Zootherapy in Asia through the Lens of Museums of Traditional Medicine

Abstract

In this study, I examine how museums of traditional medicine in Asia construct and present narratives about zootherapy. Through analyzing displays and their contextual framing, I investigate how animal-derived remedies are represented, which species and medical applications are included, and how museums address conservation and ethical concerns. The study is based on fieldwork conducted between 2018 and 2025, including visits to five museums dedicated to traditional medicine. These institutions include the Museum of Traditional Medicine in Isfara, the Museum of Traditional Vietnamese Medicine, the Hu Qing Yu Tang Traditional Chinese Medicine Museum, the Pharmacy Museum in Lisbon, and the Suzhou Museum of Traditional Chinese Medicine. Exhibit documentation, textual analysis, and comparative research methods were used to assess how zootherapy is represented in these museums. The findings reveal that zootherapy exhibits include a wide range of species, from invertebrates such as insects and mollusks to large mammals like bears, elephants, and tigers. Some exhibits provide detailed descriptions of their medicinal uses, while others lack contextualization or critical engagement with conservation issues. The depiction of zootherapy in museums varies significantly, with some institutions presenting it as an enduring medical tradition and others portraying it as an obsolete practice rooted in historical beliefs rather than modern pharmacology. The absence of ethical considerations in museum narratives is a key concern, particularly regarding endangered species. The study also highlights the role of traditional medicine museums in shaping public perceptions of zootherapy, influencing how these practices are understood in both historical and contemporary contexts.

Introduction and the Aim

This research examines how museums of traditional medicine in Asia construct narratives about zootherapy by exploring how it is represented, what artifacts and specimens are included, and which diseases are linked to these treatments. It also considers how museums address ethical and conservation concerns, and to what extent they contextualize zootherapy within broader medical, historical, and cultural frameworks. By comparing museums across very different countries, this study aims to contribute to the literature on zootherapy and to offer insights into its framing within institutional discourse in Asia.

Zootherapy—the use of animal-derived substances in healing practices—forms a longstanding element of traditional medicine across cultures. These substances are often classified according to the animal part used and the degree of processing; they are especially valued for their potency, specificity, and low toxicity in small doses—a reflection of their high therapeutic quality and efficiency.

In many traditions worldwide, animal-derived medicines play an essential role, despite being less numerous than plant-based remedies, which typically constitute around 80–85% of traditional pharmacopoeias, while animal-derived substances account for approximately 10–20% [1]. This applies not only to well-documented systems such as Chinese [2], Tibetan [3,4], and Indian medicine [5], but also to folk practices in Africa [6], Europe [7,8], the Americas [9,10], and Australia [11]. The World Health Organization (WHO) has noted the growing significance of such practices, predicting a major expansion in animal-based medical research in the 21st century [1].

Asia’s medico-pharmaceutical heritage encompasses a diverse range of traditional healing practices. These include folk and shamanic medicine, Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), Vietnamese Traditional Medicine (VTM), Ayurveda, Siddha medicine, Tibetan medicine, Kampo (Japanese traditional medicine), and Unani medicine. In Russia, there are wise women who specialize in herbal remedies, spiritual healing, and the ritual removal of curses or ailments. Each of these traditions incorporates animal-derived remedies to varying degrees, raising questions about conservation, ethics, and regulation.

While there is a plethora of literature on traditional medicine as such, as well as the role of zootherapy in traditional medicine—covering its medicinal properties [12-14], a history of zootherapy and its place in traditional medicine [7,15-19], the legal aspects related to biopiracy, which involves the exploitation of traditional medicinal knowledge and biological resources without compensation for indigenous communities [20], as well as ethical concerns in the use of animal products [21,22], and zoonotic diseases [23,24]—very few publications analyze this aspect within traditional medicine museums. Existing discussions on zootherapy in this context are mostly brief mentions within broader analyses, only referencing museum artifacts [18].

The scientific synthesis on the presentation and narrative construction of zootherapy in traditional medicine museums is currently lacking. To address this gap, the following paper—a blend of history, museum studies, ethnopharmacology, environmental studies, and ethics—offers the first dedicated English-language study of traditional medicine museums that include exhibits on zootherapy.

