The role of uncertainty in earthquake fear and well-being among seafarers

Abstract

Background

Seafarers live away from their families and society during their duty aboard. They have limited sources of communication in the event of natural disasters.

Objective

The study aimed to examine the association between fear of earthquakes and seafarers’ mental well-being, and to explore the mediating role of intolerance of uncertainty.

Methods

The sample comprised 357 Turkish seafarers. The rationale behind the selection of the Turkish seafarers is the occurrence of two catastrophic earthquakes in Türkiye in 2023, which resulted in the loss of thousands of lives. Four hypotheses were proposed within the scope of the study and tested using structural equation modeling.

Results

The data obtained from the Turkish seafarers supported the hypothesized pathways. The study revealed a significant association among three latent variables. Fear of earthquakes, which was associated with mental well-being, which was mediated by intolerance of uncertainty.

Conclusions

The study highlights the mediating role of intolerance of uncertainty in seafarers’ psychological resilience, particularly in the context of natural disasters. Given the isolation and limited communication inherent to seafaring, targeted mental health interventions and enhanced communication strategies are essential to mitigating uncertainty-related distress and promoting well-being in high-risk environments.

Introduction

Seafarers work on ships that carry more than 80 per cent of the world's trade and are one of the main drivers of globalization. A continuous increase in global trade has resulted in a parallel rise in ship capacities. However, the job satisfaction of seafarers remains low, leading to a serious need for a labor force in the seafaring industry. ¹ According to the International Chamber of Shipping (ICS), the labor reports in the maritime industry predict that 89,510 additional officers will be required to run the global commercial fleet by 2026 due to the increasing demand for officers with Standards of Training, Certification, and Watchkeeping certification. ² This existing need indicates that the dearth of seafarers worldwide will persist in the years to come. ³ Two key factors account for this need of the maritime industry: the challenge of living and working aboard and the mental health issues arising due to harsh working conditions.

Seafarers lead solitary lives aboard ships, which serve as both their places of employment and living, far away from their families and society. They are exposed to many challenges and dangers in this environment, ⁴ including prolonged exposure to sunshine and working in rooms with loud engines, ⁵ restricted access to emergency medical services when needed, ⁶ and survival on limited resources under unusual circumstances such as pandemics or war, besides the inability to abandon ships. ⁷ Seafarers have been one of the most common occupational groups suffering from mental health problems due to these challenges. Social isolation and being away from family are among the key factors, causing mental health issues among seafarers. ⁸ These problems can result in fleeting errors, leading to serious injuries, fatalities, or extensive environmental disasters. ⁹ Therefore, many studies in the literature investigated the mental health problems of seafarers from various aspects. Jensen and Oldenburg ¹⁰ investigated stress felt by seafarers, and Kınalı et al. ¹¹ addressed depression levels of seafarers. Toygar and Yıldırım ¹² examined the association of the fear of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) with stress, depression, and anxiety among seafarers. Ergin and Sandal ¹³ explored mobbing among seafarers. Svetina et al. ¹⁴ examined the factors associated with the mental health of seafarers.

The relevant literature highlights the need for further explorations of the sustainability of the maritime industry, the well-being of seafarers, and the physical and psychological difficulties faced by seafarers in the sector. Unexpected or unpredictable natural disasters are other events that have an impact on the mental health of seafarers. Earthquakes arouse fear in people because of their destructive effects and unpredictable nature, resulting in psychological illnesses. ¹⁵ The fact that Turkish seafarers were selected as the sampling group for this study was based on an important rationale. Türkiye, given its geological location, is one of the regions with the highest seismic activity worldwide. Several fault lines exist within the borders of Türkiye, and the release of energy along these lines due to the movement of the earth's crust results in powerful earthquakes on a large scale. ¹⁶ Consequently, Türkiye is familiar with the devastating impacts of earthquakes; however, the earthquakes on February 6, 2023, were the most destructive. The Pazarcık and Elbistan districts of Kahramanmaraş were hit by two earthquakes: the first with a magnitude of 7.7 and the second, which occurred roughly 9 h later, with a magnitude of 7.6. ¹⁷ These unprecedented earthquakes significantly damaged eleven provinces. The 2022 data showed that 14,013,196 people (roughly 16.4% of the entire population of the nation) lived in the provinces impacted by these two earthquakes. ¹⁸ These earthquakes claimed more than 50,000 lives. ¹⁹ Moreover, 651,416 houses in 232,632 buildings were either completely destroyed or substantially damaged. ²⁰

