Mediating role of students’ self-assessment in the relationships among EFL students’ L2 grit, motivation, and willingness to communicate

Abstract

Background

L2 grit, self-assessment, motivation, and willingness to communicate (WTC) are essential psychological and affective factors influencing English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners’ success. Previous research has examined these factors individually; however, the complex interrelationships among them, particularly the mediating role of self-assessment, remain underexplored. Using a quantitative research design, this study employed structural equation modeling (SEM) to analyze how L2 grit associates with motivation and WTC, with self-assessment serving as a mediating variable.

Methods

Data were collected from 356 Iranian EFL learners at intermediate and advanced levels using four validated scales: the L2 Grit Scale, Motivation Questionnaire, Core Self-Evaluation Scale, and WTC Scale. SEM was employed to analyze the direct and indirect associations involving L2 grit, motivation, and WTC, while exploring the potential mediating role of self-assessment.

Results

The SEM analysis indicated a positive association between L2 grit and motivation (β = 0.55, p < 0.001), with partial mediation by self-assessment observed in this association (β = 0.09, p = 0.03). Furthermore, a significant positive relationship was observed between motivation and WTC (β = 0.54, p < 0.001).

Conclusions

These findings contribute to the theoretical frameworks of self-determination theory (SDT), control-value theory (CVT), and grit theory (GT), emphasizing the role of psychological resilience and self-regulation in language learning. The study suggests that incorporating self-assessment practices into EFL curricula could enhance both motivation and communication skills, thereby improving language acquisition outcomes.

Introduction

Historically, mastery of a language’s structural components was paramount for educators and learners. However, in contemporary language education, the emphasis has shifted toward using a second language (L2) effectively in real-life situations [1]. Hashimoto [2] highlights that in L2 acquisition, the ability to engage in communication is crucial. Similarly, Yashima et al. [3] emphasize that the primary goal of L2 acquisition should be communicative competence. Long [4] argues that communication is indispensable for second language learners, as it enables them to interact with others and gain constructive feedback on their language use. Despite this, Khajavy et al. [5] note that EFL learners demonstrate varying levels of WTC, with some students more inclined to speak while others prefer to remain silent. MacIntyre et al. [6] define WTC as the tendency to initiate communication at a particular moment with a specific individual in an L2. EFL learners’ WTC is significant for several reasons. First, it supports language acquisition, since speaking is essential for language learning [7]. Second, it bridges communicative competence and practice [8]. Third, a positive self-concept enhances learners’ motivation, which in turn increases their WTC [8]. Consequently, Skehan [9] argues that WTC is instrumental in fostering language learners’ success.

Lee and Hsieh [10] assert that motivation positively influences learners’ communication abilities, communicative behaviors, and overall potential. Motivation is not only a multifaceted process that drives learners to persist in their studies but also serves as the principal impetus for language learning [11, 12]. Furthermore, motivation is crucial for initiating action, exerting effort, and maintaining perseverance [13]. Consequently, both researchers and educators recognize motivation as a key determinant of successful L2 acquisition [14].

In addition to motivation, grit has become recognized as a crucial element in L2 acquisition. L2 grit reflects the resilience and sustained effort required to master a new language. Duckworth [15] defines grit as a combination of persistence and determination toward long-term goals, which is vital in L2 acquisition, where consistent effort is necessary for success. Research demonstrating a positive association between grit and academic achievement underscores its importance in educational contexts [16]. Furthermore, grit is linked to self-assessment, an essential skill for evaluating progress and overcoming learning challenges [17].

This study posits that self-assessment may play a critical mediating role in the relationships among L2 grit, motivation, and WTC. Here, self-assessment is defined as learners’ capacity to evaluate their language proficiency. It is a key metacognitive skill linked to enhanced self-regulation and resilience. In language learning, self-assessment fosters metacognitive awareness, allowing learners to monitor their progress, adjust their strategies, and build self-efficacy. This process, in turn, supports sustained motivation and engagement, as learners are better able to recognize their achievements and areas needing improvement [18, 19]. Moreover, self-assessment can empower learners to take ownership of their language-learning journey, potentially enhancing both grit and WTC. Recent research in blended and online EFL contexts has begun to explore how grit and learner emotions jointly shape WTC over time, highlighting both trait and situational fluctuations in these variables. For example, Derakhshan and Fathi’s [20] two-wave, cross-lagged study demonstrated that initial L2 grit predicts later enjoyment and WTC, whereas anxiety exerts a more enduring negative effect over time.

The rationale for including self-assessment as a mediator is grounded in its ability to bridge the gap between long-term effort (grit) and immediate communicative actions (WTC) by enhancing motivation. By fostering reflective practice, self-assessment allows learners to maintain a resilient mindset, assess their competencies accurately, and make informed decisions about their learning pathways. This mediating role is especially relevant in EFL settings, where self-assessment may help mitigate challenges related to motivation and communication anxiety.

The significance of psychological factors in L2 acquisition has gained considerable attention recently. Constructs such as L2 grit, motivation, and self-assessment have been extensively studied for their impact on language learning outcomes [12, 16, 19]. Beyond traditional approaches, emerging technologies like artificial intelligence (AI) are increasingly recognized for their potential to enhance language learning. Fathi et al. [21] demonstrated that AI-mediated interactive speaking activities significantly improved EFL learners’ speaking skills and willingness to communicate. However, a gap remains in understanding how these variables interact as a cohesive system in EFL contexts, where communicative opportunities are limited and learners often face unique motivational challenges. By investigating the combined impact of these variables, this study addresses a significant gap in the literature, offering a nuanced perspective on the motivational and communicative dynamics in EFL learning.

This research offers valuable insights into the psychological processes driving WTC among EFL learners. By elucidating the mediating role of self-assessment, this study contributes to designing targeted interventions to enhance motivation and communication abilities in EFL contexts. The study also aims to offer practical insights for EFL educators, suggesting that incorporating self-assessment practices into EFL curricula could enhance learners’ motivation, increase their WTC, and foster long-term engagement in language learning.

Previous literature

EFL learners’ WTC

WTC is central to achieving communicative competence and overall success in L2 learning, particularly within EFL settings, where direct interactional opportunities are often limited [6, 22]. Initially regarded as a stable personality trait relevant to first-language communication, WTC has since evolved within L2 research to embody a complex, dynamic construct influenced by multiple interacting factors, including psychological, contextual, and sociolinguistic dimensions [23, 24]. Recent research, particularly by Hu and Wang [25], underscores the situational nature of WTC. It illustrates how teacher immediacy, peer relationships, and individual affective responses contribute significantly to fluctuations in learners’ communicative readiness in the classroom.

