Unveiling the nexus of the relationship between multiplayer digital game-playing experience and workplace loneliness: a moderated serial mediation analysis

Abstract

Background

The role of individuals’ solo digital game-playing experience in influencing their feelings of loneliness is an important research area that has received considerable attention from researchers. However, we still know less about how the digital game-playing experience, in general, and the multiplayer digital game-playing experience, in particular, influence employees’ loneliness in the workplace. In addition, although there are limited studies investigating the link between digital game playing and loneliness, the literature presents conflicting arguments and findings. Researchers have omitted various intervening psychological factors, such as boosting behavior and escapism motivation, as well as task characteristics, including task routineness, from the relationship between the multiplayer digital game-playing experience and loneliness.

Method

This study involved 120 employees from both service and manufacturing industries, representing a diverse range of ages, genders, and professional experiences, who participated in multiplayer digital gaming at work. Participants completed a self-report questionnaire measuring their multiplayer gaming experience, boosting behavior, feelings of workplace loneliness, self-expansion escapism, and the routine nature of their tasks. We employed a PLS-SEM approach using SmartPLS 4.0 to examine the relationships among these variables.

Results

Our study did not uncover a direct relationship between the experience of playing multiplayer digital games and feelings of loneliness. Instead, our findings revealed a significant serial mediation effect in the relationship between multiplayer digital game-playing experience and workplace loneliness, mediated explicitly through the enhancement of boosting behavior and self-expansion escapism. Our analysis indicated that (i) there exists a positive relationship between the experience of multiplayer digital game-playing and boosting behavior; (ii) boosting behavior is positively correlated with self-expansion escapism. Furthermore, we identified that self-expansion exhibits a negative relationship with workplace loneliness. Additionally, we observed that higher task routineness significantly attenuated the serial mediating relationship identified in our analysis.

Conclusion

This study enhances the theoretical understanding of the importance of digital game play at work and offers practical implications for designing digital game activities to improve social relationships and reduce employee loneliness.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40359-025-03408-2.

Introduction

Workplace loneliness, characterized as “the distress caused by the perceived lack of high-quality interpersonal relationships among employees within a professional environment” [1, p. 13]], has garnered considerable attention in scholarly literature. Empirical studies have shown that workplace loneliness has a detrimental impact on employees’ well-being, creativity, job satisfaction, and overall performance [2–4], all of which are critical determinants of organizational effectiveness. In light of these findings, researchers advocate for implementing effective management strategies to address workplace loneliness and emphasize the need to investigate its underlying antecedents within organizational settings thoroughly.

Although prior research has explored various factors driving workplace loneliness, such as personality traits, social skills, leadership dynamics, workplace stress, coworker support, and spirituality within the work environment [5, 6], the specific impact of employees’ digital game-playing experiences—which include immersion, flow, tension, competence, negative affect, positive affect, and challenge [7]— during breaks with colleagues at work on their loneliness has not been empirically examined, especially in current literature. The scholarly literature indicates that, in light of the ongoing digitalization of workplaces and the growing recognition of the significance of play within professional settings1, there is a notable increase in employees’ engagement in digital gameplay activities during micro-breaks. Besides the academic perspective, in practice, some organizations also proactively implement digital gaming initiatives for remote and on-site employees to facilitate connectivity and enhance motivation [8–10]. For example, Google, Facebook, and LinkedIn have incorporated digital games into their strategies to improve employee engagement, foster social connections, and boost motivation [11]. In this context, employees engage in multiplayer digital games during lunch breaks2 or socialization activities, either through self-organized initiatives or organization-sponsored events [11]. Indeed, both academic research and organizational practice demonstrate that younger generations are increasingly refusing the separation between enjoyment and work-related activities. This trend is evident with the widespread adoption of digital technologies in the workplace. Silva and Sutko [12] observed that technological development has created a blend of work and leisure, blurring the lines between free and work time. Additionally, companies use digital gameplay as part of their human resource management practices. For instance, Lee et al. [13] suggest that MMORPGs effectively develop leadership skills in virtual environments. As a result, many organizations use MMORPGs for leadership training among their employees.

Although literature has acknowledged the existence of digital gameplay activities and experiences at work [10, 11], most existing research on digital gameplay in the workplace has focused on the effects of playing digital games with specific content (e.g., cooperative vs. competitive games or Pokémon Go) [14, 15]. It has investigated employees’ experiences playing games alone, rather than exploring employees playing digital games online or on technological devices and game consoles with their colleagues. Consequently, previous investigations have yielded inconclusive findings concerning the relationship between digital gaming experiences and feelings of loneliness within the general population. For example, while some studies have found a positive link between digital gameplay experience and loneliness [16, 17], others have revealed that digital game-playing experience has a less significant impact on loneliness [18].

In this study, we first assert that employees’ experiences with digital gameplay on various technological platforms—such as game consoles, virtual reality devices, or computers—are more effective in alleviating feelings of loneliness and mitigating their detrimental effects in the workplace when these experiences are shared with colleagues, rather than focusing on individual gameplay of specific titles. Here, in a workplace context, it is essential to delineate that multiplayer digital game experiences encompass both cooperative games, where employees collaborate as teammates within the same physical environment (e.g., games belonging to the Multiplayer Online Battle Arena (MOBA) genre), and competitive games, in which employees engage in competition with one another while situated in the exact location (e.g., battle royale genre). Additionally, employees participate in various games within the same team or in separate teams and groups while remaining in the same physical space within the organization.

Second, drawing on the review by Luo et al. [16], we posit that workplace loneliness is a distal outcome of the multiplayer digital game-playing experience. Therefore, it is imperative to investigate the underlying mechanisms that mediate the relationship between digital game-playing experiences and workplace loneliness. It is essential to explore the mechanisms that may play a proximal role in employees’ engagement in multiplayer digital gameplay activities and their subsequent reports of diminished feelings of loneliness, given the complex nature of workplace loneliness. To this end, employing the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions, which asserts that positive emotions expand an individual’s cognitive and behavioral capabilities, thereby helping to develop lasting personal resources across intellectual, social, psychological, and physical areas [19], we examine the constructs of boosting behavior and self-expansion escapism, as personal resources. These constructs serve as proximal outcomes of digital gameplay and potential mediating mechanisms in the relationship between the experience of multiplayer digital game-playing and workplace loneliness.