One of the key elements determining the occupational motivation and professional skills of seafarers is their well-being. Seafarers spend months living in confined spaces away from their families and society because of the nature of their occupation. Further, the limited accessibility of online communication during special events or emergencies can trigger feelings of anxiety and fear, forcing seafarers to quit their jobs. ⁶ The fact that seafarers’ relatives live in a country such as Türkiye with active fault lines and the recent devastations and deaths, significantly impacting a large part of the country can make it harder for seafarers to accept uncertainty, increase their desire to give up their jobs and have a negative effect on their mental health. Numerous studies investigated the mental health of seafarers. However, no study examining seafarers’ earthquake fear, their tolerance of uncertainty, and the effects of these fears on their mental well-being (MWB) was found. This study examined the association between the fear of earthquakes and the MWB of seafarers. It also assessed the role of intolerance of uncertainty in this association. The main driving force behind this study was the belief that the results obtained from the study might have a significant effect on the development of policies and practices promoting MWB of seafarers. Sectoral authorities are expected to act appropriately and take remedial steps in the event of unexpected emergencies globally. Corrective measures need to be implemented for the mental health of seafarers whose families and social circles are located in the zone of earthquakes. This study employed three different measurement tools adapted to the language of the sample group. It also assessed the data obtained from Turkish seafarers using the AMOS-24 software with a high degree of analytical power. Both these strategies increased the scientific validity of the results.

In this study, the reliability of the proposed model was examined using three different reliability techniques. Subsequently, the threshold values in the available literature were compared with the values of the paths from latent to observed variables. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to test construct validity. The four proposed hypotheses put forward in this study were tested using structural equation modeling (SEM). This study included three distinct latent variables with endogenous and exogenous characteristics and a control variable.

This comprehensively structured study includes seven distinct sections. The second section introduces the conceptual framework of the study. Besides summarizing the relevant studies from the literature, this section proposes four hypotheses determining the conceptual framework. The third section explains the preliminary and modeling analyses. The fourth section presents the results drawn from these analyses. The fifth, sixth, and seventh sections comprise the discussion, conclusion, limitations, and recommendations for future research, respectively.

Concepts and theoretical background

Earthquake fear (EF)

As sudden and unpredictable natural disasters, earthquakes can pose long-term and severe psychological stress to individuals. ²¹ The fear and stress levels can rise in response to the destruction, fatalities, and financial losses caused by earthquakes, thereby having a negative impact on the mental health of people. ²² The unpredictable nature of earthquakes increases the chances of psychological disorders due to the fear induced by these earthquakes. ¹⁵ Specifically, Beaglehole et al. ²³ found the negative impacts of Canterbury earthquakes on the mental health of individuals. Moreover, in 12- to 30-month studies on children and adolescents, some of the participants affected by the earthquake displayed signs of post-traumatic stress disorder and depression. ²⁴

The mental health issues induced by earthquakes have been a key area of exploration in literature for a long time. However, the fear induced by earthquakes has become highly prevalent recently. Prizmić-Larsen et al. ²⁵ coined the concept EF and developed the Fear of Earthquake Scale in Croatian to measure the fear associated with earthquakes. This study found that the earthquake led to more fear in people compared with the COVID-19 pandemic, thus having significant and long-lasting negative impacts. Satıcı et al. ¹⁵ developed the Earthquake Fear Scale (EFS) to ascertain the psychological effects of EF in a Turkish sample.

The professional abilities and motivation of seafarers for their occupations are significantly influenced by their psychological conditions. They have to live indoors, away from their families and social circles for months. Both residents living ashore and seafarers may experience high levels of fear during earthquakes. The aforementioned factors may undermine the ability of seafarers to overcome uncertainty and negative impact on their mental health compared with that of other people, specifically in cases where the families of seafarers reside in a highly earthquake-prone area and communication is difficult. Türkiye is highly vulnerable to large-scale earthquakes due to its high seismic activity. In 2023, two different regions of Türkiye experienced major earthquakes, resulting in considerable damage and numerous fatalities. Therefore, the following hypothesis was proposed to ascertain the impact of EFs on the MWB of Turkish seafarers:

H₁:

EF is associated with MWB.