Empirical research has explored various theoretical models to capture WTC’s multidimensional relationship with affective and cognitive factors. MacIntyre et al.‘s [6] influential heuristic model defines WTC as a hierarchical construct shaped by both stable, trait-like elements (e.g., motivation, personality) and situational variables such as communicative anxiety and confidence. Building on this framework, Peng’s [26] ecological model emphasizes the dynamic influence of the classroom environment, teacher support, and peer interactions, reinforcing the idea that purposeful interventions within specific learning contexts can positively impact learners’ WTC. This view aligns with Hu and Wang’s [25] findings, which indicate that teacher immediacy behaviors—both verbal and nonverbal—are instrumental in fostering WTC by reducing psychological distance and creating a supportive atmosphere for communication.

Studies on the role of blended learning environments also shed light on WTC’s adaptability to various instructional formats. For example, Guo et al. [27] demonstrate that scaffolded, interactive activities in hybrid settings can enhance learners’ self-efficacy and WTC by merging face-to-face engagement with technology-mediated resources. This approach helps to address both emotional and motivational needs, creating a supportive learning environment that encourages WTC through structured interactions with peers and instructors. Crucially, Guo et al.'s [27] findings suggest that by reducing perceived communicative risks, blended learning lowers WTC-related anxiety, further enhancing learner engagement. In another blended-learning context, Bensalem et al. [28] found that, among grit, enjoyment, and boredom, boredom exhibited the strongest negative predictive power for L2 WTC, followed by enjoyment and grit. This underscores the pivotal role of reducing learner boredom in hybrid environments.

Positive emotions also play a significant role in WTC, with studies highlighting how emotions such as enjoyment, pride, and hope positively predict learners’ engagement and communicative behavior in L2 contexts [22, 29]. For instance, Wang et al. [22] identified distinct profiles of learners based on their engagement and WTC levels, showing that positive emotions can be key differentiators for high and low WTC. These findings align with control-value theory (CVT), which posits that emotions tied to task value and control perceptions bolster both engagement and WTC [30]. Recent multinational evidence confirms CVT’s relevance to L2 contexts, demonstrating that positive achievement emotions (e.g., pride, hope, enjoyment) universally enhance behavioral, cognitive, and emotional engagement across diverse EFL settings [31]. Comparative studies in Iranian contexts also report that classroom enjoyment and perseverance predict higher L2 WTC in institute versus school settings [32]. Given engagement’s established role as a precursor to WTC, these emotions indirectly foster communicative readiness by sustaining active participation.

Further research into WTC highlights its complex interactions with motivational constructs, including the second language motivational self-system (L2MSS) and learners’ self-efficacy in L2 contexts [33]. Evidence from Iranian samples indicates that stronger ideal-L2-self profiles are associated with greater WTC and higher perseverance [34]. Moreover, results from the Iranian context reveal that Ideal L2 Self and Language Mindset fully mediated the relationship between L2 Grit and WTC [35]. Lee and Lee’s [33] findings reveal that learners’ ideal and ought-to L2 selves significantly influence WTC, mediated through motivational intensity and communicative confidence. Recent studies [36, 37] further showed that both the ideal L2 self and a growth mindset positively predict student engagement—and that this relationship is partially mediated by L2 grit—highlighting grit’s pivotal bridge role between motivational self‑images and active engagement. Moreover, the increasing integration of AI in EFL instruction necessitates understanding its impact on WTC; research indicates that AI literacy can enhance learners’ willingness to communicate by improving AI learning self-efficacy and reducing classroom anxiety [38].

Conversely, studies by Zhou et al. [39] and Wu and Lin [40] demonstrate that anxiety serves as a critical mediator, reducing WTC among learners with high L2 anxiety. These insights echo Hu and Wang’s [25] observations that reducing classroom anxiety—through positive teacher-student interactions and supportive immediacy behaviors—can foster a safe environment conducive to WTC, underscoring anxiety’s moderating role within this construct [41].

Contemporary views on WTC emphasize its dynamic and context-dependent nature, shaped by both individual dispositions and situational variables. Integrating these emotional, psychological, and contextual dimensions within teaching practices appears crucial for cultivating communicative readiness in EFL learners. By exploring WTC in relation to emerging constructs like L2 grit and self-assessment, ongoing research builds on this evolving framework, seeking to expand our understanding of WTC’s influence on academic engagement and communicative development in EFL contexts.

EFL learners’ motivation

Motivation in second language acquisition (SLA) is a multifaceted and extensively studied concept. Typically, it is divided into two primary types: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation [42–44]. Intrinsic motivation stems from an individual’s genuine interest, curiosity, and enjoyment in mastering a language, making the learning process inherently rewarding and satisfying. This type of motivation is linked to higher levels of involvement, persistence, and overall satisfaction in the learning experience [45].

In contrast, extrinsic motivation is driven by external factors, such as achieving high grades, receiving recognition, fulfilling academic or career requirements, or meeting societal expectations [42]. Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations are crucial in language acquisition, though they influence learners differently. Intrinsic motivation fosters deeper engagement and long-term commitment, supporting sustained language learning over time. Meanwhile, extrinsic motivation, while important, often leads to goal-oriented behaviors that may decrease once external incentives are removed [42].

In EFL settings, understanding the balance between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is essential, as both types significantly influence learners’ dedication to language acquisition and their capacity to overcome challenges [46]. Recent studies underscore the importance of fostering both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation to create an educational environment that supports continuous language acquisition [42, 47]. For instance, Pourgharib and Shakki’s [48] study on EFL learners demonstrated a strong positive association between teachers’ rapport and immediacy and students’ academic motivation, indicating that teacher interpersonal variables can significantly predict student motivation. Critically, teacher support (academic and personal) further amplifies motivation through affective pathways: it enhances intrinsic drivers like enjoyment while reducing extrinsic barriers such as anxiety and boredom, thereby mediating reading motivation [49]. Beyond teacher influences, learners’ own attitudes constitute a critical predictor of motivation. Recent research with Japanese EFL learners (elementary/junior high) confirms that positive attitudes toward English learning correlate strongly with heightened academic motivation [31]. By identifying and encouraging these motivational factors, educators can better support EFL learners in achieving their language goals and maintaining motivation over time.

While substantial research has explored motivation in SLA, especially in EFL contexts [50, 51], confirming the critical role of both intrinsic/extrinsic factors, teacher support, and learner attitudes in driving engagement and persistence [31, 42, 46–49], less is known about its precise connections to other key psychological factors. Specifically, understanding how motivation interacts with constructs like self-assessment and L2 grit to influence outcomes such as WTC remains an underexplored area.