The first mechanism, boosting behavior, delineates employees’ tendency to engage in mood-enhancing, energizing, and unifying interactions with their colleagues [20]. This phenomenon of boosting behavior is intrinsically linked to individual traits such as extraversion, levels of work engagement, team climate dynamics, and overall team performance, thereby fostering an environment conducive to fun and leisure within the workplace [21]. Notably, despite its significance as an interpersonal work behavior that can enhance employees’ socio-emotional connections [21], there is a noticeable gap in the literature regarding the promotion of boosting behavior in the context of multiplayer digital gameplay, and an empirical research revealing how boosting behavior mediates the relationship between the experience of multiplayer digital gaming and manifestations of workplace loneliness.

Another mechanism is self-expansion escapism, which facilitates the positive growth of employees. In alignment with the broaden-and-build theory, we propose that self-expansion escapism is particularly relevant in multiplayer digital gameplay activities conducted in workplace settings. Given the ephemeral and experiential nature of multiplayer digital gameplay events in the workplace, it is plausible that such activities provide employees with a necessary reprieve from their daily responsibilities and stressors. Consequently, these gaming experiences foster self-expansion escapism, highlighting the potential benefits of integrating digital gameplay into professional environments to alleviate feelings of loneliness. However, the connection between multiplayer digital game experience, self-expansion escapism, and loneliness has not been sufficiently studied and deserves empirical research in the workplace context.

In addition, we postulate that the relationship between boosting behavior and escapism motivation is noteworthy. Hobfoll [22] implicitly states that boosting behavior is pivotal in developing or emerging escapism motivation. According to the broaden-and-build theory, self-expansion escapism arises from the experience of multiplayer digital gameplay and other personal resources, such as boosting behavior. This interplay can potentially alleviate negative emotional states, including feelings of loneliness in the workplace. Despite these theoretical assertions, a conspicuous gap remains in the literature, as no empirical studies have explicitly examined the interrelationships between multiplayer digital game-playing experiences, boosting behavior, self-expansion escapism, and workplace loneliness.

Third, we propose that the strength of this serial mediation is contingent upon various contextual factors. Informed by the contingency perspective and broaden-and-build theory, we examine the role of task routineness—defined as the degree to which employees consistently or repetitively engage in their work tasks—in moderating the relationship between multiplayer digital game-playing experiences and workplace loneliness. In this study, we posit that higher task routineness attenuates the indirect relationship between digital gameplay experiences and reduced workplace loneliness. Investigating task routineness is vital for several reasons. Notably, it determines whether employees can effectively leverage their multiplayer digital gameplay experiences to counteract feelings of loneliness in the workplace or whether such experiences become suppressed or disregarded due to the constraints of routine tasks. Additionally, examining how task routineness may exacerbate loneliness in professional contexts is crucial for understanding employee interactions with their work environments. Addressing this issue is particularly pertinent for managers seeking to evaluate the potential efficacy of multiplayer digital gameplay as a strategy for mitigating workplace loneliness, given that behavioral boosting and self-expansion escapism, once established, can be challenging to retract [23].

Therefore, as demonstrated in Fig. 1, we investigate (1) the role of multiplayer digital game-playing experience on workplace loneliness, (2) the influence of multiplayer digital game-playing experience on boosting behavior, that boosting behavior on self-expansion escapism, and that self-expansion escapism on workplace loneliness, and (3) the moderating effect of task routineness on the serial mediating role of boosting behavior and self-expansion escapism in the relationship between multiplayer digital game-playing experience and workplace loneliness.

Fig. 1.

Proposed Research Model

Hypothesis development

The relationship between multiplayer digital game-playing experience and workplace loneliness

In line with the broaden-and-build theory, we note that engagement in multiplayer digital gaming experiences mitigates feelings of loneliness among employees by enhancing their capacity for imagination. As articulated by Celestine and Yeo [24], the development of imagined constructs that possess a distinctive connection to reality is fundamental to human-computer interaction, which expands and enriches individuals’ cognitive, emotional, and behavioral faculties. Within this context, employees can construct alternative realities (e.g., becoming warriors in an epic story within a digital game), envision their work environment innovatively, attribute agency to inanimate objects, and interact with imaginary companions. In addition, incorporating digital game activities facilitates the projection of employees beyond their immediate physical surroundings, thereby fostering a sense of spatial and temporal flexibility. For example, employees create a new environment (an online game environment) for themselves by playing multiplayer games that transport them from one situation to another. This active engagement helps employees navigate the constant changes in the workplace, ultimately decreasing feelings of isolation and loneliness.

Additionally, the multiplayer digital game-playing experience offers a platform to assess employees’ self-perception, which represents “individuals’ ideas of what they might become, what they would like to become, and especially what they are afraid of becoming” [25, p. 212]]. Markus and Nurius [26] postulated that the self is a malleable construct; individuals act differently in diverse situations, social roles, and cues influence them, and they need self-presentation. Possible selves are constructed based on digital gameplay and can intensify desirable characteristics (e.g., creative) and dreaded features (e.g., lonely). For example, employees can recreate their identities and personas through avatars in games, which helps reduce their feelings of loneliness. In fact, from a practical standpoint, employees draw analogies from what they learn in digital games to their daily lives by reflecting on those lessons at work. They align their personality with the characters in the game in their minds or mentally compare activities between real life and the game. Additionally, they imitate the behaviors of fantastic characters from the games with their colleagues, based on how those characters act, behave, or joke. Therefore, we hypothesize that:

H1

The multiplayer digital game-playing experience is negatively related to the loneliness of employees in the workplace.