Intolerance of Uncertainty (IoU)

IoU characterizes a person's tendency to view the likelihood of an adverse event as undesirable, regardless of the objective value of that possibility. ²⁶ Moreover, it is generally characterized by a propensity to assess uncertain conditions as stressful and disturbing, a conviction that unexpected circumstances are generally bad and ought to be avoided, and a feeling that uncertainty about the future is unfair. ²⁷ Thus, IoU can lead to psychological illnesses by generating a thought pattern exacerbating stress and depression. Similarly, Holaway et al. ²⁸ demonstrated a strong association of IoU with obsessive-compulsive disorder, pathological worry, and generalized anxiety disorder. Psychologically distressed people had a greater mean IoU than those who were not. ²⁹ IoU is associated with psychological distress and health-related anxiety. ³⁰ Gullo et al. ³¹ reported a mediating role of IoU in depression, anxiety, and stress induced by EFs. Moreover, an association between COVID-19, a source of unpredictable fear, and IoU has been reported. Graffeo et al. ³² demonstrated that fear and IoU caused by the pandemic were associated with the risk perceptions of people.

IoU hinders the ability to act in the face of an unpredictable circumstance. This tendency is important for developing anxiety. ²⁷ Further, uncertainty may result in a sense of being in the dark. ³³ Although one of the riskiest places to work is ships, the ship functionality at sea depends heavily on seafarers. However, the human factor is one of the main reasons for ship collisions.^34,35 Seafarers may experience psychological disorders, such as stress, anxiety, and depression while performing their jobs on ships.^11,36 Many uncertainties in their life may result from limited communication with their families and society. IoU should be investigated, particularly for seafarers, because it can cause psychological distress and has a substantial impact on the capacity of individuals to handle unexpected situations. The following hypothesis was proposed in this regard:

H₂:

EF is associated with IoU.

Mental well-being (MWB)

Mental health is the state of MWB that allows people to manage stress, identify their abilities, and contribute to society. ³⁷ The term MWB is widely accepted because the term “mental health” does not provide a comprehensive definition for people with mental disorders. ³⁸ MWB, when not being more than a mental disorder, positively influences individuals and contributes to their development. ³⁹ Thus, MWB is correlated with positive mental health is identified with mental health.^40,41

There is an association between MWB and physical environment and poor mental health is associated with negativities in the physical environment. ⁴² Seafaring is different from other occupations considering its physical environment. Numerous factors leading to mental health issues include working and spending leisure time in the same space, working beyond the normal working hours, experiencing insomnia, difficulty living away from family for long periods and in closed spaces, and working in the workplace with high levels of noise and temperature.^11,43 This study aimed to better understand the concepts that influence seafarers’ MWB. The study's conceptual framework posited a negative relationship between the MWB and EF of seafarers. This fear might play a decisive role in seafarers’ daily lives and performance at work. Therefore, the impact of EFs and IoU on the MWB of seafarers should be investigated to learn more about their mental health. The following hypotheses were proposed in light of these theoretical observations:

H₃:

IoU is associated with MWB.

H₄:

EF is associated with MWB, and this association is mediated IoU.

Methods

Participants and procedure

The study employed specific inclusion and exclusion criteria to ensure that the sample group was homogeneous and reflected common professional and sociodemographic characteristics. The inclusion criteria were as follows: To be a Turkish seafarer, to be active in the board. Participants were also asked about the qualifications of seafarers on board, the voyage area and type of ship on which they worked, and the length of their contract. As an exclusion criterion, individuals who were not actively working as seafarers were not included in the study. Establishing these criteria ensured that the seafarers in the study represented common occupational and sociodemographic characteristics. The study data were collected in accordance with the ethical guidelines set by the committee. In addition, the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and university ethical guidelines were observed while interviewing seafarers. The participants provided their consent and were informed that they were free to end the interviews at any time. They were not given any incentives to participate in the study. The interviews were conducted on a voluntary basis. Seafarers were contacted via social media networks and the human resources departments of maritime firms. It is well known that fear of earthquakes can fluctuate over time and can increase after a major earthquake or as a reaction to intense media attention. The study data were collected between March 18 and April 26, 2024, using a cross-sectional method. Online surveys and telecommunication technologies were employed in data collection because the participants were actively employed on ships. Scales measuring the participants’ EFs, IoU, and MWB were administered. In addition, the participants were also asked descriptive questions regarding the duration of their work contract, voyage area, and qualifications on board. The data collection from seafarers took approximately 10–15 min. The study was conducted with 357 seafarers. Most of the participants (n = 247) were working for 6 months or less; however, the others (n = 110) were working for 7 months or more. The participating seafarers were asked about the voyage areas they were working in. Most of them (n = 292) worked on unlimited/international voyages, whereas the others (n = 65) worked on cabotage or coastal voyage. The seafarers were also asked questions about their qualifications on board. The majority of the participants were deck officers (n = 184), whereas the remaining participants included masters (n = 13), chief engineers (n = 2), engine officers (n = 20), and cadet (deck and engineer), rating and catering (n = 138). Finally, seafarers were asked about the kind of ship they were working on. A majority of the participants worked on dry/bulk cargo, tanker, and container ships (n = 121, 148, and 63, respectively) and others on Ro-Ro, cruise ships (n = 25).