Students’ L2 grit

L2 grit, defined as the persistent, sustained effort toward achieving language learning goals, is a critical psychological factor influencing EFL learners’ success. In SLA contexts, where language complexity and learning plateaus present challenges, L2 grit enables learners to sustain motivation and persevere over time. Building on the broaden-and-build framework, Derakhshan and Fathi [20] revealed reciprocal effects among enjoyment, anxiety, WTC, and L2 grit over six months, showing that grit’s influence is strongest in the earlier stages of the learning trajectory. This persistence is essential for navigating the difficulties inherent in mastering a new language, directly contributing to academic success and increased engagement in learning activities [15, 52].

L2 grit is closely associated with motivation and self-assessment within SLA. Studies suggest that learners with higher levels of grit exhibit stronger intrinsic motivation, which subsequently enhances both academic performance and perseverance [53, 54]. This relationship underscores the importance of fostering grit and motivation in EFL learners to support sustained engagement. Furthermore, L2 grit positively impacts self-assessment skills, enabling learners to accurately evaluate their progress and identify areas for improvement [17, 55].

Beyond its direct influence on motivation and self-assessment, L2 grit also fosters students’ WTC. Students with higher grit, driven consistently toward their goals, demonstrate a stronger inclination to engage in communication, group work, and other language-learning activities [35, 55, 56]. Such engagement is crucial for language acquisition, as it provides learners with practical, proficiency-building experiences.

Although studies have highlighted connections among grit, motivation, and WTC, the mediating role of self-assessment in these relationships remains underexplored. While prior research has examined the effects of grit and motivation on academic outcomes, the specific ways self-assessment influences these dynamics within EFL contexts require further investigation. This study aims to bridge this gap by examining how L2 grit and self-assessment collectively shape motivation and, in turn, learners’ WTC. Through this analysis, we aim to provide deeper insights into the psychological factors that support successful language learning in EFL environments.

Students’ self-assessment

Students’ self-assessment plays a crucial role in developing both academic and professional competencies. Self-assessment is a multifaceted process engaging cognitive functions such as metacognition, self-regulation, and higher-order thinking, which are essential for critically evaluating and managing learning pathways [57]. These cognitive functions enable students to monitor their academic progress and empower them to take ownership of their educational experiences [58].

The effectiveness of self-assessment is influenced by both internal factors, including personal beliefs and learning attitudes, and external factors, such as societal expectations and academic standards. Bourke and Mentis [59] assert that these values significantly shape how learners perceive and evaluate their competencies. Recent studies confirm that understanding these factors enhances the accuracy and efficacy of self-assessment practices in EFL settings [60].

Empirical research highlights the positive impact of self-assessment on learning. For example, Papanthymou and Darra [61] found that self-assessment enhances students’ learning abilities and social skills while fostering self-esteem and reducing anxiety. These effects are particularly relevant in EFL contexts, where self-assessment can boost learners’ confidence in their language skills, leading to greater proficiency and increased WTC [62].

Further research demonstrates that self-assessment improves English proficiency and builds confidence among EFL learners [19]. This reflective process encourages learners to monitor their progress, set realistic goals, and foster a sense of agency in their language-learning journey. Recent studies emphasize self-assessment as a skill that translates sustained effort into clearer progress appraisals and communicative engagement [32]. In the current study, self-assessment is examined as a mediating factor between L2 grit and motivation, affecting learners’ WTC [63].

In this research, self-assessment is defined as learners’ ability to evaluate their language proficiency. This ability is closely linked to levels of L2 grit and motivation, both of which are critical for sustained engagement and long-term success in language learning. Through accurate self-assessment, learners identify areas for improvement and take proactive steps to address challenges [64]. Exploring these dynamics provides deeper insights into the psychological processes supporting successful language acquisition, insights that may guide the development of more effective pedagogical approaches [65].

Hypothesized model

Taking into account the gaps that have been observed and the body of previous work, this research puts forward a structural model that seeks to elucidate the intricate interconnections among L2 grit, self-assessment, motivation, and WTC in EFL contexts. Grounded in the conceptual foundations of SDT [42] and GT [16], the hypothesized model (Fig. 1) seeks to deepen our perception of the psychological mechanisms that drive language acquisition and communication in EFL contexts.

Fig. 1.

Hypothesized model

The first path in our model hypothesizes that L2 grit positively influences EFL learners’ motivation (H1). This hypothesis is grounded in previous research, which demonstrates that persistence and a strong commitment to objectives—key components of grit—are significant predictors of motivational outcomes in educational contexts [66]. In L2 learning environments, it is anticipated that grittier students will exhibit better intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, leading to ongoing engagement in their EFL learning [54].

The second path examines the mediating role of self-assessment in the link between L2 grit and motivation (H2). Self-assessment, defined as learners’ ability to evaluate their competence and progress, is posited to mediate the effects of grit on motivation. Studies have shown that self-assessment enhances learners’ metacognitive skills and self-regulation, which in turn bolsters motivation [18, 19]. Therefore, it is hypothesized that L2 grittier students will be more inclined to engage in accurate self-assessment, which will subsequently enhance their motivation to learn another language.

The third pathway in the model posits a direct impact of motivation on EFL learners’ WTC (H3). WTC is a vital component of successful language acquisition, reflecting a student’s preparedness to engage in communicative activities. As maintained by MacIntyre et al. [6], motivated learners are more likely to take communicative risks, participate in conversations, and look for chances to speak the target language. Current research underscores that both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are strong predictors of WTC across various language learning environments [42, 67].

The proposed model integrates key constructs from motivation and grit theories to deepen our perceptions of the factors that impact EFL learners’ language acquisition and communication behaviors. By testing the hypothesized paths, the present research aims to provide more insight into the nexus between psychological factors and language learning outcomes, with practical implications for enhancing EFL pedagogy.

Method

This section outlines the methodological approach, including the participants, the instruments used, the data collection procedures, and the statistical methods employed for data analysis.

Participants

Out of a pool of 356 people initially contacted, the research involved 343 Iranian EFL learners who were taking intermediate and advanced English courses across eight language institutes in Isfahan, Iran. The participants were chosen through convenience sampling, a non-probability technique selected for its ease of access to the available participants. The sample consisted of individuals aged 15 to 30, offering a wide range of demographic diversity in terms of gender, educational background, and prior English language exposure. This particular age group was chosen to encompass a variety of experiences and motivational influences in language learning, consistent with other studies conducted in EFL settings [50, 68].