Methodology and Selection Criteria

This study employed a multi-stage methodology combining literature-based research, fieldwork, and post-fieldwork material analysis, conducted between 2018 and 2025 across China, Tajikistan, Vietnam, and Portugal. The research unfolded in three interrelated phases: museum identification and selection, on-site field documentation, and post-fieldwork analysis based on a comparative interpretation of exhibition content.

Phase 1-2 : Museum Identification Selection and On-site Fieldwork

The first and second phases were closely intertwined, as the identification and selection of museums occurred simultaneously with fieldwork. Due to the lack of academic literature, directories, or institutional databases on traditional medicine museums—particularly in Central Asia—this process relied on exploratory research trips, informal communication networks, and on-the-spot decision-making. The museum landscape in Central Asia, still shaped by Soviet-era structures, is characterized by small, locally administered institutions that are largely undocumented online. Key sources for identification included recommendations from scholars, museum professionals, and local residents.

Museums were selected if they featured permanent exhibitions explicitly focused on traditional, folk, Chinese, or Vietnamese medicine, or if they presented substantial displays related to these practices within broader curatorial frameworks. Institutions focused exclusively on biomedicine, Soviet public health, or Ayurveda were excluded due to their differing epistemological orientations.

Between 2018 and 2025, I conducted fieldwork in four countries central to this study: China (2018, 2019, 2024), Vietnam (2023), Portugal (2018, 2019, 2024, early 2025), and Tajikistan (2018, 2024). Each field visit followed a standardized documentation protocol focused on capturing both material culture and interpretive strategies. The COVID-19 pandemic interrupted travel between 2020 and 2022. Based on the fieldwork described above, five museums were selected for detailed analysis; the following section explains the rationale behind their inclusion.

Description of the Selected Museums

The Museum of Traditional Medicine (MTM), Isfara, Tajikistan (Музей народной медицины им. Мирзо Олимова / Muzey narodnoy meditsiny imeni Mirzo Olimova)

This museum is part of the Isfara sanatorium Zumrad, the largest balneological and climatic health resort in Tajikistan. It was inaugurated in 1995 during the sanatorium’s 20th anniversary, with President Emomali Rahmon in attendance. The exhibition focuses on herbal medicine and local healing traditions, with a prominent section on Avicenna (Ibn Sina). This section includes wax figures, translations of The Canon of Medicine (1025), illustrated panels, replicas of surgical tools, and regional medicinal plants. The museum combines historical images, artifacts, and textual materials to emphasize the connection between nature and traditional healing in the Isfara region.

The Museum of Traditional Vietnamese Medicine (MTV), Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam (Bảo tàng Y học Cổ truyền Việt Nam / FITO Museum

Founded by pharmaceutical professional Le Khac Tam, the museum opened to the public in 2007 after two decades of artifact collection. It contains over 3000 items dating from the Stone Age to the present, including tools for medicine preparation, ceramic vessels, scales, and cabinets (Figure 1). The museum also maintains a significant archive of books and documents illustrating the history and application of VTM. It offers a detailed and immersive narrative of local healing knowledge, presented across multiple floors. The museum’s interior is constructed using traditional materials and architectural styles, enhancing the atmosphere of authenticity. Guided tours and audiovisual presentations enrich visitors’ understanding of the philosophical foundations and cultural context of traditional Vietnamese medicine.

Figure 1.

Dispensing room, Museum of Traditional Vietnamese Medicine. Private archive of Katarzyna Jarosz. Courtesy of the Museum of Traditional Vietnamese Medicine.

Hu Qing Yu Tang Traditional Chinese Medicine Museum (HTM), Hangzhou, China
(胡庆余堂中药博物馆 / Húqìngyútáng Zhōngyào Bówùguǎn)

Located in the historic Huqingyutang Pharmacy, founded in 1874 by Hu Xueyan, the museum opened in 1989 and still operates alongside the pharmacy. Designated a national cultural relic, it offers thematic exhibitions on Chinese medical history, medicine preparation, and the province of Zhejiang’s contributions to TCM. Visitors can observe manual processing techniques, attend medical consultations, and dine in a restaurant offering medicinal diets. The museum integrates educational, commercial, and therapeutic elements into its curatorial design.

