Abstract
The impact of social media on young people’s body perception, eating behaviours and diet literacy has become an increasingly important public health issue. In this cross-sectional study, the interactions between social media addiction, e-healthy diet literacy, weight-related self-stigma and orthorexia nervosa were examined in depth The study was conducted between January and March 2025 with 651 young people at a state university in Turkey. Participants were administered a general information form, the e-Healthy Eating Literacy Scale, the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale, the Orthorexia Nervosa Inventory, and the Weight Self-Stigma Scale. Participants’ level of social media addiction was positively correlated with e-healthy eating literacy (r = 0.121, p = 0.002), total orthorexia nervosa score (r = 0.150, p < 0.001), and weight-related self-stigma (r = 0.229, p < 0.001). According to multiple regression analysis, weight self-stigma score (β = 0.385, p < 0.001) and e-healthy diet literacy score (β = 0.176, p < 0.001) were found to be significant predictors of orthorexia nervosa and explained 22.6% of the model variance (R²=0.226, F = 48.556, p < 0.001). On the other hand, social media addiction (β = 0.166, p < 0.001), orthorexia nervosa (β = 0.358, p < 0.001) and BMI (β = 0.257, p < 0.001) were significant variables predicting weight self-stigma and the model explained 28.6% of the variance (R²=0.286, F = 64.663, p < 0.001). In conclusion, it has been observed that young people’s knowledge and experiences in the digital environment can influence their eating behaviour not only at the cognitive level but also at the psychosocial level, and the need for comprehensive interventions targeting body image, weight stigmatisation and digital media policies has been emphasised.
Keywords: Social media addiction, Orthorexia nervosa, Weight self-stigma, E-healthy diet literacy
Background
One of the most prominent features of the digital age is that the internet and social media have become an integral part of daily life. In particular, young people continue their processes of acquiring information, socialising and constructing identity through social media platforms [1]. While the accessibility of social media facilitates young people’s access to information, the fact that their ability to question the accuracy of the content on these platforms is not sufficiently developed may lead to the spread of misleading information, especially on health and nutrition [2].
Content producers, who are popular in subjects such as nutrition, body perception and healthy living, may negatively affect the nutritional habits and body perceptions of young people by spreading claims that are not based on scientific basis [3]. In this context, with the widespread use of social media, young people are more exposed to socially idealised body perceptions and tend to evaluate whether they are in harmony with these perceptions. This situation triggers a social comparison mechanism that shapes young people’s perceptions of their physical appearance [4]. The ‘perfect body’ image, which is frequently encountered in the digital environment, creates pressure on young people and causes them to evaluate themselves in terms of compliance with these standards. This leads to the triggering of a psychosocial process known as ‘self-stigma’ [5].
The process of self-stigmatisation not only affects the psychological well-being of the individual, but may also lead to behavioural consequences such as social isolation, eating disorders and tendency towards excessive weight control practices [6]. Self-stigmatising individuals may tend to spend more time on social media platforms and search for methods to change their bodies. This may cause the individual to change his/her eating habits unconsciously and sometimes turn to unhealthy diets [7, 8].
Healthy diet literacy refers to the ability of individuals to access, evaluate and apply accurate information about nutrition. However, increased diet literacy does not always lead to healthy outcomes. In particular, popular trends such as ‘clean eating’ spread on social media may cause individuals to become overly strict in their food choices [9]. This condition may increase the risk of an eating disorder called orthorexia nervosa, which is characterized by the development of hypersensitivity to healthy eating [10]. These individuals may experience nutrient deficiencies by completely excluding certain food groups and may be under psychological pressure by limiting their social life [9, 10].
Studies show that there is an increase in cases of orthorexia nervosa with the increase in social media use [11]. In particular, excessive consumption of information on healthy nutrition and promotion of perfect body perception on social media may cause individuals to make radical changes in their eating habits [12]. Current literature emphasises that appearance pressure and the ideal of thinness increase body dissatisfaction, thereby encouraging strict dietary control; content disseminated through algorithms, meanwhile, has turned ‘healthy’ eating into a moral norm. Definitions of orthorexia nervosa also focus on adherence to strict rules, purity concerns, and functional impairment within this framework. Furthermore, internalised weight stigma, perfectionism, and shame-based self-evaluation can reinforce the search for control, thereby feeding orthorexic tendencies. In this context, social media addiction (Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale) and weight-related self-stigma (Weight-Related Self-Stigma Questionnaire) are considered important mediators in explaining the relationships between orthorexia nervosa and e-healthy eating literacy in young adults [13, 14]. The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between social media and e-healthy diet literacy with weight-related self-stigma and orthorexia nervosa in young adults.