While the convenience sampling method was selected for its practicality, it is acknowledged that this approach might affect the generalizability of the results. To address this limitation, efforts were undertaken to ensure the sample reflected the broader demographic of EFL learners in Iran, particularly in relation to their educational backgrounds and levels of language proficiency.

Context of the study

The study setting, where English is predominantly learned as a foreign language, posed specific challenges for participants, such as limited opportunities for authentic language interaction outside the classroom. This context provided a unique opportunity to investigate the dynamics of psychological factors, including L2 grit, motivation, WTC, and self-assessment, which are essential for effective language learning in EFL environments.

Given the Iranian EFL setting, focusing on psychological constructs that support sustained motivation and communicative engagement is particularly relevant. This context, where students often encounter limited communicative opportunities and higher motivational demands, underscores the importance of understanding how constructs like L2 grit and self-assessment can foster resilience and engagement. Findings from this study could offer valuable insights for EFL educators and curriculum designers aiming to develop targeted interventions that enhance learners’ communicative competence and motivational factors in similar educational environments.

Instruments

Data were gathered using four established instruments: the L2 Grit Scale, the Motivation Questionnaire, the Core Self-Evaluation Scale, and the WTC Scale. These tools were selected due to their proven reliability and validity in prior studies and were appropriately modified to align with the specific requirements of this research.

The L2 grit scale

The L2 Grit Scale, initially developed by Duckworth et al. [16] and later adapted for language learning by Teimouri et al. [56], comprises nine items rated on a five-point Likert scale, where 1 signifies “not like me at all” and 5 indicates “very much like me.” This scale was chosen for its strong psychometric properties, with prior research indicating a reliability coefficient of 0.75 [56]. The instrument captures both perseverance of effort and consistency of interests in the L2 domain; example items from the scale include “I am a diligent English language learner” and “I will not allow anything to stop me from my progress in learning English.”

The motivation questionnaire

The Motivation Questionnaire, adapted from William and Burden’s scale by Erniyati and Putra [69], consists of 12 items measuring both intrinsic and extrinsic aspects of motivation in EFL learning contexts. Items are rated on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). This instrument was selected because it captures the multifaceted nature of learner motivation in English language education and has demonstrated acceptable reliability in prior research, with reported Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranging from 0.65 to 0.80 [42, 70]. Sample items from the questionnaire include “I want to be able to communicate in English” and “I think speaking in English will help me to find a job”. The inclusion of such items highlights the scale’s capacity to reflect both learners’ personal interests and their broader instrumental orientations toward English learning.

The core self-evaluation scale

The Core Self-Evaluation Scale, devised by Judge et al. [71], was employed to measure the self-assessment abilities of the participants. This instrument consists of 12 items, each rated on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The instrument has demonstrated strong reliability, with previous studies reporting coefficients of 0.86 [71] and 0.88 in more recent research [72, 73]. Its application is particularly relevant to this study, given the focus on the mediating role of self-assessment in language learning processes [18]. Example items from the scale include “I am confident I get the success I deserve in life” and “When I try, I generally succeed”. These items illustrate the instrument’s emphasis on individuals’ global self-worth, efficacy, and perceived control, which are central to understanding learners’ evaluative processes in EFL contexts.

The WTC scale

The instrument developed by Lee et al. [74] was utilized to assess the participants’ WTC. This instrument includes five items, each rated on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (definitely not willing) to 5 (definitely willing). While the reliability of this scale was slightly lower in the present study (α = 0.56), it continues to be a widely adopted tool in EFL research because of its effectiveness in measuring communicative behaviors within language educational settings [6, 67]. Example items include “When you are given a chance to talk freely in an English class” and “When you have a group discussion in an English class”. These items highlight the scale’s focus on learners’ willingness to engage in classroom interaction under different communicative conditions.

Face validity of the instruments

To ensure that each instrument was clear, relevant, and culturally appropriate for Iranian EFL learners, the face validity of the instruments was systematically examined through a multi-step process. First, an expert panel consisting of three experienced Iranian EFL instructors and applied-linguistics researchers carefully reviewed each item. They assessed the clarity, contextual appropriateness, and overall relevance of the instruments. This procedure aligns with best practices in scale development, as expert review is a well-established approach to evaluating whether items appear to measure the intended construct [75, 76].

Following the expert review, a pilot administration of the instruments was conducted with a small, similar volunteer sample (N = 13) drawn from the same population as the main study. The pilot data were used to identify issues with comprehension, estimate completion time, and detect problematic items. Participants were also invited to provide feedback regarding items they perceived as confusing [77].

To complement the pilot administration, cognitive interviews were conducted with a subset of pilot participants (N = 7). These brief interviews probed how participants interpreted selected items and response options by asking them to paraphrase questions and explain their reasoning processes. Cognitive interviewing is recognized as a robust technique for refining survey instruments, as it provides valuable insights into potential sources of misunderstanding and misinterpretation [77]. Based on the feedback obtained from the expert panel, pilot participants, and cognitive interviews, minor modifications were made to revise typographic errors and standardize response-option labels. No items were removed during this process. Throughout all stages, ethical safeguards were applied, including voluntary participation, anonymity, and informed consent, consistent with the main study procedures.

Procedures

Data collection took place over 10 weeks in 2023 across eight language institutes in Isfahan, with seven institutes located in Dehaghan and one in Shahreza. Participants completed the four questionnaires independently during their regular class hours. Since English was not the participants’ first language, the researchers explained any ambiguous questionnaire items in detail to ensure comprehension. This process took approximately 20 min for each participant.

Stringent ethical protocols were adhered to throughout the study. Every participant gave their informed consent after receiving guarantees about the privacy and anonymity of their information. Participation was entirely voluntary, and individuals were informed that they could leave at any time without incurring any penalties.

Data analysis

Several statistical techniques were used in the data analysis procedure to ensure a thorough examination of the study’s hypotheses. SPSS version 26 was used to compute descriptive statistics. SEM and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) were conducted using AMOS version 26 to test the hypothesized relationships among the variables. Because SEM offers a strong framework for testing the proposed model, it was selected for its capacity to simultaneously analyze various correlations between observed and latent variables [78, 79].

For this study, acceptable model fit was determined by the following criteria: RMSEA < 0.06, CMIN/DF < 5, SRMR < 0.08, CFI > 0.95, and GFI and AGFI > 0.90 [80, 81]. These indices were selected based on their widespread use and relevance in SEM research, ensuring that the models provided an accurate representation of the data [82].