The Pharmacy Museum, Lisbon, Portugal (PML) / (Museu da Farmácia)

Established in 1996, this museum documents pharmaceutical practices with emphasis on Portugal’s role in global medical exchanges. A key feature is the full reconstruction of a late-19th-century Chinese pharmacy from Macau, in operation until 1998. This exhibit includes wooden cabinets filled with traditional ingredients—both plant- and animal-derived—along with preserved specimens, offering a unique example of Chinese medicine’s transmission to a European setting (Figure 2).

Figure 2.

Macau traditional Chinese medicine pharmacy, Museum of Pharmacy, Lisbon. Private archive of Katarzyna Jarosz. Courtesy of the Museum of Pharmacy in Lisbon (Museu da Farmácia).

Suzhou Museum of Traditional Chinese Medicine (SMT), Suzhou, China (苏州中医药博物馆 / Sūzhōu Zhōngyīyào Bówùguǎn)

Housed in Chunhui Hall, the former residence of Ming official Shen Shixing, the museum opened in 2002. It highlights Wu medicine (吴门医派, Wúmén Yīpài) which originated in Suzhou between the late Yuan Dynasty (late 13th-14th century) and the early Ming Dynasty (14th-15th century) and is characterized by its many renowned doctors, classic medical texts, and treatments for epidemic febrile diseases. As part of Suzhou’s heritage the exhibition presents the development of Chinese medicine through historical artifacts, medical texts, and reconstructed scenes. The five exhibition halls cover origins, classical theory, famous physicians, modern practice, and regional herbal resources. Facilities include an acupuncture center, pharmacy, and herb preparation demonstrations, all framed within traditional Suzhou garden architecture.

The inclusion of a small museum located in the provincial town of Isfara, Tajikistan, requires further explanation. Between 2018 and 2025 I conducted fieldwork in over 70 museums across Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan as part of a broader research project that was only partially related to the history of medicine. The results of that wider project have been published separately [25-27]. Although its scope was broader—concerned with cultural and historical narratives in post-Soviet museums—it provided valuable insight into regional museum infrastructure. Among all institutions visited during that extended project, only the MTM in Isfara, Tajikistan addressed local healing practices and was therefore included in the present study. Despite its modest scale, it remains the only institution in the region representing traditional medicine.

In China, I visited numerous museums but limited the scope to institutions in mainland China due to logistical constraints. Museums in Hong Kong and Taiwan were not included. From the wider pool, I selected the HTM in Hangzhou and the SMT. These institutions were chosen for their curatorial breadth, historical depth, and representative status within the national TCM landscape. Including additional museums would not have expanded the analytical reach of the study, as these two encapsulate dominant approaches to TCM musealization.

In Vietnam, the MTV (the FITO Museum) in Ho Chi Minh City was selected as the country’s leading institution dedicated to traditional healing. In Portugal, the PML was included for its reconstructed 19th-century Chinese pharmacy from Macau, offering insight into the transregional transmission and reinterpretation of Chinese medicine in a European context.

Exhibitions were systematically photographed under natural lighting, with an emphasis on individual artifacts as well as broader spatial arrangements. Particular attention was given to interpretive texts, thematic groupings, reconstructed interiors, and didactic elements. Only the Lisbon Museum offered a formal exhibition catalogue; in all other cases, photographic documentation was the primary source material.

Phase 3: Post-Fieldwork Analysis

The final phase consisted of analyzing collected materials through close textual and visual interpretation. A key component was translation. Russian and Portuguese texts were translated by the author. Chinese-language content was generally understood in context, with consultation for technical vocabulary. Vietnamese texts were translated with the assistance of a Polish-Vietnamese translator and verified with a native speaker where necessary.