The relationship between multiplayer digital game-playing experience and boosting behavior

Following the broaden-and-build theory, we propose that engagement in multiplayer digital gaming enhances employees’ boosting behaviors by revitalizing their energies within the workplace. Empirical evidence suggests that employees with positive experiences in digital gaming tend to experience increased energy levels. This heightened energy is subsequently reflected in their interactions with colleagues, prompting them to exhibit proactive behaviors. Supporting this notion, Celestine and Yeo [24] also assert that playful activities elevate employees’ energy levels and inspire them to cultivate new or supplementary resources in their professional environments. For instance, in practice, employees need to reset their minds, step away from the job and its related stress, and feel relaxed. In this regard, they prefer to play digital games to restart work, prepare themselves for a new task, and enhance their behavior. Through digital gaming activities, they embark on a mental journey to other places and times, feeling that they refresh their minds, which provides energy to others and improves both their own and others’ moods in the workplace.

Also, multiplayer digital gaming significantly increases subsequent boosting behaviors by eliciting positive emotional experiences, including enjoyment, entertainment, humor, and happiness. These positive emotions are crucial in encouraging employees to engage in interpersonal interactions, broadening their and their colleagues’ behavioral repertoire, facilitating the acquisition of new skills, and reinforcing social connections and authentic relationships [27, 28]. For example, when employees play digital games with their colleagues, they establish a comfort zone during the gaming. In that zone, they hesitate to discuss workplace problems. Instead, they share humorous stories and engaging activities to foster positive emotions and alleviate stress. When one person feels relaxed, others tend to feel that way too. This relaxation spreads through the group. As a result, everyone is in a good mood and feels more connected to one another.

Furthermore, multiplayer digital gaming, as a constructive experience, significantly enhances the boosting behaviors of employees by facilitating the interpretation and reconfiguration of their social identities in relation to their preferred relational connections. Employees participating in social interactions within and surrounding the digital gaming environment form new socio-emotional bonds, understand others’ humor styles, characters, and personalities, exchange ideas, and provide technical and social support to one another, thereby fostering a deeper understanding of interpersonal relationships [14]. Indeed, multiplayer digital gaming helps employees reduce stereotypes and change their perceptions of others. Due to the nature of multiplayer games, players work together as a team, taking into account the abilities, skills, and personalities of their teammates. In this setting, they must listen to others’ ideas without prejudice and disregard status differences to succeed. Therefore, we hypothesize that:

H2

A multiplayer digital game-playing experience is positively related to boosting the behavior of employees in the workplace.

The relationship between boosting behavior and self-expansion escapism

Consistent with the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions, we posit that the proactive behaviors of employees (i.e., boosting behaviors) leverage their self-expansion escapism by eliciting positive moods in the workplace. A positive mood is associated with improved cognitive processes among employees, including enhanced information processing capabilities and greater mental flexibility. This facilitates the establishment of diverse connections among ideas, fostering divergent thinking and enabling the more efficient integration of new information, thereby improving problem comprehension [19]. Consequently, employees gain access to an enriched and intricately connected knowledge framework, along with a broader spectrum of information, as positive moods serve to activate favorable material stored in memory. Furthermore, a positive mood fosters a supportive environment that encourages creative risk-taking, promotes exploratory behaviors, and inspires a relaxed and playful approach to tasks [21].

Also, boosting behaviors contributes to the self-expansion escapism of employees by igniting a heightened sense of enthusiasm within the workplace. This increased enthusiasm fosters a greater understanding of practicality among employees and builds their confidence in their ability to influence the prevailing work environment [20]. Consequently, employees are likely to perform their responsibilities more effectively and demonstrate a more precise awareness of their abilities and limitations. Accordingly:

H3

Boosting behavior is positively related to the self-expansion escapism of employees.

The relationship between self-expansion escapism and workplace loneliness

We argue that self-expansion escapism alleviates workplace loneliness among employees. The motivation for self-expansion escapism actively fosters positive emotional experiences that individuals can leverage for personal growth, psychological development, and enhancement of their capabilities, ultimately leading to favorable outcomes [29]. By engaging in this form of escapism, employees are better equipped to confront stressors and subsequently identify strategies for stress mitigation [30]. In this context, employees may metaphorically transcend their immediate concerns, leading to a diminished sense of isolation within the workplace.

Self-expansion escapism among employees also reduces their feelings of loneliness by serving as an essential mechanism for self-evaluation and engagement in various activities [30]. Employees who prioritize self-expansion tend to adopt a holistic perspective when assessing their involvement in these activities, which is associated with cultivating positive emotions. Additionally, employees enhance their capacities for exploration and motivation to participate in diverse activities, including investigating novel concepts and interacting with a range of unique items within their professional environment [31]. Consequently, employees are likely to experience diminished loneliness in their workplace. Thus, we hypothesize that:

H4

Self-expansion escapism is negatively related to workplace loneliness.

The role of boosting behavior and self-expansion escapism in the multiplayer digital game-playing experience- workplace loneliness link

According to the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions, experiencing positive emotions through multiplayer digital game playing enhances personal resources while concurrently reducing adverse emotional outcomes (e.g., loneliness). These personal resources are crucial in transforming positive emotional experiences into beneficial outcomes. In this respect, we contend that boosting behaviors and self-expansion escapism notably diminish workplace loneliness within a multiplayer digital gaming environment. In this context, boosting behavior and self-expansion escapism provide essential psychological support, fostering emotional flexibility and sensitivity, which are vital for coping with negative emotions and serving as effective antidotes to the enduring effects of negative emotional states [6]. For example, since employees are often busy with work during the day, they may not usually realize or understand the personal needs, happiness, and sorrows of others. Playing digital games with others provides employees with opportunities to break down barriers, share insights about themselves, remove boundaries, and more effectively evaluate others. As a result, they feel safer within that group, improve their positive behaviors, and feel less lonely.