Method
This is a cross-sectional study conducted in a state university in Turkey between January and March 2025.
Young university students aged 17–30 years who volunteered to participate in the study were included in the study. Participants younger than 17 years and older than 30 years were excluded from the study.
Sample of the study
Considering the number of students in the faculty where the study was conducted (1455 students), the required sample size was found to be 305 with 95% confidence level and 5% margin of error. In this study, 845 participants were reached, 177 participants did not complete the study and 17 participants could not be included in the study because they were over 30 years old. As a result, 651 young people (535 (%82.2) female, 116 (%17.8) male) completed the study. The flow chart of the study is shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1.
Flow Chart
Data collection tools
Within the scope of the study, young adults were administered a general information form, the e-Healthy Eating Literacy Scale, the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale, the Orthorexia Nervosa Inventory, and the Weight-Related Self-Stigma Scale. Height and body weight information were asked to the participants and added on their declarations.
General Information Form: It includes information on gender, age, monthly income, height and body weight of the participants. Participants’ height and body weight were measured by researchers according to established guidelines. Height was measured in centimeters using a stadiometer without shoes, with feet together, heels, hips, and shoulders aligned vertically, and the head in a Frankfort plane (eye triangle and earlobe aligned and parallel to the floor). Body weight was measured in kilograms using a scale with a sensitivity of 100 g, without shoes and minus the weight of clothing. Body mass index (BMI) of the participants was calculated using the weight/length2 formula.
e-Healthy Eating Literacy Scale: This scale, which measures healthy eating literacy, was developed by Duong and colleagues, and its reliability and validity in Turkish were studied by Onbaşı and Türker. The scale consists of 5 sub-dimensions (accessing, understanding, appraising, applying and digital healthy eating literacy). The highest score that can be obtained from the scale is 71. The high score indicates the high level of electronic healthy diet literacy of the individual [15, 16].
Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale: The score that can be obtained from the scale developed by Schou Andreassen and colleagues and whose Turkish reliability and validity was carried out by Demirci varies between 6 and 30. Having 3 or more points from at least 4 of the 6 items in the scale indicates that social media addiction is high [17, 18].
Orthorexia Nervosa Inventory: This scale developed by Oberle et al. and validated in Turkish by Kaya et al. consists of 3 sub-dimensions (behaviours, impairments and emotions). As the scale score increases, the tendency to orthorexia nervosa also increases. A total score above 72 has been reported as a high risk for orthorexia nervosa [19, 20].
Weight-Related Self-Stigma Questionnaire: The scale, which was developed by Lillis et al. in 2010 and whose Turkish reliability and validity was performed by Sevincer et al. consists of 12 items and 2 subgroups (self-devaluation and fear of enacted stigma). It has been reported that stigmatisation increases as the total score increases [21, 22].
Statistical evaluation of data
The data of the study were analysed using IBM Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, version 22.0 (SPSS Inc., Armonk, NY, IBM Corp., USA). Descriptive statistics were expressed as number, percentage, mean and standard deviation. Q-Q plots, Kolmogorov Smirnov test and skewness and kurtosis values (± 2.00 range) were used for normality assessment of data distribution. To compare the differences between two independent groups, Independent t-test was used for parametric data and Mann-Whitney U test was used for non-parametric data. The strength and direction of the relationship between two continuous variables were evaluated using Pearson correlation coefficients and Spearman’s rank correlation coefficients. Multiple regression analysis was used to determine the relationship between the dependent variable and more than one independent variable. The data were interpreted at 95% confidence level.
Results
General information about the participants is given in Table 1. Accordingly, 82.2% of the young people were female and 42.7% of them had an income less than their expenses. The age of the participants was 20.85 ± 2.69 years, height 165.87 ± 7.90 cm, body weight 61.93 ± 12.29 kg and BMI 22.43 ± 3.63 kg/m2.
Table 1.