The analysis focused on how traditional medicine—specifically zootherapy—was presented, categorized, and contextualized within museum narratives. Using data from five museums (MTM, MTV, HTM, PML, and SMT), I examined which animal-derived materials were displayed, which diseases they were linked to, and whether conservation or ethical concerns were addressed. The study traced patterns in curatorial framing—whether zootherapy was presented as a living tradition or as an obsolete medical practice—and how these choices related to broader institutional goals, including national heritage, scientific legitimacy, and public education.

The material was categorized according to how animal-derived remedies were displayed: as historical artifacts, living practices, or symbolic representations. I recorded the presence or absence of ethical discourse, especially in cases involving endangered or protected species.

The Results

Based on the analysis of museum resources, three key themes related to the use of animal-derived medicine emerge, which will be presented in detail below. These themes refer specifically to how animals are used in zootherapeutic practices. This classification ensures a clear distinction between animal products, which can often be harvested multiple times from a living animal, and animal tissues, which typically require the death of the animal. However, this classification does not take into account animal welfare considerations. The separation of products and tissues is based purely on their method of acquisition, rather than ethical implications.

No Animal-Based Components are Used in Traditional Medicine

MTM presents a narrative in which healing relies solely on herbal medicine, omitting any references to animal-based treatments, as if this approach has been consistently followed throughout history and its connection to classical Persian medical knowledge. The exhibition sections The Nature and Culture of the Isfara District and Medicinal Plants of Northern Tajikistan introduce visitors to medicinal plants, local flora, mineral resources, oil production techniques, and traditional treatment methods based on herbs, particularly for children and the sick. The displays also include taxidermized animals and mounted butterflies in glass cases, though these are not presented as medicinal resources. Instead, they form part of a local history museum structure, typical of post-Soviet countries, where representations of local fauna and flora are commonly found in a wide range of museums.

In MTV, an explanatory plaque states that VTM originally relied exclusively on herbal remedies. However, the plaque also explains that, over time, with the development of medicine, the use of animal-derived products and tissues was introduced (see further in the text).

Animal-Derived Products are Used

Out of the five museums examined for the presence of animal-derived medicinal substances in their exhibits, four institutions (MHV, HTM, PML, and SMT) include displays dedicated to traditional remedies derived from animals. The most frequently exhibited are products of the honeybee (Apis mellifera Linnaeus, 1758), including beeswax, bee pollen, propolis, and royal jelly (MHV, HTM, PML, SMT). These substances are widely recognized in traditional medicine for their nutritional and therapeutic properties, being used to support immunity, aid digestion, and promote wound healing.

Other animal-derived substances are presented with specific medicinal indications. Bear bile (Ursus thibetanus G. Cuvier, 1823) is displayed in SMT and MTV as a treatment for comas, fainting, mental illness, childhood epilepsy, and convulsions. At MTV, the exhibit includes preparation methods for combining bear bile with musk (Moschus moschiferus Linnaeus, 1758), rhinoceros horn (Rhinoceros unicornis Linnaeus, 1758), and various minerals and plants. At SMT, a caption describes bear bile as acting on the liver, spleen, stomach, and gallbladder meridians, with effects such as clearing internal heat, relieving tetany, improving vision, and eliminating parasites.

Horse milk (Equus ferus caballus Linnaeus, 1758) is shown at MTV, where it is described as a remedy for blood deficiency, heat-related conditions, bone tuberculosis, and “orange teeth.” It is attributed with cooling, laxative, and blood-nourishing effects.

Less common substances include droppings of the flying squirrel (Trogopterus xanthipes Milne-Edwards, 1872), displayed at HTM. In TCM, it is used to promote blood circulation, relieve pain, and treat abdominal disorders and traumatic injuries.

Bezoars are featured in PML and MTV. These are calcified concretions found in the gastrointestinal tracts of animals such as domestic goats (Capra hircus Linnaeus, 1758) and antelopes (Antilope cervicapra Linnaeus, 1758). At MTV, an explanatory plaque outlines their historical use in combination with pearls (Pinctada margaritifera), rhinoceros’ horn (Rhinoceros unicornis Linnaeus, 1758), and herbs to treat digestive disorders, fevers, infections, and poisoning. PML exhibits bezoars without further commentary.