A total of 356 questionnaires were initially collected for this study. Following a rigorous data screening process, responses that did not meet the established inclusion criteria were systematically excluded. The exclusion criteria encompassed incomplete responses and patterns indicative of inattentive responding, such as straight-lining. Subsequently, 343 valid questionnaires were retained for analysis, encompassing The L2 Grit Scale (9 items), The Motivation Questionnaire (12 items), The Core Self-Evaluation Scale (12 items), and The WTC Scale (5 items). This refined sample was utilized for further analyses, which included identifying outliers through statistical methods and assessing the factor loadings in a CFA for each questionnaire. The analysis indicated no presence of outliers; however, several items exhibited unacceptable loading values and were therefore excluded from the dataset. Consequently, the final sample constituted the following: The L2 Grit Scale (8 items), The Motivation Questionnaire (5 items), The Core Self-Evaluation Scale (8 items), and The WTC Scale (4 items), as detailed in Table 2.

Table 2.

The standardized and unstandardized estimated loading of CFA

Unstandardized					Standardized
Estimate		S.E.	C.R.	P
G9← L2 grit	1.000				0.442
G8← L2 grit	0.890	0.153	5.812	0.000	0.521
G7← L2 grit	0.923	0.162	5.700	0.000	0.489
G6← L2 grit	1.255	0.227	5.533	0.000	0.474
G5← L2 grit	1.463	0.233	6.291	0.000	0.608
G4← L2 grit	0.966	0.158	6.106	0.000	0.574
G3← L2 grit	1.158	0.193	6.000	0.000	0.574
G1← L2 grit	1.428	0.218	6.553	0.000	0.700
M5←motivation	1.000				0.608
M4←motivation	0.886	0.174	5.100	0.000	0.374
M3←motivation	0.952	0.172	5.523	0.000	0.561
M2←motivation	1.526	0.225	6.769	0.000	0.961
M1←motivation	0.679	0.116	5.876	0.000	0.517
W4← WTC	1.000				0.414
W3← WTC	0.840	0.201	4.185	0.000	0.397
W2← WTC	1.523	0.324	4.705	0.000	0.615
W1← WTC	1.583	0.334	4.740	0.000	0.568
S12←selfassessment	1.000				0.419
S10← selfassessment	1.328	0.238	5.567	0.000	0.614
S7← selfassessment	0.854	0.177	4.835	0.000	0.431
S6← selfassessment	1.251	0.245	5.102	0.000	0.521
S5← selfassessment	0.708	0.165	4.296	0.000	0.410
S3← selfassessment	0.659	0.152	4.345	0.000	0.363
S2← selfassessment	0.950	0.168	5.650	0.000	0.397
S1← selfassessment	0.716	0.149	4.811	0.000	0.463

Determining an adequate sample size is crucial in quantitative research to ensure the validity and reliability of findings. In the current study, a power analysis was conducted using G*Power 3.1.9.4 [83]. Based on Cohen’s [84] benchmarks, a medium effect size (f² = 0.15) was deemed appropriate for this analysis, which is commonly suitable for studies in the social sciences.

For the power analysis, a linear multiple regression model was employed with the following parameters: effect size (f²) of 0.15, alpha (α) set at 0.05 (the conventional significance threshold), power (1 - β) at 0.80 (the standard criterion for adequate statistical power), and a total of seven predictors. The analysis yielded several output parameters, including a noncentrality parameter (λ) of 22.95, a critical F-value of 2.073, and 143 degrees of freedom. The minimum sample size required to detect an effect of this size was determined to be 154 participants; however, the actual sample size utilized was 343, resulting in an actual power of 0.950. The study’s sample not only met but significantly exceeded the minimum requirements for power, enhancing the reliability of the findings.

Results

Descriptive analysis

The initial analysis evaluated data for normality, reliability, and outlier detection. Skewness and kurtosis values fell within the range of -2 to + 2, which is considered acceptable for data normality [85]. The reliability of the instruments was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha, with values above 0.7 indicating acceptable internal consistency [86]. These results suggest that the data are reliable, indicating that the measurements used in this study consistently reflect students’ grit, self-assessment, motivation, and WTC levels.

Pearson correlation coefficients were used to examine relationships between constructs, with significant correlations interpreted as moderate to strong based on Cohen’s guidelines [84]. As displayed in Table 1, descriptive statistics for the variables indicate strong internal consistency and normal distribution, supporting the validity of the constructs for further analysis.

Table 1.

Descriptive statistics

1		2	3	4	Mean	SD	α	Skew	Kurtosis
L2 grit	1				4.05	0.70	0.79	-0.92	0.43
Self-assessment	0.36**	1			3.78	0.66	0.67	-0.42	-0.002
Motivation	0.46**	0.27**	1		4.35	0.54	0.65	-1.14	1.68
WTC	0.47**	0.26**	0.38**	1	3.28	0.90	0.56	-0.36	-0.75

**: p < 0.01

Note: L2 grit: students’ L2 grit; Self-assessment: students’ self-assessment; Motivation: EFL learners’ motivation; WTC: EFL learners’ WTC

The correlation analysis yielded several significant results. Notably, a substantial positive relationship was identified between students’ L2 grit and their motivation in EFL learning (r = 0.46, p < 0.01). This indicates that learners who show stronger persistence and dedication in acquiring an L2 are more expected to exhibit heightened motivation in their EFL studies.

Furthermore, the analysis revealed a significant positive association between students’ L2 grit and their self-assessment scores (r = 0.36, p < 0.01). Hence, it is deduced that individuals who possess greater grit in L2 acquisition are more likely to conduct accurate self-assessments of their language skills.

Moreover, the analysis revealed a significant positive association between students’ self-assessment and their motivation in EFL learning (r = 0.27, p < 0.01). This indicates that learners who have a more accurate understanding of their language proficiency tend to exhibit higher levels of motivation in their language-learning endeavors. In addition, a positive correlation was observed between EFL learners’ motivation and their WTC (r = 0.38, p < 0.01), suggesting that those who are more motivated to learn English are also more inclined to participate actively in communication tasks. These results provide a foundation for deeper exploration and discussion in the following sections of this study.

Structural equation modeling

SEM was used to examine the relationships among the four variables: L2 grit, self-assessment, motivation, and WTC. SEM illustrates how different variables, like L2 grit and self-assessment, were linked and influenced each other within the context of language learning. This analysis illustrates the paths (connections) between these qualities.

CFA was conducted first to validate the measurement models for each variable. The CFA models (Figs. 2, 3, 4 and 5) demonstrated a good fit with the data, indicating that they accurately represent the hypothesized relationships [78].

Fig. 2.

CFA model for students’ L2 grit

Fig. 3.

CFA model for students’ self-assessment

Fig. 4.

CFA model for EFL learners’ motivation

Fig. 5.