General information of the participants
| n | % | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Gender | Female | 535 | 82.2 |
| Male | 116 | 17.8 | |
| Monthly income | Income less than expenditure | 278 | 42.7 |
| Income and expenditure equal | 290 | 44.5 | |
| Income more than expenditure | 83 | 12.7 | |
| Mean | SD | ||
| Age (years) | 20.85 | 2.69 | |
| Height (cm) | 165.87 | 7.90 | |
| Weight (kg) | 61.93 | 12.29 | |
| BMI (kg/m2) | 22.43 | 3.63 | |
BMI: Body Mass Index
Table 2 shows the e-healthy diet literacy score, social media addiction score, orthorexia nervosa score and weight-related self-stigma scores by gender. Accordingly, e-healthy diet literacy score and social media addiction score of women were found to be significantly higher than men (p = 0.006, p = 0.049, respectively). Orthorexia Nervosa Score and Weight-Related Self-Stigma Score did not differ between genders (p > 0.05).
Table 2.
E-healthy nutrition literacy, social media addiction, orthorexia nervosa and weight self-stigma score by gender
| Female | Male | p | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean | SD | Mean | SD | ||
| E-healthy Nutrition Literacy Score | 38.99 | 7.21 | 36.91 | 7.77 | 0.006 t |
| Social Media Addiction Score | 17.93 | 5.65 | 16.87 | 5.14 | 0.049 t |
| Orthorexia Nervosa Score | 43.03 | 12.71 | 44.03 | 14.56 | 0.580U |
| Weight Self-Stigma Score | 22.35 | 10.06 | 21.23 | 9.82 | 0.277t |
t: Independent t-test, U: Mann whitney-U test, BMI: Body mass index, p < 0.05
Table 3 illustrates the relationship between social media addiction scores and e-healthy eating literacy scores, orthorexia nervosa scores, and weight-related self-stigma scores. According to the findings, a weak but statistically significant positive relationship was found between participants’ social media addiction scores and access to e-healthy eating information, evaluation of e-healthy eating information, and the total e-healthy eating literacy score (r = 0.088, p = 0.025; r = 0.174, p = 0.000; r = 0.121, p = 0.002, respectively). Moreover, participants with social media addiction had significantly higher scores for evaluating e-healthy eating information and the total e-healthy eating literacy score compared to those without social media addiction (p = 0.003, p = 0.048, respectively).
Table 3.
Association of social media addiction with e-healthy diet literacy, orthorexia nervosa and weight self-stigma
| Social media addiction score | There is social media addiction | No social media addiction | p | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| r | p | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | |||
| E-healthy diet literacy | Accessing | 0.088* | 0.025 P | 6.93 | 2.65 | 7.31 | 2.52 | 0.074t |
| Understanding | 0.027 | 0.496P | 10.27 | 4.46 | 10.15 | 4.14 | 0.738t | |
| Appraising | 0.174** | 0.000 P | 6.75 | 2.58 | 7.33 | 2.13 | 0.003 t | |
| Applying | 0.021 | 0.590P | 4.06 | 1.69 | 4.05 | 1.62 | 0.971t | |
| Digital healthy eating literacy | 0.042 | 0.286P | 9.87 | 2.63 | 10.21 | 2.51 | 0.098t | |
| e-Total score of healthy diet literacy | 0.121** | 0.002 S | 37.88 | 7.76 | 39.06 | 7.07 | 0.048 U | |
| Orthorexia nervosa | Behaviour | 0.041 | 0.298P | 17.30 | 4.93 | 17.72 | 5.18 | 0.308t |
| Impairments | 0.185** | 0.000 S | 15.17 | 5.47 | 16.95 | 6.35 | 0.000 U | |
| Emotions | 0.189** | 0.000 P | 8.67 | 2.93 | 9.74 | 3.40 | 0.000 t | |
| Orthorexia nervosa score | 0.150** | 0.000 P | 41.15 | 11.71 | 44.41 | 13.64 | 0.001 t | |
| Weight Self-Stigma | Self-devaluation | 0.271** | 0.000 P | 10.76 | 4.90 | 13.02 | 6.00 | 0.000 t |
| Fear of enacted stigma | 0.142** | 0.000 S | 9.27 | 4.75 | 10.37 | 5.49 | 0.008 U | |
| Weight self-stigma total score | 0.229** | 0.000 P | 20.04 | 8.68 | 23.38 | 10.53 | 0.000 t | |
| BMI | 0.026 | 0.502S | 22.32 | 3.77 | 22.50 | 3.55 | 0.328U | |
*:p < 0.05, **:p < 0.01, P: Pearson correlation test, S: Spearman rank correlation test, t: Independent t-test, U: Mann whitney-U test, BMI: Body mass index
Additionally, a weak but statistically significant positive relationship was found between social media addiction scores and orthorexia nervosa disorders, orthorexia nervosa feelings, and the total orthorexia nervosa score (r = 0.185, p = 0.000; r = 0.189, p = 0.000; r = 0.150, p = 0.000, respectively). Participants with social media addiction had significantly higher scores for orthorexia nervosa disorders, orthorexia nervosa feelings, and the total orthorexia nervosa score compared to those without social media addiction (p = 0.000, p = 0.000, p = 0.001, respectively).