Enhancing boosting behaviors associated with self-expansion escapism also contributes to employee perceptions of the value derived from workplace membership. Employees who experience a sense of affiliation and identification with their organizational environment report decreased loneliness. Previous research has demonstrated that individuals who actively engage in video gaming strengthen social interactions within the virtual realm, thereby alleviating feelings of isolation [17, 32]. In this context, self-expansion escapism replenishes social resources by fostering high-quality interpersonal relationships. This dynamic reduces loneliness among employees within the workplace. For example, playing multiplayer digital games helps connect older and younger generations in the workplace, fostering a sense of camaraderie between them. In this context, they learn new technologies and enhance their ability to absorb the latest developments in digital tech by establishing a communication link with younger generations who are more familiar with recent games. Therefore, we hypothesize that:

H5

Boosting behavior and self-expansion escapism serially mediate the relationship between multiplayer digital game-playing experience and workplace loneliness.

The moderating role of task routineness in the serial mediation relation

We argue that a high level of task routineness, which involves minimal conscious effort and follows predictable procedures, limits the effectiveness of multiplayer digital gameplay in fostering relational processes and hinders the development of heightened self-expansion escapism, thus increasing workplace loneliness. For example, employees predominantly rely on established behavioral scripts that delineate appropriate behaviors or sequences of events within routine task environments [33]. Engaging in these scripts simplifies interpersonal interactions and necessitates a reduced allocation of cognitive resources and strategic thinking. Consequently, employees are primarily required to focus on task execution when faced with unexpected occurrences. In such contexts, participation in multiplayer digital gaming may prove ineffective in enhancing employees’ engagement in proactive behaviors and fostering self-expansion, as existing procedures and guidelines often restrict it. Past studies also show that routine tasks, which have higher levels of structure and analyzability and less variability, usually include explicit guidelines and established rules, which limit employees’ behavioral options during task execution [34]. As a result, employees may derive diminished motivational benefits from their experiences with multiplayer digital gameplay, which could impact boosting behavior, self-expansion escapism, and loneliness sequentially.

Conversely, we propose that reduced task routineness introduces novel and potentially challenging situations that necessitate non-routine cognitive engagement [35]. When task routineness is low, employees face numerous changes and exceptions in their work, encounter more significant challenges in analysis and prediction, have less structure, and lack predefined solutions, which can lead to ambiguity in task execution. Consequently, employees cannot solely depend on their pre-existing mental models and established cognitive frameworks; instead, they must develop new cognitive structures to effectively navigate their responsibilities and mitigate feelings of isolation within the workplace [36]. Here, interpersonal interactions are crucial for employees to enhance their comprehension of the organizational environment and to foster vital social competencies, such as socially embedded learning. Additionally, employees must broaden their skill sets and cultivate a sense of agency within the work context to effectively address unforeseen incidents. As a result, employees engage in exploratory behaviors and consider multiple potential solutions through experiences such as multiplayer digital gameplay, which helps alleviate workplace loneliness. For instance, in practice, employees enter a different world, such as a virtual environment, when they play games involving racing, soccer competitions, and war scenarios. They control that world, feel like they are the stars of it, have new avatars, lives, and a variety of actions within it. As a result, they see different perspectives, gain new experiences, and therefore understand workplace-related issues from various angles based on those avatars and their reactions. In a sense, they expand their understanding beyond traditional boundaries. Additionally, they experience new feelings, such as a sense of achievement, during challenging times in those games. These feelings become embedded in their minds. They carry, adapt, and reflect those emotions in their daily work lives. Consequently, they increase their own and others’ energy, enhance their emotional and cognitive space, and feel less isolated. Therefore, we hypothesize that:

H6

Task routineness moderates the indirect effect of multiplayer digital game-playing experience on workplace loneliness through serial mediation of boosting behavior and self-expansion escapism. As such, the adverse indirect effect is stronger at a lower level of task routineness.

Research methodology

Sampling

We used a convenience sampling technique for our research model, as including all employees who play multiplayer games would be impractical. Our sample consisted of part-time MBA students from various firms, showcasing diverse ages, educational backgrounds, and occupational experiences. MBA students are suitable for our study because they possess a range of professional experiences, understand the complexities of digital gaming, and will be future decision-makers. This group also serves as an effective control due to their similar backgrounds and significant experience with digital gaming. Participants were enrolled in universities in Istanbul, Turkey’s largest city and a corporate hub, aligning our methodology with established research practices [37].

We informed participants that their involvement in the study was voluntary and specifically invited individuals who engage in gaming as a leisure activity on various electronic devices. Participants completed surveys during micro-breaks with colleagues, focusing exclusively on multiplayer digital gaming during work breaks. The study included employees at different organizational levels to understand the relationship between social interactions and gameplay efficacy in the workplace.

Digital gameplay activities were required to be in-person, held weekly, and voluntary to assess the impact of escapist motivations on feelings of loneliness. We invited employees who play various genres of multiplayer digital games, including MMORPGs, social simulation games, esports, and fantasy football. The research aims to identify overarching trends in workplace gaming experiences, rather than genre-specific effects.

A total of 178 out of 645 MBA students who were engaged in the industry consented to participate in the study, resulting in a final sample of 120 participants after excluding those who were not employed or not involved in multiplayer digital gaming in a group context.

Data was collected through individual paper-and-pencil surveys, focusing on personal experiences to capture the subjective nature of loneliness, as perceptions can vary significantly among individuals [38].

Participants first responded to questions about their digital gameplay in the workplace, followed by questions on workplace loneliness, boosting behaviors, and self-expansion escapism, a few hours later. This approach minimized variability and common method bias, enhancing the reliability of the findings.