Notably, the displays present not only animal-derived products and explanations on how they are used and for what ailments, but also specific formulations are given in detail. To give an example, the Chi Bao remedy, exhibited in MTV, is a traditional formulation used to treat comas, fainting, epilepsy in children, convulsions, and mental illness. It includes musk from the musk deer (Moschus moschiferus Linnaeus, 1758), rhinoceros horn, and gallstones (likely from Bos taurus Linnaeus, 1758), along with ginseng, amber, barley, cinnabar, realgar, bamboo silica, and Rhizoma Arisaematis. The mixture is ground into powder and shaped into tablets.

Animal Tissues Are Used

At PML, HTM, MTV, and SMT, various exhibits demonstrate that animal tissues are used to treat illnesses. Some displays provide only brief captions, while others include detailed descriptions of medicinal applications and even precise formulations. The exhibits feature both actual animal tissues and sculptures of animals with marked parts indicating their potential medicinal use, along with illustrations or textual explanations.

The exhibits present a wide range of animals, from the simplest invertebrates like mollusks and insects, through reptiles such as snakes, to more complex vertebrates, including deer, horses, and bears, and finally to the largest mammals like elephants and rhinoceroses.

In MTV, one of the displayed formulas includes dried silkworms (Bombyx mori Linnaeus, 1758) as an ingredient in a medicinal decoction for children suffering from convulsions and fever. The prescription combines ginseng, magnolia bark, and several warming herbs; the mixture is boiled down and administered three times daily (Figure 3).

Figure 3.

Traditional medicinal formulas containing silkworm (Bombyx mori Linnaeus, 1758), Museum of Traditional Vietnamese Medicine. Private archive of Katarzyna Jarosz. Courtesy of the Museum of Traditional Vietnamese Medicine.

In PML one display features insects from the Coleoptera order, including cantharides, commonly known as Spanish flies (Lytta vesicatoria Linnaeus, 1758). These beetles are exhibited in large glass jars standing on a counter, as part of the general medicinal collection. Cantharides produce cantharidin, a toxic compound historically used as a vesicant (blistering agent) to treat skin conditions. They have also been included in aphrodisiac and diuretic preparations.

A pufferfish (Tetraodontidae Bonaparte, 1831) is displayed in PML without specific identification beyond its visual form. Although the exhibit lacks any explanatory text, pufferfish are known for containing tetrodotoxin, a potent neurotoxin. In traditional medicine, this toxin has been cautiously explored for its analgesic potential, though its extreme toxicity makes it highly hazardous. The display includes no details regarding its medicinal application.

Another exhibit in PML includes the jaw of a carnivorous fish, but no explanation is provided regarding its medicinal function.

Among reptiles, cobras feature prominently. The Indian cobra (Naja naja Linnaeus, 1758) is exhibited in MTV and PML, though only MTV provides detailed descriptions. In traditional medicine, cobra-based treatments are believed to address osteoarthritis due to rheumatism, beri-beri, paralysis in children, and general paralysis. A specific preparation—Rano—involves steeping cobra and the Indochinese rat snake (Ptyas korros Schlegel, 1837) in alcohol with herbs, producing a medicinal wine used to relieve rheumatism and joint pain. The informational plaque displayed in the museum states that cobra meat has anti-inflammatory, stimulant, and analgesic properties, while its venom is used to reduce pain. It also mentions that Tam Xa Tuu (three-snake wine, used to improve circulation and treat bone and joint diseases) is prepared by macerating cobras and other snake species in alcohol along with medicinal herbs.

Among mammals, one of the most shocking exhibits presented in SMT features severed paws of the Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus G. Cuvier, 1823), a species frequently exploited for its bile in traditional medicine. A detached caption claims that they cure fever and sexual impotence. Additional supposed properties include generating heat, relieving pain, dispelling wind and dampness, as well as strengthening bones and tendons. They are indicated for conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, limb pain, muscle weakness, and tendon disorders.