In the relationship between social media addiction scores and weight-related self-stigma, a weak but statistically significant positive relationship was found as social media addiction scores increased, with self-devaluation, applied stigma fear, and the total weight-related self-stigma score showing positive correlations (r = 0.271, p = 0.000; r = 0.142, p = 0.000; r = 0.229, p = 0.000, respectively). Furthermore, participants with social media addiction had significantly higher scores for self-devaluation, applied stigma fear, and the total weight-related self-stigma score compared to those without social media addiction (p = 0.000, p = 0.008, p = 0.000, respectively).
According to Model 1 presented in Table 4, the regression model is statistically significant, and the independent variables explain 22.6% of the variation in orthorexia nervosa scores. Based on these findings, e-health literacy and weight-related self-stigmatisation show significant effects in the model (β = 0.176, p = 0.000; β = 0.385, p = 0.000, respectively). However, social media addiction (β = 0.039, p = 0.277) and BMI (β = 0.060, p = 0.103) scores do not have a significant effect on the dependent variable. After controlling for other variables in the model, each unit increase in weight-related self-stigma leads to a 0.5 unit increase in ON scores.
Table 4.
Multiple linear regression analysis for predicting orthorexia nervosa and weight self-stigma scores (Model 1 and model 2)
| Model 1 | Variables | B | SH | β | t | p | 95% CI | |
| Lower | Upper | |||||||
| Social media addiction score | 0.091 | 0.083 | 0.039 | 1.087 | 0.277 | -0.073 | 0.255 | |
| E-health diet literacy score | 0.313 | 0.062 | 0.176 | 5.022 | 0.000 | 0.190 | 0.435 | |
| Weight self-stigma score | 0.502 | 0.049 | 0.385 | 10.166 | 0.000 | 0.405 | 0.599 | |
| BMI | 0.215 | 0.132 | 0.060 | 1.633 | 0.103 | -0.044 | 0.475 | |
| Model 1 | R2:0.226 F:48.556 p:0.000 | |||||||
| Model 2 | Variables | B | SE | β | t | p | 95% CI | |
| Lower | Upper | |||||||
| E-health diet literacy score | 0.029 | 0.047 | 0.022 | 0.624 | 0.533 | -0.063 | 0.121 | |
| Social media addiction score | 0.299 | 0.061 | 0.166 | 4.925 | 0.000 | 0.180 | 0.418 | |
| Orthorexia nervosa score | 0.275 | 0.027 | 0.358 | 10.166 | 0.000 | 0.222 | 0.328 | |
| BMI | 0.709 | 0.094 | 0.257 | 7.562 | 0.000 | 0.525 | 0.893 | |
| Model 2 | R2:0.286 F:64.663 p:0.000 | |||||||
Model 1: Model predicting orthorexia nervosa score; Model 2: Model predicting weight self-stigma score. p < 0.05
In Model 2, this model is also statistically significant, and the independent variables explain 28.6% of the variation in weight-related self-stigma scores. According to this analysis, social media addiction (β = 0.166, p = 0.000), orthorexia nervosa (β = 0.358, p = 0.000), and BMI (β = 0.257, p = 0.000) scores show significant effects in the model, while the e-healthy eating literacy score (β = 0.022, p = 0.533) is not statistically significant. After controlling for other variables, each unit increase in BMI results in a 0.7-unit increase in weight-related self-stigma.
Discussion
This study examines the psychosocial effects of social media and nutrition information, particularly the links between orthorexia nervosa and weight-related self-stigmatisation. The findings reveal the complex relationship between the health information young people acquire in the digital environment and their body image and eating behaviours.