The study involved 27 females and 93 males, with a mean age of 30.63 years (SD = 7.69). 75% of participants were employed in the service industry, while 25% worked in manufacturing. On average, participants spent approximately 1.53 h per week engaging in digital gaming. Most respondents (51%) held specialist roles, including designers and product specialists, while others held management positions (17%), functional management roles (14%), senior technical roles (8%), project management positions (5%), and technical leadership roles (4%).

Measures

To assess our hypotheses, we used multi-item scales from prior research and included weekly digital gameplay activities across different groups and industries as control variables to strengthen our analysis.

The multiplayer digital game-playing experience was assessed using a validated 26-question questionnaire on a 5-point Likert scale, focusing on players’ emotional and cognitive responses after the game session, adopted from IJsselsteijn et al. [39]. It covers seven dimensions: sensory immersion, tension, competence, flow, challenge, and both negative and positive affect. Immersion measures player engagement, while flow describes a state where players become so engrossed that they lose track of time. Competence relates to feeling in control, positive affect indicates enjoyment, and negative affect includes feelings of boredom. Tension is linked to game difficulty, and challenge refers to the mental effort required. Participants completed the survey immediately after playing to ensure accurate responses.

We assessed boosting behavior using a structured 16-item questionnaire adapted from Fortuin et al. [20] for the workplace context, employing a 5-point Likert scale for response measurement. This multidimensional construct encompasses mood-enhancing, energizing, and uniting behaviors, each assessed with six items. Here, mood-enhancing behavior boosts positive emotions through smiles, humor, and teamwork. Energizing behavior involves inspiring others to take action and engaging in collaborative group activities. Uniting behavior centers on connecting with colleagues and promoting collaboration.

Workplace loneliness was evaluated using a 16-item questionnaire developed by Wright et al. [1] that focused on emotional deprivation and social companionship, employing a 5-point Likert scale. The self-expansion escapism variable was measured with a five-item scale on a 7-point Likert scale adopted from Stenseng et al. [30]. Additionally, task routineness adopted from Scott and Tiessen [40] was assessed using six questions rated from ‘extremely low’ (1) to ‘extremely high’ (5).

The scales were initially formulated in English and translated to Turkish, ensuring semantic accuracy and cultural relevance as suggested by Usunier [41]. Translated items were rigorously reviewed for clarity and grammatical correctness.

The measurement reliability and validity

We assessed the reliability and validity of the scales using rigorous data purification. First, we evaluated each item’s outer loading with the PLS-SEM approach in SmartPLS 4.0, excluding items with loadings below 0.70. Next, we checked the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) for multicollinearity, discarding items with VIF values over 0.50. Finally, we analyzed cross-loadings, removing items with significant loadings (greater than 0.70) on multiple variables to maintain analysis integrity.

Our measurement model utilizes first- and second-order reflective constructs. We defined the multiplayer digital gameplay experience as a second-order construct, evaluated through a repeated indicator approach [42]. The confirmatory tetrad analysis (CTA-PLS) indicated that some variables were not relevant, with outer loadings for tension (β= − 0.30, p = .54), flow (β = 0.08, p = .79), and challenge (β= − 0.53, p = .39) being insignificant. Thus, we characterized the gameplay experience in terms of sensory and imaginative immersion, competence, and positive affect.

In this study, we defined workplace loneliness as a second-order reflective construct based on previous research [5, 43]. Using the CTA-PLS method, we found all tetrad values to be non-significant, with negative lower bounds and positive upper bounds for the adjusted confidence intervals, indicating that all latent variables are reflective.

We conducted a thorough examination of the dimensionality of boosting behavior-related items, which had not been previously used in the workplace. Our analysis of the VIF and cross-loadings revealed three distinct dimensions of boosting behavior. Additionally, our investigation using the CTA-PLS process confirmed that all latent variables in the model are reflective, indicating that boosting behavior is a second-order reflective construct.

We analyzed self-expansion escapism and task routineness by examining the standardized loadings of survey items and evaluating their Cronbach’s Alpha (CR), Average Variance Extracted (AVE), and Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT).

As shown in Table 1, all measures exceeded the 0.70 threshold for composite reliability and the 0.50 threshold for AVE, meeting the established benchmarks. The AVE for each construct was higher than the squared correlations between latent factors, indicating good discriminant validity, while HTMT values were below 0.85. These results confirm sufficient convergent and discriminant validity for our constructs [44].

Table 1.

Correlations, Fornell-Lacker, and HTMT ratio values

Mean	S. dev.	Variables		1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12
3.33	1.01	MDGPE-immersion	1	-0.9	0.52	0.59	0.27	0.11	0.24	0.07	0.11	0.15	0.15	--	--
3.69	0.88	MDGPE-competence	2	.47***	-0.9	0.83	0.14	0.14	0.3	0.12	0.11	0.2	0.08	--	--
3.81	0.85	MDGPE-positive affect	3	.53***	.77***	-0.93	0.17	0.19	0.23	0.13	0.16	0.14	0.11	--	--
3.82	0.75	Mood boosting	4	.20**	0.12	0.15	-0.81	0.82	0.77	0.47	0.53	0.6	0.08	--	--
3.99	0.72	Uniting boosting	5	0.1	0.13	.17*	.74***	-0.88	0.73	0.55	0.6	0.46	0.08	--	--
3.7	0.78	Energizing boosting	6	.22**	.28***	.21**	.68***	.67***	-0.83	0.37	0.35	0.57	0.11	--	--
2.26	0.91	Emotional deprivation	7	-0.05	-0.1	-0.11	− .42***	− .51***	− .34***	-0.83	0.77	0.31	0.19	--	--
1.93	0.84	Social companionship	8	-0.1	-0.09	-0.14	− .47***	− .55***	− .32***	.71***	-0.87	0.26	0.19	--	--
5.34	1.04	Self-expansion	9	0.13	.18**	0.11	.50***	.40***	.50***	− .26***	− .21**	-0.76	0.19	--	--
3.34	0.85	Task routineness	10	-0.08	0.01	-0.08	-0.05	0.01	-0.07	.17*	.16*	-0.11	-0.86	--	--
1.54	1.07	Weekly playing hours	11	0.09	0.15	0.05	0.12	0.08	0.14	0.06	0.06	0.13	0.06	--	--
-	-	Industry type	12	0.1	-0.05	0.04	.14*	0.1	.17*	0.06	0.06	-0.05	-0.1	.20**	--
		Composite reliability (CR)		0.92	0.95	0.95	0.9	0.94	0.93	0.95	0.93	0.87	0.92	NA	NA
		Ave. Var. Ext (AVE)		0.81	0.82	0.86	0.65	0.77	0.69	0.69	0.76	0.58	0.73	NA	NA
		Cronbach’s α		0.89	0.93	0.92	0.87	0.93	0.91	0.95	0.89	0.82	0.88	NA	NA