Measurement scales

Three scales were used in this study.

Earthquake fear scale (EFS)

The EFS was developed in the Turkish language by Satıcı et al. ¹⁵ based on three different reliability values: Cronbach's alpha (α = 0.88–0.89), McDonald's omega (ω = 0.88–0.89), and Guttmann's lambda (λ6 = 0.88–0.89). The scale includes seven items and a single dimension; no item is reverse scored. The minimum and maximum scores obtained from the EFS are 7 and 35.

Intolerance of uncertainty scale 12 (IUS-12)

The IUS-12 was developed by Carleton et al. ²⁶ and adapted into Turkish by Sarıçam et al.. ⁴⁴ In the Turkish adaptation study, Cronbach's alpha value was 0.88 for the entire scale. The scale includes twelve items and two dimensions (prospective anxiety and inhibitory anxiety); no item is reverse scored. The scores in the IUS-12 range from 12 to 60.

Warwick–Edinburgh mental well-being scale (WEMWBS)

Tennant et al. ⁴⁰ developed the WEMWBS including only positive items to ensure MWB and assess the development of mental health. Keldal ⁴⁵ conducted the Turkish adaptation study of the scale. The construct validity of the scale was examined using EFA and CFA. In the Turkish adaptation study, the Cronbach's alpha value of the entire scale in the Turkish adaptation study was calculated as 0.89. The WEMWBS has one dimension and fourteen items that focus on the positive aspects of mental health. The scores at WEMWBS range from 14 to 70.

Statistical analysis

This study investigated the association between EF and MWB in terms of the mediating role of IoU. It comprised three stages. In the first stage, the applicability of the data for SEM was examined. This process involved performing normality, correlation, and reliability tests. The mean, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis values of three different variables, bivariate (Pearson) correlation values, and the results of the reliability tests (McDonald's ω, Cronbach's α, and Guttman's λ6) were analyzed. In the second stage, the study scales and the data collected from the sample group were examined for compatibility and construct validity. The parcellation method was used for one-dimension WEMWBS and EFS. This method is frequently used to diminish the errors in evaluating scales with a single factor.^46–49 The items were arranged in descending order based on their loadings in the factor, and dispersed evenly by choosing items for plots from the beginning, middle, and end.^46,50 In the CFA test stage, χ², χ²/df, AGFI, RFI, RMR, and SRMR were preferred as model fit values. In the final stage, the model with the mediating variable included was analyzed by entering five thousand for the number of bootstrap samples and ninety-five for the BC confidence level. In this stage, SEM was used to examine the four hypotheses proposed in the theoretical framework section after evaluating the model fit values for suitability. In addition, a structural model was developed using three different latent variables (EF, IoU, and MWB).

Results

Preliminary analyses

The methodological reliability and validity of the study were examined to assess whether they were supported by the results. First, the correlation among the variables in the measurement model was determined using the Pearson correlation analysis. The results of the analysis showed a positive correlation between EF and IoU (r = 0.347, p < 0.01), a negative correlation between EF and MWB (r = –0.164, p < 0.01), and a negative correlation between IoU and MWB (r = –0.243, p < 0.01). These results indicated significant correlations among the variables under examination. Second, the normality distribution of the dataset was investigated using skewness and kurtosis values, which were found to be between −0.328 and 0.069 and between −0.667 and 0.218, respectively. The data were presumed to be normally distributed because the values were below the thresholds acknowledged in the literature.^51,52 Third, the reliability of the dataset was assessed. McDonald's ω was between 0.855 and 0.914, Cronbach's α was between 0.854 and 0.914, and Guttman's λ6 was between 0.862 and 0.925. These results revealed that the reliability of the analyses was above the threshold values. Fourth, the tolerance, variance inflation factor (VIF), and condition index (CI) values were analyzed to assess multicollinearity. The analysis yielded tolerance and VIF values of 0.880 and 1.137, respectively, whereas the CI value was between 1.0 and 11.224. These indicated that there was no multicollinearity. ⁵³ Table 1 presents the results of the preliminary analyses.

Table 1.

Results of the preliminary analysis.