CFA model for WTC of EFL learners

Table 2 presents the standardized and unstandardized estimated loadings of the CFA models. Factor loadings were checked to ensure they met the threshold of 0.3 for meaningful contributions to each factor [87]. To calculate the standard coefficients, certain items with weak factor loadings (< 0.3) were excluded. For instance, in the CFA model for students’ L2 grit, items G9, G8, G7, G6, G5, G4, G3, and G1 demonstrated significant loadings ranging from 0.442 to 0.700; however, item G2 was removed. Similarly, in the models for motivation and self-assessment, significant loadings were observed for the respective indicators.

Table 3 displays six indices of goodness-of-fit for the CFA models, including CMIN/DF, GFI, AGFI, CFI, RMSEA, and SRMR [82]. These values suggest that the model is a good fit, meaning it accurately reflects the relationships we aimed to study. All models exhibited satisfactory fit indices, indicating the adequacy of the measurement models. Specifically, the values of these indices suggest that the models adequately represent the observed data. For instance, in the model for students’ L2 grit, all fit indices, such as CMIN/DF (1.92), GFI (0.97), AGFI (0.94), CFI (0.98), RMSEA (0.05), and SRMR (0.03), indicate a good fit between the model and the observed data.

Table 3.

Results of confirmatory of measuring models with fitness indicators

Variables	CMIN/DF	GFI	AGFI	CFI	RMSEA	SRMR
L2 grit	1.92	0.97	0.94	0.98	0.05	0.03
Self-assessment	2.67	0.97	0.93	0.92	0.07	0.05
Motivation	2.25	0.99	0.96	0.98	0.06	0.02
WTC	1.73	0.99	0.97	0.98	0.04	0.02

The application of SEM and CFA allowed for the validation of the measurement models for the variables under investigation. The satisfactory fit indices obtained signify the reliability and validity of the models, thereby enabling the estimation of the structural relationships among the variables in subsequent analyses.

Structural model analysis

The structural model analysis aimed to test the theoretical model and the relationships among L2 grit, self-assessment, motivation, and WTC. Each model was evaluated using AMOS (Figs. 6, 7, 8 and 9) to establish the path relationships among constructs and to understand how these constructs interact in predicting EFL learners’ behaviors [88].

Fig. 6.

The model of the relationships between students’ L2 grit and EFL learners’ motivation

Fig. 7.

Students’ self-assessment as a mediator

Fig. 8.

The model of the relationships between motivation and WTC of EFL learners

Fig. 9.

The final model of variables

Model 1

The first model tested the direct relationship between L2 grit and EFL learners’ motivation. The model fit indices indicated a good fit (CMIN/DF = 2.36, SRMR = 0.06, PClose = 0.052, CFI = 0.93, RMSEA = 0.06, GFI = 0.93, AGFI = 0.90), suggesting that L2 grit is a significant predictor of motivation among EFL learners (Fig. 6). A significant positive path coefficient (β = 0.55, p < 0.001) means that students who exhibit more L2 grit are also more motivated to engage in their language learning journey. In simple terms, the more determined students are to achieve their language learning goals, the more motivated they tend to be.

The results resonate with previous investigations suggesting a positive influence of L2 grit on motivation [89]. The results align with previous findings that grit and passion for long-term goals are significant predictors of motivation in language learning contexts [90].

Model 2

The second model investigated how self-assessment functions as a mediator in the connection between motivation and L2 grit. The prediction that self-assessment partially mediates the association between L2 grit and motivation is supported by the good model fit (CMIN/DF = 1.54, CFI = 0.94, SRMR = 0.05, RMSEA = 0.04, PClose = 0.96, GFI = 0.93, AGFI = 0.91) (Fig. 7). L2 grit affects motivation directly and indirectly through self-assessment; both the standardized direct impact (β = 0.55, p < 0.001) and the standardized indirect effect (β = 0.09, p = 0.03) were significant.

This partial mediation indicates that students possessing more L2 grit are more inclined to perform accurate self-assessments, subsequently boosting their motivation. This self-assessment process boosts their motivation by giving them a sense of progress and encouraging them to continue working toward their goals. In other words, self-assessment acts like a bridge, linking their determination (grit) with a sustained desire to learn (motivation). These results add to the expanding literature that underscores the critical role of self-regulatory mechanisms in achieving academic success [18].

Table 4.

Bootstrapping analysis

Paths	Standardized direct effect	Sig	Standardized indirect effect	Sig	Standardized total effect	Sig
L2 grit->Self	0.496	0.001	0.00	-----	0.496	0.001
M->Self	0.00	-----	0.00	-----	0.00	-----
L2 grit->M	0.55	0.00	0.09	0.03	0.65	0.00
Self->M	0.197	0.04	0.00	-----	0.19	0.04

To ensure the robustness of the SEM results, bootstrapping was conducted with 2,000 resamples. This procedure provided confidence intervals for the parameter estimates, confirming their stability and reliability. The bootstrapped confidence intervals for all estimated paths were narrow, further supporting the robustness of the model and the validity of the findings [91].

Model 3

The third model assessed the relationship between motivation and WTC. The fit indices (CMIN/DF = 1.91, CFI = 0.95, SRMR = 0.04, RMSEA = 0.05, PClose = 0.41, GFI = 0.97, AGFI = 0.94) indicated that the model was an excellent fit for the data (Fig. 8).

The positive path coefficient (β = 0.54, p < 0.001) in this model indicates that when students are motivated, they feel more prepared and willing to communicate in English. Simply put, motivated learners are more likely to participate actively in conversations, practice speaking, and take advantage of opportunities to communicate. This willingness to engage is essential for effective language learning, as it allows students to apply their language skills in real-world situations. This is consistent with prior research in the field of language learning [6, 42].

Model 4

The data provided in Fig. 9 referred to Model 4, which was the final structural model of the study. This model examined the relationships among four latent variables: self-assessment, L2 grit, motivation, and WTC. The model also included the direct and indirect effects of L2 grit on motivation, motivation on WTC, and WTC on self-assessment.

The model’s evaluation involved various fit indices, including CMIN/DF, CFI, SRMR, RMSEA, PClose, GFI, and AGFI, all of which were calculated and confirmed to indicate a satisfactory fit. These values suggested that the model effectively captured the nexus among the studied constructs. Each of the hypothesized pathways within this structural model was significant, as evidenced by the standardized regression weights and p-values associated with the paths. The findings revealed that L2 grit exerted a significant positive direct effect on motivation (β = 0.61, p < 0.001) and also had a positive indirect effect via WTC (β = 0.17, p < 0.001). Additionally, motivation showed a direct positive effect on WTC (β = 0.54, p < 0.001) and an indirect positive effect on self-assessment mediated by WTC (β = 0.32, p < 0.001). WTC itself had a direct positive effect on self-assessment (β = 0.59, p < 0.001).