Note. Fornell-Lacker’s criteria values on the diagonal are the square root of AVE; italic values above the diagonal are HTMT values, and below is the correlation between variables. MDGPE= Multiplayer Digital Game-playing Experience*** p < .01, ** p < .05, * p < .1

Data analysis and results

We employed the PLS-PROCESS with SmartPLS software to conduct a bootstrap resampling of 5,000 iterations for testing the moderated serial mediation model, particularly given the smaller sample size constraints highlighted by [45].

As shown in Fig. 2, the findings regarding hypotheses H1 through H4 indicate no significant association between multiplayer digital gaming experience and workplace loneliness (β = − 0.11, p = .28), not supporting H1. However, multiplayer gaming has a positive effect on boosting behavior (β = 0.23, p < .01), supporting H2. Boosting behavior is positively related to self-expansion escapism (β = 0.53, p < .01), supporting H3, while self-expansion escapism is negatively correlated with workplace loneliness (β = − 0.21, p < .01), supporting H4.

Fig. 2.

Results of the Path Model

Model fit evaluation revealed acceptable predictive significance, with Q² values above zero and an SRMR of 0.09 [46].

For serial mediation (H5), using a bootstrapping method with 5,000 iterations [47] showed that the overall effect of multiplayer gaming on workplace loneliness was significant at − 0.38 (95% BCCI [-0.70; − 0.10]), with a total indirect effect of − 0.26 (95% BCCI [-0.54; − 0.08]) and a specific indirect effect through boosting behavior and self-expansion escapism of − 0.20 (95% BCCI [-0.48; − 0.03]), supporting H5.

In examining the moderating role of task routineness in H6, the moderated serial mediation analysis in Table 2, as outlined by Hayes [48], indicated that multiplayer gaming significantly influences boosting behavior based on task routineness (β = − 0.35, p < .01). The specific indirect effect on workplace loneliness, shown in Table 3, was 0.05 (95% BCCI [0.007; 0.12]), with no confidence interval values crossing zero, reinforcing H6. This indicates that the conditional indirect effects decrease as task routineness increases.

Table 2.

Moderated Serial-Mediation results

Antecedent	Consequents
	Boosting behavior		Self-expansion	Loneliness
	Path-value		Path-value	Path-value
Multiplayer Digital Game-Playing Experience	0.33***			− 0.12
Boosting behavior			0.52***
Self-expansion				− 0.22**
Task routineness	− 0.13
Task routineness x Multiplayer digital game-playing experience	− 0.35***
Weekly playing hours				0.10
Industry type				0.03
R 2	0.22		0.27	0.13

^***p < .01, ^**p < .05, ^*p < .1

Table 3.

Conditional indirect effects of multiplayer digital game-playing experience on loneliness through boosting behavior and self-expansion escapism in serial, at values of task routineness as a moderator

			95% bias-corrected bootstrap confidence interval
Moderator	Values of the moderator	Effect	Lower limit	Upper limit
Task Routineness	Low (− 1 SD)	− 0.08*	− 0.21	− 0.01
	Medium (the mean)	− 0.04	− 0.11	− 0.008
	High (+ 1 SD)	0.002	− 0.02	− 0.001

^***p < .01, ^**p < .05, ^*p < .1

Robustness tests

We conducted supplementary analyses, including an endogeneity examination, to validate our primary findings. Employees who feel lonely may be more likely to engage in multiplayer gaming, and it is possible that they experienced beneficial effects from gaming before taking the survey. This creates endogeneity issues, where changes in behavior might stem from prior beliefs rather than gaming experiences.

To address this, we performed endogeneity tests using the Gaussian Copula approach within PLS path modeling [49]. We tested 21 models with various copula combinations, and none showed statistical significance, with p-values ranging from 0.10 to 0.32. This indicates that endogeneity was not a concern in our study.

Discussions and implications

Theoretical implications

This study first expands the play-related literature to determine the potential beneficial outcomes of engagement in digital games within organizational settings. In particular, this study empirically examines employees’ experiences with digital gameplay activities within the workplace context, addressing the research imperative articulated by Petelczyc et al. [11] to investigate further non-traditional devices utilized in workplace gaming activities. Previous studies have predominantly concentrated on traditional forms of play, such as sports, role-playing, ping pong, and card games like Euchre, which typically serve the dual purpose of amusement and fostering interpersonal interactions.

In addition, in line with the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions, this study empirically investigates the emotional advantages of multiplayer digital gaming among employees. It is critical to note that the nature of gameplay—whether competitive or cooperative—significantly affects the emotional responses elicited.

This study provides further empirical evidence on employees’ experiences and feelings during multiplayer digital gameplay activities. Specifically, the persistent variables associated with the Game Experience Questionnaire implemented in this study include employees’ positive affect, a sense of competency, and absorption and immersion. Previous research has evaluated digital gameplay utilizing the seven dimensions outlined in the Game Experience Questionnaire, initially conceptualized by IJsselsteijn et al. [7]. However, it is noteworthy that prior studies have predominantly focused on individuals from the general populace rather than employees operating within a workplace environment [50, 51]. In organizational settings, where employees are bound by established norms, procedures, and defined job roles, this study elucidates that the components of the multiplayer digital gaming experience can differ significantly. For instance, while the flow experience is characterized by intense concentration on a digital gameplay activity, it may prove disadvantageous to the efficacy of multiplayer digital gaming as a micro-break activity in professional settings.