SMT exhibits the Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla Linnaeus, 1758), a scaly insectivorous mammal. Only the keratin scales are displayed, believed in traditional medicine to improve blood circulation, stimulate lactation, and treat arthritis and skin disorders.

MTV exhibits the sika deer (Cervus nippon Temminck, 1838), whose meat is believed to strengthen tendons, regulate gas, and treat wind stroke and tuberculosis. Young antlers are thought to nourish the blood, support kidney function, and treat rheumatism, along with bloody diarrhea, nightmares, and childhood rickets. Powdered antler is used to regenerate bone marrow and strengthen those suffering from fatigue or weak heart muscles. Deer blood is said to treat impotence, detoxify after food poisoning, and help with tuberculosis, back pain, and chronic conditions.

In PML, dried testicles of a rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta Zimmermann, 1780) are on display, though the exhibit provides no information on their intended medicinal use.

The tiger (Panthera tigris Linnaeus, 1758) is shown in SMT (taxidermized) and MTV (bronze and wooden model). Its bones are believed to reduce inflammation, strengthen the body, and calm the nervous system. Tiger meat is attributed with aiding digestion and dispelling evil spirits. Conditions treated include joint leprosy, limb fatigue, paralysis, back and knee pain, and shortened menstrual cycles.

The rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sp.) is also featured in both SMT and MTV. In SMT it appears as a taxidermized specimen, while in MTV a bronze vessel is displayed along with explanations of its supposed medicinal uses (Figure 4). Rhinoceros horn is believed to reduce fever, detoxify the body, treat convulsions, and alleviate symptoms of high blood pressure, headaches, and epilepsy.

Figure 4.

Vietnamese bronze vessel in the shape of a rhinoceros. Museum of Traditional Vietnamese Medicine. Private archive of Katarzyna Jarosz. Courtesy of the Museum of Traditional Vietnamese Medicine.

In MTV, a sculpture of a horse (Equus ferus caballus Linnaeus, 1758) is exhibited with detailed information. Its meat is believed to balance body temperature, reduce gas, promote weight gain, and strengthen the spine. Horse intestines are considered phlegm-reducing and detoxifying. Horse teeth are used in chiropractic treatments and to treat nail diseases and toothaches. Horse bones are believed to help with head ulcers and nail disorders.

MTV also has multiple displays with a focus on the elephant (Elephas maximus Linnaeus, 1758). A bronze sculpture represents its symbolic importance in traditional medicine. According to the display texts, elephant skin is believed to stop bleeding and concentrate blood. Ivory is thought to cool the body, stabilize internal gases and, detoxify, as well as treating epilepsy, mental illness, heat in the bones, cancer perforation, and hemorrhoids. Elephant meat is described as diuretic and cleansing, while powdered bones are said to strengthen and detoxify the body. A separate exhibit focuses on elephant bile, traditionally used to reduce fever, neutralize toxins, relieve inflammation, and alleviate pain, often in combination with other substances.

Finally, HTM exhibits Neolithic bone needles of an unidentified animal used in acupuncture—a practice based on physical stimulation rather than substances. It also showcases oracle bones, typically made from turtle plastrons (Testudines Batsch, 1788) or ox scapulae (Bos taurus Linnaeus, 1758), which were heated to produce cracks interpreted for divinatory, including health-related, purposes.

Discussion

The representation of zootherapy in museums dedicated to natural medicine is shaped by historical, cultural, and political factors. It can be analyzed through multiple lenses, including ethical concerns over animal welfare, the clinical validity of animal-based treatments, legal regulations on endangered species, and the role of traditional medicine in postcolonial nation-building.

Science—especially in the field of medicine—is frequently entangled with colonial, national, and ideological agendas. This dynamic is evident in both historical and contemporary contexts, where knowledge production reflects broader political objectives [25,28-31]. The case of Tajikistan illustrates this point: after gaining independence, Central Asian states decisively turned to traditional medicine as a symbol of national authenticity and cultural continuity, distancing themselves from Soviet biomedical models and reconnecting with pre-Soviet intellectual and spiritual traditions. Although traditional methods in the region largely emphasize herbal remedies, they also include shamanic practices and animal-based therapies that remain in use today—for example, kumis (a traditional fermented dairy drink made from horse milk) treatment centers in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan.