Healthy diet literacy may differ in different segments of the society and in line with different needs. In this study, it was found that women had significantly higher healthy diet literacy than men. In similar studies conducted with young adults, it was found that women had significantly higher healthy diet literacy than men [23, 24]. The importance of diet knowledge in improving public health cannot be denied. Gender differences in nutritional literacy may reflect structural and sociocultural dynamics, such as differences in health information exposure or societal expectations. Therefore, enhancing nutritional literacy across all genders is essential for public health [25]. At the same time, in this study, the social media addiction score of women was found to be significantly higher than that of men. It was found that Spanish university girls tended to spend more time on social networks than boys [26]. Similarly, a study conducted on Korean university students reported that female students were more prone to social media addiction than males [27]. It is thought that this may be related to factors such as interpersonal orientation and susceptibility to depression, which are more common in women.
The intensive interaction of young people with social media in the digital age plays an important role in shaping their healthy diet literacy levels [28]. In this study, e-healthy diet literacy scores of young people with social media addiction were found to be high. This result indicates that social media use may be a tool for accessing health information. Increasing production of health-oriented content on social media platforms (e.g., nutritionists, dietitian accounts) and algorithmic recommendations may lead to continuous exposure of users to healthy nutrition information [29, 30]. However, it should be considered that a high literacy score is not directly associated with behavioural change. Seiler et al. emphasised that the practical application of knowledge acquired in digital environments may remain limited due to psychosocial barriers (stress, lack of self-regulation) [30]. Furthermore, the positive correlation between social media addiction and high e-healthy diet literacy can be explained by the ‘knowledge-disordered behaviour paradox’. This paradox suggests that although individuals have theoretical knowledge, they are unable to make healthy choices due to impulsivity or lack of emotional regulation caused by addictive behaviours [31, 32]. This suggests that excessive use of social media may lead to negative consequences by creating cognitive load and decision fatigue, although it provides information acquisition.
Social media addiction may be an effective factor in the development of orthorexia nervosa, which is known as obsession with healthy eating [33]. In this study, it was found that those with social media addiction had higher orthorexia nervosa score and its sub-dimensions ‘impairments’ and ‘emotions’. In a study conducted by Turner et al. with 680 young adults, higher Instagram use was associated with a greater tendency to orthorexia nervosa. It was thought that food and diet-related visuals had an effect on this result [11]. In a study conducted in Italians, increased time spent on social media was found to be associated with orthorexia nervosa [34]. In this study, social media addiction showed a positive correlation with orthorexia nervosa at a bivariate level. However, when other psychosocial factors, particularly e-health dietary literacy and weight-related self-stigma, were controlled for, this relationship was not preserved in the multivariate regression model. This model suggests that the direct effect of social media addiction on orthorexia nervosa may be relatively weak and that the apparent relationship may be mediated or suppressed by other related variables. When individuals use social media more, they may exhibit orthorexic tendencies not directly because of this behaviour, but through exposure to diet-related content, internalisation of weight stigma, or the effects of health literacy. These findings highlight the need to consider multiple psychosocial factors together rather than binary relationships.
Weight-related self-stigma may increase the risk of developing orthorexia nervosa in individuals. In the regression model of this study, after controlling for other variables, a 1-unit increase in weight-related self-stigma leads to a 0.5 increase in orthorexia nervosa. Regarding weight-related self-stigma, there is evidence in the literature that it may affect the way individuals evaluate themselves and thus their eating behaviours. Especially in individuals with low self-esteem and negative body perception, the tendency to strictly control diet and nutrition behaviours may be higher [35]. In the literature, it has been reported that weight-related self stigma is associated with psychological disorders such as depression, anxiety and stress [36]. These psychological stressors make the body perception of the individual more negative and, accordingly, may increase the tendency of individuals to try to control themselves under the name of ‘healthy’ diet. In this context, orthorexia nervosa can be considered not only as an eating behaviour arising from health anxiety, but also as an expression of psychological pressure caused by stigmatisation. Indeed, a study conducted in young adults showed that there was a significant relationship between body shape dissatisfaction and orthorexia nervosa [37]. Barthels et al. also found that bodily dissatisfaction predicted orthorectic eating behaviours [38]. These findings support the results found in our study. In addition, orthorexia nervosa is also associated with individual factors such as self-esteem levels and self-compassion. For example, it has been reported that low self-esteem and social appearance anxiety may increase orthorectic tendencies [39]. This suggests that weight-related-self-stigma may negatively affect individuals’ self-perception and cause them to adopt obsession with healthy eating as a coping strategy. In the light of these findings, reducing the effects of weight stigma and adopting body positivity-based approaches, especially in psychoeducation programmes for young adults, may be effective in preventing orthorectic tendencies. In addition, not only the individual’s eating behaviours but also body perception and internalised stigma level should be taken into consideration in clinical assessment processes.