Second, this study builds upon the existing literature by demonstrating that engagement in multiplayer digital games has an indirect influence on employees’ feelings of loneliness within the workplace context. In addition, while earlier investigations primarily examined how loneliness can lead to increased engagement with digital gameplay as a coping mechanism (i.e., loneliness as a catalyst for gaming behavior) (e.g [17]), the present study shifts the focus to whether multiplayer digital gaming experiences may serve as a precipitating source of loneliness among employees. This inquiry enhances our understanding of the emotional consequences of digital gameplay in professional environments.

Third, this study contributes to the existing literature by demonstrating that engaging in enjoyable digital game-playing activities elicits boosting behavior among employees, thereby corroborating the findings of Fortuin et al. [21] within the framework of multiplayer gaming experiences. By identifying boosting behavior as a consequence of participation in multiplayer digital gaming, this study also expands the discourse surrounding the antecedents of boosting behavior, a relatively underexplored area within digital gameplay. Importantly, this study highlights the significant impact of multiplayer digital game-playing experiences on the development of social skills, as exemplified by increased boosting behavior. This is particularly relevant in contemporary organizational settings, where managers increasingly prioritize recruiting individuals with talent and interpersonal skills to navigate complex social interactions and business challenges effectively.

In addition to enhancing boosting behavior, the study underscores the function of self-expansion escapism within the context of multiplayer digital gaming. This topic has been largely overlooked in existing literature. Indeed, prior research has predominantly concentrated on the other aspect of escapism motivation, i.e., self-suppression escapism, particularly within digital gameplay. Studies have primarily examined the dynamics of self-suppression escapism as a precursor to digital gaming activities undertaken in solitary or non-work-related environments, revealing correlations with adverse outcomes such as heightened feelings of loneliness [52]. On the other hand, this study demonstrates that employees who engage in multiplayer digital gameplay tend to utilize self-expansion escapism as a preferred avenue for personal development and self-improvement in professional settings.

Furthermore, this study explicitly highlights the importance of self-expansion escapism for the quality, rather than the quantity, of social relationships in multiplayer digital gameplay and loneliness. Here, the quality of boosting behavior is actualized through self-expansion escapism, which reduces employees’ feelings of loneliness. Indeed, past studies demonstrated that the quantity of social relationships contributes to feelings of loneliness: people feel lonely when there are too few people around them [38]. However, employees surrounded by too many people may also feel alone [53]. Sullivan and Bendell [53] suggested that creating a workplace environment that fosters high-quality interactions among employees is one of the most effective ways to reduce feelings of loneliness at work.

Fourth, this study builds upon existing knowledge by examining how task routineness affects employee behavior and emotions in the context of multiplayer digital gameplay. Previous studies have thoroughly examined task routineness as a component of task complexity, particularly in individual and collective behavior within organizational settings [54] and in the dynamics of project teams and product development processes [55]. Additionally, this study offers a nuanced understanding of the contextual factors that moderate the advantages and disadvantages of multiplayer digital gameplay for organizations and employees. The findings demonstrate that a heightened level of task routineness attenuates the influence of multiplayer digital game-playing experiences on feelings of loneliness, primarily by fostering employees’ pro-social behavior and self-expansion escapism.

Managerial implications

This study presents several recommendations for managers concerning integrating multiplayer digital games into the workplace. Firstly, managers should establish structured opportunities for employees to engage in multiplayer digital gaming as a micro-social break activity. To facilitate this initiative, managers can allocate resources for game-related apparatus, such as gaming consoles or computers, or design dedicated playrooms within the office. Additionally, managers should empower employees to take on greater responsibility for learning and acquiring new skills and competencies, particularly during digital gameplay activities. This empowerment can foster a sense of autonomy and enhance employee engagement. Furthermore, encouraging employees to utilize multiplayer digital gaming to improve self-confidence is crucial, as comparing in-game performance with peers can have a positive impact on both individual and collective motivation. Furthermore, managers should recognize that multiplayer digital games can serve as instruments for personality development within the workplace.

Secondly, managers should actively foster an environment that encourages employees to cultivate and enhance their boosting behaviors. One strategy is to implement a multiplayer digital gaming framework within the workplace. Such a context can alleviate stress and promote a culture of humor, enabling employees to engage in light-hearted interactions, share innovative ideas, and energize one another. Additionally, managers should incentivize employees to include new team members in these digital gameplay initiatives. By doing so, organizations can facilitate the socialization process for newcomers, allowing them to acclimate to the team’s dynamics and for established employees to share their diverse humor styles, cognitive frameworks, work methodologies, and personality traits.

Thirdly, managers should promote temporal autonomy for employees during multiplayer digital gameplay to enhance their self-expansion escapism. This approach enables employees to temporarily disengage from office politics and minimize distractions inherent in the workplace, ultimately promoting a greater focus on their responsibilities. Additionally, managers should encourage open dialogue about workplace challenges and emotional well-being. Creating a culture where employees feel empowered to express their concerns without fear of neglect is critical. When individuals encounter difficulties or uncertainties regarding tasks, sharing these issues with colleagues is crucial for effective collaborative problem-solving and overall job satisfaction. Conversely, failure to communicate or the tendency to conceal such problems can lead to diminished motivation and increased dissatisfaction. In this context, providing psychological guidance is a crucial managerial responsibility.

Fourthly, managers should recognize that the degree of task routineness significantly influences the relationship between multiplayer digital gameplay activities and employees’ psychological outcomes. Specifically, tasks characterized by a high level of non-routineness require employees to exert considerable effort and engage in active interpersonal interactions and exchanges. As a result, managers should understand that participation in multiplayer digital gaming can enhance employees’ awareness of the interdependencies in their workplace roles. In addition, managers should encourage employees to develop new and constructive behaviors through multiplayer digital game-playing experiences, which can occur at a lower level of task routineness that employees typically face.