In the MTM, however, zootherapy is entirely absent; the exhibits focus exclusively on medicinal plants. Despite the widespread use of bee products, kumis, or snake-based tinctures in folk medicine—including in Tajikistan—such remedies are omitted, as are references to shamanism and its ritual use of animal parts like bones and fats.

This selective curation reflects a broader post-Soviet strategy of identity reconstruction. By aligning its medical heritage with prestigious written traditions—particularly the classical Persian legacy of the Samanid era and Avicenna’s Canon of Medicine—Tajikistan promotes an image of traditional medicine as rational, scriptural, and scientifically grounded. The museum’s emphasis on Avicenna and the Avesta’s botanical pharmacopeia (the oldest parts date to about 1500-900 BCE) supports this vision. In this context, the absence of zootherapy is not incidental but part of a deliberate epistemic filtering process through which certain forms of knowledge are legitimized while others are rendered invisible. This shaping of public memory reflects broader efforts to construct cultural identity within a postcolonial framework.

Most of the museums analyzed do not address ethical concerns related to the use of animal-derived substances. The exhibits present these materials as part of an unbroken medical tradition, without acknowledging the endangered status of certain species or the cruelty involved in their acquisition. Many of the species displayed are internationally protected, raising serious conservation issues that remain unmentioned in the museum narratives. An exception is SMT, where a plaque about the medicinal use of rhinoceros horn explicitly states that its use was banned in 1993 due to conservation concerns—this is the only case where such issues are acknowledged. Several of these species are listed under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which regulates or bans international trade to prevent their extinction [32]. Other species are classified as Vulnerable, Endangered, or Critically Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), primarily due to poaching [33].

Among the endangered species present in museum exhibits is the Asiatic black bear, whose bile is showcased without any indication of its conservation status [34]. Elephant parts, including ivory and bile, are presented for their supposed healing properties, yet the poaching crisis linked to the ivory trade is entirely ignored [35]. Pangolins, whose scales and meat remain in high demand for traditional medicine, appear in museum narratives without acknowledgment of their critical endangerment due to illegal trade [36]. Although pangolin-based medicine was officially removed from the list of approved traditional remedies in China in 2020 as part of conservation efforts to curb illegal wildlife trade, the museum still presents pangolin scales as treatments for ailments such as stomach ulcers, venereal diseases, and rheumatism, with no mention of their evolving legal status [36]. Similarly, tiger bones and meat are displayed as treatments for joint pain and paralysis, potentially reinforcing a demand that has severely depleted wild populations [37]. Antelope products sourced from species facing drastic population declines are also presented without any discussion of their legal protection [38]. Even cobra venom and meat, traditionally used to treat osteoporosis and paralysis, are exhibited without reference to the overexploitation of snake populations [39].

An important factor shaping the representation of zootherapy in traditional medicine museums is the curatorial narrative adopted to frame its significance. These narratives can be broadly categorized into two approaches: “wisdom through the ages” and “past wisdom.” The former presents zootherapy as an enduring component of medical and pharmaceutical traditions, linking historical practices to contemporary medicine, while the latter treats it as a relic of the past, disconnected from present-day scientific advancements.

MTC, SMT, and MTV follow the “wisdom through the ages” model. This is closely related to their location within or adjacent to functioning pharmacies or medical institutions where traditional treatments are still practiced. Captions in the exhibitions indicate that many of the displayed products are currently used in medicine. In several cases, detailed formulations are provided, allowing visitors to see how these substances are prepared and applied in contemporary therapeutic contexts. Visitors can also purchase medicinal products on-site or undergo treatment.

PLP, in contrast, follows the “past wisdom” approach, portraying zootherapy and traditional medicine as a historical phenomenon, without direct relevance to modern pharmacy. Within this framework, animal-derived remedies are presented primarily as ethnographic artifacts or remnants of outdated knowledge, with no attempt to establish continuity with contemporary medical practices. Some exhibits, such as a pufferfish or a fish jaw displayed as part of the collection, lack any explanation about their intended medicinal use or the ailments they were meant to treat. It is likely that they were included solely to embellish the exhibition.