The findings illustrated how these qualities work together in language learning. For example, grit (the drive to persist in language learning) positively affects motivation, both directly and indirectly. Self-assessment helps students stay motivated by allowing them to recognize their progress, which in turn increases their confidence and their desire to communicate in English. Additionally, students who communicate more in English tend to develop stronger self-assessment skills, as they become more aware of their strengths and areas for improvement.

Discussion

This study advances understanding of EFL learning by integrating CVT [30] with SDT [53] and GT [90]. CVT explains that achievement emotions arise from learners’ appraisals of control and value, while SDT identifies basic psychological needs (autonomy, competence, relatedness) that underlie motivated behavior [30, 53]. By merging these frameworks, the study explains how L2 grit, self‑assessment, and motivation coalesce to shape WTC. Recent research confirms that satisfying autonomy need enhances perceived task value and energizes motivation in EFL contexts [92], aligning with the finding that gritty persistence and accurate self‑evaluation cultivate meaningful control‑value appraisals.

L2 grit operates through CVT’s control‑appraisal mechanism. Gritty learners, by sustaining effort over time, develop heightened beliefs in their capacity to influence language outcomes, reframing setbacks as manageable challenges [30]. These control appraisals elicit positive achievement emotions such as hope and determination, which in turn fuel intrinsic motivation by satisfying SDT’s autonomy and competence needs [53]. Empirical studies demonstrate that the perseverance‑of‑effort facet of grit predicts both foreign language enjoyment and WTC [93, 94]. These findings align with prior Iranian comparative research showing perseverance‑of‑effort’s robust association with both enhanced motivation and WTC [32, 35]; moreover, research indicates that learners with higher grit report greater engagement and positive affect [95]. Within CVT’s architecture, therefore, gritty effort reinforces control beliefs that mediate the translation of persistence into motivated action [30, 92].

Self‑assessment functions as a metacognitive feedback loop at the intersection of value and control appraisals. When learners accurately evaluate their performance, they simultaneously recognize progress toward meaningful goals (value appraisal) and identify actionable steps for improvement (control appraisal). This dual process fulfills SDT’s competence need and mitigates feelings of helplessness, generating pride and other task‑focused emotions that reinforce intrinsic drive [30, 96]. Recent qualitative research in higher education contexts illustrates that self‑assessment tools produce observable gains in language proficiency and learner confidence [95, 97]. Thus, self‑assessment is not a passive reflection but an active generator of the appraisals and emotions that propel motivation.

Once motivated, learners move toward WTC through CVT’s emotion‑driven action tendencies. High control (e.g., I can communicate effectively) and high value (e.g., speaking English is worthwhile) appraisals elicit activating emotions such as enjoyment and curiosity while diminishing anxiety—an avoidance‑based emotion [98]. Foreign language enjoyment has been shown to directly predict WTC [99, 100], and learners who experience positive affect are more likely to overcome the intention–behavior gap [6, 37]. In this way, motivation transcends cognitive intent, as positive emotions lower the threshold for communicative action.

By situating grit, self‑assessment, and motivation within CVT, the findings extend existing frameworks in three key ways. First, the study establishes achievement emotions as the affective bridge linking grit and SDT‑identified needs to communicative behavior—an intermediary mechanism that prior syntheses underemphasized [37]. Second, self-assessment is reconceptualized as an emotion‑regulatory process: accurate self‑evaluation dynamically adjusts control‑value appraisals, thereby generating the pride and determination necessary to sustain motivation [34, 35, 96]. Third, the study frames EFL motivation as emotionally contingent, showing that sustaining strong control beliefs is vital to mitigate anxiety and propel WTC; two learners with equal grit may differ in WTC because of divergent emotion regulation [93, 100].

Finally, integrating CVT resolves paradoxes in grit research. Although GT emphasizes long‑term passion, it overlooks how frustration can accumulate during performance plateaus. CVT accounts for this by positioning self‑assessment as an “emotional thermostat” that validates incremental progress and converts ongoing effort into positive affect. This theoretical refinement suggests that pedagogical interventions should pair grit cultivation with appraisal training—teaching learners to set subgoals, conduct systematic self‑evaluations, and attend to the emotions these appraisals evoke. Such interventions promise to bolster both persistence and WTC by leveraging the emotion‑cognition nexus central to CVT.

Conclusion and implications

This study elucidates the dynamic interplay among L2 grit, self‑assessment, motivation, and WTC in EFL learners by integrating CVT, SDT, and GT. Consistent with the hypotheses, L2 grit emerged as a foundational driver of motivated behavior, both directly and via accurate self‑assessment as a metacognitive feedback loop [58, 64]. Learners who persistently engage in effortful practice develop stronger control appraisals, which yield positive achievement emotions (e.g., hope, determination) and satisfy autonomy and competence needs. In turn, these emotions bridge intention and behavior, lowering affective barriers—such as anxiety—and amplifying WTC. These findings underscore the necessity of coupling grit‑enhancement strategies with self‑assessment training to cultivate adaptive control‑value appraisals. By doing so, an emotionally supportive environment that sustains long‑term persistence and optimizes communicative engagement can be fostered.

Theoretical contributions

This research makes three key contributions to language acquisition theory. First, it extends GT [15] by demonstrating how sustained effort enhances control appraisals within CVT’s framework, thereby generating the positive emotions requisite for intrinsic motivation. Second, it deepens SDT [42] by specifying self‑assessment as a mediator that fulfills competence needs and dynamically adjusts value appraisals, aligning with evidence on metacognitive self‑regulation in academic contexts [58, 64]. Third, by situating achievement emotions at the nexus of grit, self‑assessment, and motivation, the study refines existing models to account for emotional contingencies in WTC, highlighting that learners with comparable perseverance may diverge in communicative behavior due to differential emotion regulation. These theoretical insights advocate for a more integrated, emotion‑cognition approach to EFL motivation and set the stage for future research on targeted appraisal interventions.

Practical implications

The findings of this study carry substantial implications for EFL educators and curriculum designers, particularly in embedding strategies that build L2 grit, motivation, and self-assessment skills among learners. To leverage the positive association between L2 grit and motivation, EFL teachers and institutions are encouraged to integrate structured practices that foster persistence, resilience, and self-reflection in language learners.