Limitations and future research

Some methodological limitations characterize this study. The reliance on a cross-sectional design precludes the establishment of causal relationships between the study variables and inhibits our ability to assess how these relationships may evolve. Future research endeavors can benefit from considering temporal effects and employing a longitudinal research design to explore the relationship between multiplayer digital gaming experiences and their subsequent outcomes. Additionally, future investigations can employ rigorously designed experimental methodologies to enhance our understanding of how specific digital gameplay activities contribute to distinct psychological outcomes. It can benefit researchers to examine the effects of multiplayer digital gaming experiences through an intervention-based approach, establishing a control group of employees who do not engage in gaming alongside an experimental group who do. Such a design can enable the statistical comparison of outcomes between the two groups. Moreover, researchers can compare employees’ behaviors related to boosting and feelings of loneliness before and after gaming engagement. This comprehensive approach can facilitate a deeper understanding of the psychological implications of multiplayer digital gaming in the workplace context.

Also, this study is susceptible to common method biases that may arise from self-reporting biases, social desirability tendencies, or measurement inaccuracies. Despite the evidence of discriminant validity among our variables, researchers should exercise caution when interpreting the findings, particularly within diverse organizational and cultural contexts.

Furthermore, this study has a limitation related to its sample, which includes MBA students who are managers. This may limit the generalizability of the results. For instance, employees may behave differently around managers, resulting in less vocal enthusiasm and reduced social interaction during gameplay. Future research should investigate how corporate identities, formal relationships, and hierarchy influence workplace digital gaming, as well as how team composition (comprising similar versus diverse members) impacts emotional, cognitive, and social outcomes.

In this study, we did not investigate the types of digital games that employees play during their break times. While employees participating in competitive matches against colleagues within the same environment tend to experience increased excitement and camaraderie, it is essential to note that this study focuses on overall trends in digital gameplay rather than making binary comparisons between different gameplay styles. However, future research could examine various game types and genres to provide more diverse and detailed insights into digital game playing in the workplace.

This study employed the Game Experience Questionnaire developed by IJsselsteijn et al. [7], which was initially designed to evaluate the gaming experiences of the general populace to assess employees’ experiences with multiplayer digital gaming in the workplace. However, given the absence of empirically validated scale measures specifically targeting multiplayer digital gaming experiences and activities in professional settings, future research can focus on developing a comprehensive employee digital gaming questionnaire.

This study examines the implications of digital gameplay among employees, explicitly considering its influence on various interpersonal and psychological outcomes. Future research can expand on this by investigating instrumental outcomes, such as job performance, innovation, creativity, extra-role behaviors, and socialization outcomes relevant to the integration of newcomers. Additionally, exploring the predictors of employees’ engagement in multiplayer digital gameplay activities can be beneficial. For instance, a deeper understanding can be gained by examining how an organizational emotional culture characterized by joy and playful work design impacts employees’ participation in multiplayer digital games. Moreover, the attitudes of top management towards incorporating multiplayer digital gaming in the workplace merit investigation, as they may significantly impact employees’ experiences. Consideration should also be given to how variables such as organizational culture, supervisor behaviors (including the use of humor by leaders), and employees’ intrinsic motivations (which may be hedonic or instrumental) interact with personality characteristics (such as trait playfulness, the Big Five personality traits, or Type A personality) to influence engagement in multiplayer digital games within professional settings.

Future research may reveal the adverse effects of engaging in multiplayer digital games within the workplace. Such investigations should consider the contextual factors surrounding the gameplay, the specific content of the games, and the strategies organizations might implement to mitigate these negative impacts. For instance, certain employees may experience feelings of nostalgia, disappointment, or a sense of failure while engaging in digital games. Specifically, an arcade machine in the office environment may evoke nostalgic sentiments and sorrow in some employees, as it may trigger memories of their childhood experiences with similar games.

Conclusion

In this study, we advanced the conceptual framework surrounding workplace play within a digital context and evaluated its impact on employee behavior and emotional states. Our findings indicated that engagement in multiplayer digital gaming fosters a sense of connection among employees, thereby mitigating feelings of isolation within the workplace. Additionally, we introduced a new perspective on the roles of boosting behavior and self-expansion escapism as mediating factors linking the experience of multiplayer digital gameplay to workplace loneliness. Furthermore, we emphasized that task routineness plays a crucial role in determining the effectiveness of the multiplayer digital gaming experience on employees’ behavioral and emotional outcomes.

We believe that the domains of multiplayer digital gaming and the digital play experience represent fertile ground for future scholarly inquiry within academic literature.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Abbreviations

AVE

Average variance extracted

CTA-PLS

Confirmatory tetrad analysis

CR

Cronbach’s alpha

HTMT

Heterotrait-Monotrait ratio

MMORPGs

Massively multiplayer online role-playing games

MBA

Master of business administration

MOBA

Multiplayer online battle arena

PLS-SEM

Partial least squares-structural equation modeling

PLS-PROCESS

Partial least squares process

SRMR

Standardized root mean square residual

VIF

Variance inflation factor

Author contributions

AEA performed conceptualization, data collection, data analysis, writing-original draft and editing. HK performed conceptualization, data collection, and methodology. EE performed data collection, data curation, and editing. ZA performed data collection, data analysis, investigation, and visualization.

Funding

No funding was received to conduct this study.

Data availability

Data can be obtained from the authors based on request.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

This study was performed in accordance with the ethical standards laid down in the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the ethics committee of Yildiz Technical University (Approval Number: 20250505222). Participants were informed about the study’s goals and had the freedom to withdraw at any time. All data collected was anonymized and treated with strict confidentiality, following ethical guidelines. Informed consent was obtained from all participants.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.