A particularly interesting transition can be observed in SMT. The plaque on rhinoceros horn reflects a deliberate shift from promoting animal-based remedies as an active component of traditional medicine toward acknowledging their historical status and legal prohibition. This display represents a move from the “wisdom through the ages” model—where zootherapy is framed as a continuing medical tradition—to the “past wisdom” framework, where animal-based remedies are relegated to history. The presence of exhibits such as the SMT rhinoceros horn plaque demonstrates that a shift is taking place, where traditional medicine museums are slowly moving away from a direct presentation of animal-based remedies as living practices and towards a more reflective approach, marking the transition from “wisdom through the ages” to “wisdom from the past.”

Conclusions and Suggestions for Future Research

This research only scratches the surface of a highly complex topic. This study demonstrates that museums of traditional medicine actively shape how zootherapy is remembered, legitimized, or contested in contemporary contexts. The analysis of five institutions across Asia and Europe reveals significant divergence in the ways that animal-based remedies are presented, how ethical issues are addressed, and how medical knowledge is framed.

Three main conclusions can be drawn. First, zootherapy is represented inconsistently. Some museums, such as those in Vietnam, Hangzhou, and Suzhou, present it as a living and relevant practice, often in connection with operating pharmacies or clinics. Others, like the museum in Lisbon, portray it as a practice of the past, disconnected from current medicine and shown mainly as part of cultural or historical heritage.

Second, most museums avoid discussing ethical and conservation-related questions. Despite displaying ingredients derived from endangered animals, there is little or no acknowledgment of international laws or the ecological impact of such practices. Only one museum mentions the 1993 ban on the use of rhinoceros horn. The omission of such issues is striking given the presence of species listed under CITES, or classified as vulnerable or endangered by the IUCN.

Third, the ways in which zootherapy is framed are closely linked to broader ideological and institutional agendas. In Tajikistan, for example, the exclusion of animal-based medicine and ritual healing reflects a preference for presenting traditional medicine as rational and text-based, aligned with classical Persian science. In contrast, the Vietnamese and Chinese examples promote continuity between historical and present-day practices, reinforcing national heritage and medical legitimacy.

Future research should expand the geographical range of case studies, especially in regions where zootherapy remains widely used. Mongolia, where a museum of traditional medicine has recently opened, deserves focused attention. Similarly, museums dedicated to Ayurveda in India, such as those in Kottakkal or New Delhi, should be examined as they offer different epistemological models and rich collections related to animal-based healing.

In addition, visitor research is needed to understand how audiences interpret these exhibits. Interviews and surveys could reveal whether they are seen as scientific, historical, or symbolic. It would also be valuable to investigate whether and how museums address the ethical and legal aspects of displaying remedies made from protected species.

Finally, a comparative analysis of exhibition strategies across institutions would help clarify how different actors balance scientific claims, national narratives, and cultural preservation when presenting contested aspects of traditional medicine. Such work is essential for understanding the role of museums in mediating knowledge about health, healing, and human-animal relations.

Glossary

MTM

Museum of Traditional Medicine (Isfara, Tajikistan)

MTV

Museum of Traditional Vietnamese Medicine (Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam)

HTM

Hu Qing Yu Tang Traditional Chinese Medicine Museum (Hangzhou, China)

SMT

Suzhou Museum of Traditional Chinese Medicine (Suzhou, China)

PML

Pharmacy Museum, Lisbon (Portugal)

TCM

Traditional Chinese Medicine

VTM

Vietnamese Traditional Medicine

WHO

World Health Organization

CITES

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora

IUCN

International Union for Conservation of Nature

Author Contributions

Katarzyna R. Jarosz is the sole author of this manuscript. She independently designed and conducted the research, carried out all fieldwork, analyzed the data, and wrote the manuscript. The research was entirely self-funded.