, and acculturative strengths.

In addition to using biocultural models for studying variability within Arab adolescent populations, there is still a pressing need to measure and understand potential health disparities affecting Arab youth. Although only a few studies made within‐study comparisons of Arab youth compared to other youth groups, comparative studies between Arab youth and other youth are necessary to fully characterize potential health disparities. In Canada, the term “visible minority” has been present on the Census since 1981 and the option to select “Arab/West Asian” has been present since 1996, with disaggregation into separate selections since 2001 (Government of Canada 2022). Thus, for many national datasets that follow these conventions, there is the possibility to disaggregate large datasets for further investigation. However, in the US, the MENA term will be added to the US census in 2030 (US Census Bureau 2024). Thus, there are limitations in the use of population‐level data from the census and other national datasets that may or may not adopt the MENA term and less ability to disaggregate within the MENA identity term. In the former, there is greater attention to accurate ethnic identifiers but still a lagging behind of nationally representative population health of Arab adolescents. In the latter, the absence of accurate identifiers has likely played a role in relatively less research on Arab and SWANA‐origin adolescents⁸. Appropriate ethnic and racial identification will benefit health disparities research among Arab adolescents and other population groups who come from the SWANA region, to fully understand the health effects of racialization and inequality (Awad et al. 2022). Researchers should actively seek out these datasets and work to create them.

4.1. Limitations

Despite commonalities in some experiences of Arab Americans and Arab Canadians, there are considerable variations in the immigration patterns and cultural integration of these populations. A large majority of our reviewed studies (42/50) were focused on Arab Americans, and due to varied sample sizes and study approaches, did not enable comparison or detection of clear patterns across US and Canadian contexts. Furthermore, as a decolonial term, SWANA encompasses a broader geographic region of origin or heritage, including Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, and Georgia. There were no studies included in our review that specifically focused on youth originating from these nations, with most studies defining their population inclusion criteria as Arab American or MENA origins. This may reflect the prioritization of the MENA term in the US context (US Census Bureau 2024). Future studies may consider the implementation of the SWANA term as well as more granularity within the study of SWANA youth. In addition, there may have been limitations in the comprehensive nature of this review given that we used Web of Science, PubMed, Google Scholar, and AI tools but did not explicitly search PsychInfo or ERIC. Therefore, future reviews may consider a more expansive search approach as this area of research continues to grow and flourish.

5. Conclusion

Our scoping review highlights the significant gaps in research on Arab adolescent health in North America, particularly regarding physical and developmental health outcomes. While the existing literature primarily focuses on mental health, acculturative stress, and identity formation, there remains a critical need for studies examining puberty, growth, and broader biological and biocultural health indicators. Addressing these gaps through interdisciplinary and biocultural approaches can provide a more holistic understanding of Arab youth health and well‐being. With upcoming changes to the Office of Budget and Management's (OMB) racial and ethnic categorization, it is crucial to clearly define research priorities to ensure the timely, accurate, and effective use of newly collected data. Additionally, adopting more inclusive research methodologies is essential for elaborating on the diverse experiences of Arab adolescents in both the US and Canada. Future research should compare the experiences of Arab individuals in these two countries, investigate how the stressors related to being Arab affect physical health, and prioritize longitudinal studies and community‐based approaches. These efforts will help inform culturally responsive policies and healthcare interventions for these equity deserving populations.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Glass, D. J. , Alsamawi H., Fairclough‐Dick A., Ahmad A., Taye M., and Shaoob M.. 2025. “Minoritized and Poorly Understood: A Scoping Review of Mental and Physical Health Among Arab Adolescents in Canada and the United States.” American Journal of Human Biology 37, no. 9: e70144. 10.1002/ajhb.70144.

Data Availability Statement

Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.