Firstly, EFL teachers can introduce goal-setting exercises as an essential part of language instruction. Explicit goal-setting activities, such as establishing short-term language goals (e.g., mastering specific vocabulary each week) and long-term objectives (e.g., attaining fluency in particular skills by the term’s end), help learners develop L2 grit [101]. Teachers could initiate each lesson with a brief goal-setting session, allowing students to set and reflect on their objectives for that class. Research indicates that this practice not only aligns with grit-building principles but also enhances learners’ motivation by providing a clear sense of progression and accomplishment [56].

To further promote L2 grit, educators can implement resilience-building tasks within the curriculum. For instance, structured activities such as “challenge journals,” where learners document their challenges and strategies for overcoming them, have proven beneficial for developing grit [41]. Teachers might encourage students to revisit these journals regularly to monitor their progress and adapt their strategies accordingly. Mirroring prior recommendations, embedding activities that foster perseverance and systematic self-evaluation can plausibly increase motivational readiness and communicative willingness [32]. Moreover, educators could conduct resilience workshops that include activities like group discussions on overcoming language-related challenges, peer-support sessions, and guided reflections on perseverance. These workshops could be embedded in regular class sessions or offered as extracurricular programs, enhancing resilience and fostering long-term engagement in language learning [42].

To foster self-assessment skills, EFL instructors are encouraged to integrate self-assessment exercises into their teaching routines. For example, after each lesson or language activity, teachers could ask students to evaluate their performance, identify improvement areas, and set personalized objectives for subsequent sessions [58]. Simple self-assessment checklists or digital tools can facilitate this reflection, making it an accessible and routine practice. Furthermore, mid-term self-assessment reviews can be part of a course’s formal evaluation, where students track their progress, recognize growth, and adjust their learning strategies, ultimately promoting self-regulated learning [65].

Moreover, feedback mechanisms should incorporate self-assessment elements to encourage students to actively engage in monitoring their progress. Teachers can ask students to assess their strengths and weaknesses before providing feedback on tasks, fostering a habit of self-reflection and ownership of learning [61]. Self-assessment could also be integrated into peer feedback sessions, where learners evaluate both their work and their peers’ efforts, promoting a constructive and reflective feedback culture [54].

Encouraging active language use, critical for WTC, can be achieved by designing collaborative and interactive classroom activities. Role-play exercises, group projects, and peer feedback sessions simulate real-life communicative scenarios, building learners’ confidence and providing authentic, low-risk opportunities for practicing language in a supportive environment [33]. These interactions not only increase WTC but also contribute to a robust and engaging learning atmosphere.

At an institutional level, language programs might consider offering L2 grit-building workshops and self-assessment training as structured parts of the curriculum. These workshops could introduce learners to resilience strategies, guided goal-setting exercises, and reflective practices, aligning with broader goals of developing self-regulated, resilient learners [55]. Embedding self-assessment into the curriculum as a routine part of feedback processes encourages students to evaluate their progress, supporting both grit and motivation through consistent self-reflection and progress tracking [57].

In a broader educational context, these findings highlight the importance of promoting psychological resilience and self-directed learning. By incorporating L2 grit and self-assessment practices in EFL education, teachers not only contribute to learners’ academic achievements but also enhance their personal and professional growth [47].

Limitations of the study and future directions

While this study provides valuable insights into the interplay of L2 grit, self-assessment, motivation, and WTC in the EFL context, several limitations should be noted, which offer avenues for future research.

First, the use of convenience sampling, although practical, limits the generalizability of the findings. Since the sample comprised solely Iranian EFL learners, the results may not fully represent learners from diverse cultural or educational backgrounds. Future studies could consider random sampling or include a broader, culturally diverse participant base to enhance external validity.

Second, the use of self-report questionnaires to measure constructs such as L2 grit, motivation, and self-assessment introduces potential biases, including social desirability bias and self-perception inaccuracies. Respondents may have overstated or understated their levels of L2 grit, motivation, or WTC, which could affect the reliability of the data. Future studies could mitigate this limitation by incorporating mixed methods, such as interviews or behavioral observations, to triangulate self-report data with additional qualitative insights.

Moreover, the study’s cross-sectional design fundamentally restricts causal inferences among the variables. While SEM analysis allows to identify significant associations and potential mediating relationships, the temporal precedence required for causal claims cannot be established with single-timepoint data. Therefore, it should be emphasized that these findings represent correlational patterns rather than demonstrated causal effects. Future longitudinal or experimental designs would be necessary to substantiate the directional relationships proposed in our model.

Furthermore, future studies might explore these relationships across various cultural and linguistic backgrounds. Since this study was conducted in an Iranian EFL context, investigating whether these relationships hold in other EFL or ESL contexts would help determine the extent to which cultural and contextual factors shape grit, motivation, and self-assessment in language learning.

Finally, exploring the impact of targeted interventions could provide practical insights. Future research could investigate the effectiveness of goal-setting workshops, self-reflective activities, and resilience-building programs aimed at enhancing L2 grit, motivation, and self-assessment. Such interventions, if proven effective, could support educators in integrating psychological resilience and self-regulation skills into language curricula, ultimately promoting more sustainable and effective language learning practices.

Abbreviations

AGFI

Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index

AMOS

Analysis of Moment Structure

CFA

Confirmatory Factor Analysis

CFI

Comparative Fit Index

CMIN/DF

Chi-square divided by the Degrees of Freedom

EFL

English as a Foreign Language

G

Grit

GT

Grit Theory

GFI

Goodness of Fit Index

H

Hypothesis

L2

Second Language

M

Motivation

PClose

p-value for testing the null hypothesis of close fit

RMSEA

Root Mean Square Error of Approximation

S

Self-assessment

SDT

Self-Determination Theory

Self

Self-assessment

SEM

Structural Equation Modeling

SD

Standard Deviation

SLA

Second Language Acquisition

SPSS

Statistical Package for Social Science

SRMR

Standardized Root Mean Squared Residual

W

Willingness to Communicate

WTC

Willingness To Communicate

Author contributions

M. SH. and F. J. D. conceptualized the study. F. J. D. collected the data. F. J. D. and M. SH. analyzed the data. M. SH. and F. J. D. wrote the manuscript. M. SH. reviewed the manuscript. M. SH. and F. J. D. reviewed and revised the manuscript. All authors agreed with the publication.

Funding

The authors received no funding from any agency to conduct this study.

Data availability

The datasets analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

This study was reviewed and approved by the English Department Postgraduate Research Committee at the Shahreza Branch of Islamic Azad University, (Reference Number: Eng-Dep-24-11-203). Informed consent to participate in this study was obtained from participants who were all above the age of 16 prior to the survey.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.