It is known that weight-related self stigma is associated with BMI as well as with orthorexia nervosa. The findings of this study revealed that BMI had a significant effect on weight-related self stigma levels in young adults. In particular, each unit increase in BMI caused an average increase of 0.7 points in the weight-related self-stigma score, indicating that the individual’s perception of body weight and the stigmatisation experienced are directly related to body size. These results are consistent with previous studies in the literature and support that especially overweight and obese individuals develop negative attitudes towards themselves by internalising the external stigma that they commonly encounter in the society [40]. Weight-related self stigma is a psychological process characterised by the individual thinking that he/she is worthless, inadequate or unsuccessful because of weight [37]. The fact that BMI stands out as a triggering factor in this process suggests that the individual experiences a decrease in self-esteem due to the pressure to conform to social norms as body size increases. A study revealed that especially young adults are more sensitive to body image and idealised body norms in social media increase this sensitivity even more [41]. This suggests that individuals with high BMI face not only external but also internal pressures and these pressures may trigger stigmatising thoughts. In addition, these findings also indicate that weight-related self stigma should be addressed not only as a psychological problem but also as a concrete public health problem directly related to body size. Especially considering the effects of obesity on both physical health and mental health, these individuals should be supported not only in terms of weight loss but also in terms of body perception and self-esteem.
Limitations of the study
One of the main limitations of this study is that its findings are not generalisable due to its focus on a limited geographical and demographic structure. Furthermore, its cross-sectional design prevents it from establishing strong cause-and-effect relationships, highlighting the need for longitudinal studies to assess long-term effects. Another important limitation is the reliance on participants’ self-reports during the data collection process, which may lead to methodological issues such as recall bias and social desirability bias. Additionally, the absence of structured clinical interviews to evaluate factors such as body dissatisfaction, impulsivity, and compulsivity/perfectionism traits limited the depth of psychological assessment. Another limitation is that the discussion of self-stigma mainly addressed obesity-related stigma rather than the internalisation of weakness in relation to healthy eating behaviours. Moreover, although orthorexia is recognised as an eating disorder sharing psychological features with anorexia and obsessive-compulsive disorder, the present study did not systematically take these mental characteristics into account. Therefore, future studies are recommended to use more objective measurement techniques, such as biomarkers or standardised food diaries, and to incorporate validated interview modules combined with ecological assessments of digital exposure to capture mechanisms and clinical relevance more precisely.
Conclusion
This study revealed that social media use not only increases digital interaction but also increases the risk of orthorexia nervosa and weight-related self-stigma in young adults. In particular, while self stigma stands out as a determinant of both orthorectic tendencies and digital diet literacy, it was found that high levels of e-healthy diet literacy do not always result in healthy eating behaviours; on the contrary, social media-based information pollution can lead individuals to rigid, obsessive and psychologically repressive eating attitudes.
In this context, the dissemination of critical digital literacy trainings for young adults, especially university students, should focus on developing not only the ability to access information, but also the ability to distinguish the accuracy of information and transform it into behaviour. In addition, psychoeducation programmes aiming to reduce internalised stigma related to body image and weight, and ethical monitoring of social media-based healthy life content will play a critical role in the construction of healthy body perception.
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to all participants who volunteered to take part in this study and made valuable contributions.
Abbreviations
- BMI
Body Mass Index
Author contributions
All authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. HT designed the study, conducted the literature review, analysed and interpreted the data, undertook the writing of the article and accepted responsibility for all stages of the study. BH provided conceptual guidance to the study, contributed to the literature review, organised the data collection process, and contributed to the analysis and interpretation processes.
Funding
The authors did not receive support from any organization for the submitted work.
Data availability
Data sets generated and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Since this study involved human participants, ethical approval was obtained from the İnönü University Health Sciences Non-Interventional Ethics Committee on 3 January 2025 in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki (Ref. No: 2025/7004). Prior to participating in the study, all participants were provided with verbal and written information about the purpose, content and process of the research. Participants voluntarily participated in the study and were included in the study after reading and signing the informed consent form.
Clinical trial number
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Footnotes
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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Associated Data
This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.
Data Availability Statement
Data sets generated and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.