	Descriptive and Scale Statistics							Correlations
	Mean	SD	Skewness	Kurtosis	McDonald's ω	Cronbach's α	Guttman's λ6	EF	IoU	MWB
EF	19.74	5.77	−0.201	−0.185	0.855	0.854	0.862	1
IoU	34.88	7.67	−0.328	0.218	0.859	0.859	0.870	0.347**	1
MWB	51.16	9.17	0.069	−0.667	0.914	0.914	0.925	−0.164**	−0.243**	1

**p < .001. Note: EF = Earthquake fear; MWB = Mental well-being; IoU = Intolerance of uncertainty.

Measurement model

CFA was used to test the measurement model including three different latent variables. No covariance was added between the residuals, and no modification was made to the parameters of this study. The analysis showed that the measurement power of the model was high and that the model fit values were above the threshold values reported in the literature, indicating perfect fit (χ²/df = 1.452; NFI = 0.98; RFI = 0.97; SRMR = 0.04; RMSEA = 0.04). The factor loadings were between 0.573 and 0.948 and were significant. These results demonstrated that the proposed hypotheses could be tested, and the data collected from Turkish seafarers were deemed suitable for SEM.

Mediation analyses

The mediating variable (IoU) should significantly influence and explain the dependent variable (MWB) in all direct/indirect paths from EF to MWB. SEM with latent variables was employed in this study to explore the association between EF and MWB and ascertain the mediating role of IoU in this association. Figure 1 illustrates the full mediation model tested through SEM, demonstrating the hypothesized associations among EF, IoU, and MWB.

Figure 1.

The result of the proposed model, **p < 0.01. EF = Parcels of earthquake fear; IoU1 = Prospective; IoU2 = Inhibitory; MWB = Parcels of mental well-being.

EF was an exogenous latent variable composed of two item parcels, while IoU had two items: prospective anxiety (IoU1) and inhibitory anxiety (IoU2), and MWB had three item parcels. Seafarers’ contractual terms were included in the model as a control variable to verify the measurement power of the analyses. Standardized path coefficients, all significant at p < 0.01, except for the indirect path from EF to MWB (c’), which became non-significant upon inclusion of the mediating variable IoU. The possible confounding effects of the model were investigated, revealing no confounding effects of the model created with the contractual term included as a control variable. In other words, this indicated the internal validity of the model and confirmed that the effects on the key variables of the study were independent of confounding factors. Table 2 presents the results of the hypothesis tests.

Table 2.

Results of the hypothesis tests.

Model pathway				Standardized direct/indirect effect		S.E.	p	95% Confidence interval		Hypothesis
								Lower limit	Upper limit
EF (c path)	➜	MWB			−0.182	0.068	0.003	−0.297	−0.077	H1 (S)
EF (c’ path)	➜	MWB			−0.035	0.075	0.654	−0.190	0.109
EF (a path)	➜	IoU			0.397	0.091	***	0.205	0.557	H2 (S)
IoU (b path)	➜	MWB			−0.337	0.071	***	−0.469	−0.194	H3 (S)
EF	➜	IoU	➜	MWB	−0.134	0.045	***	−0.229	−0.053	H4 (S)

Note: p = Probability value; β = Standardized regression weights, S.E. = Bootstrap standard errors.

^***p < .001.

The validity of the hypothesis propositions was examined in the following stage. First, the total effect of path c from EF to MWB was investigated without the mediating variable. The results indicated that the c path from EF to MWB (β = −0.182, lover = −0.297; upper = 0.077, p < 0.01) was significant. Second, the analysis was conducted again by incorporating the mediating variable (IoU) into the model. The analysis results showed that path a from EF to IoU (β = 0.397, lover = 0.205; upper = 0.557, p < 0.01), path b from IoU to MWB (β = –0.337, lover = −0.469; upper = −0.194, p < 0.01) were significant. However, the significant effect of path c vanished, path c’ from from EF to MWB (β = −0.035, lover = −0.190; upper = 0.109, p < 0.654) were not significant. Third, bootstrap results were analyzed to control indirect effects among variables. A fully mediated indirect path existed from EF to MWB through IoU (indirect effect, β = −0.134, 95% CI = [from = −0.229, to = −0.53], p < 0.001). This means that full mediation effect was discovered in this new model with IoU included as a mediating.

Discussion

Seafarers employed in the Turkish maritime industry fear that an earthquake may strike at any moment and that they may lose their loved ones. Addressing these concerns is crucial because seafaring is one of the riskiest professions, and human factor accounts for most accidents. Additionally, The contract periods may last up to ten months for seafarers. ⁴³ Prolonged periods of time that seafarers have to spend away from their families can make their mental health issues more complicated, exacerbating their IoU and EF. The study has found a significant association between the EF and MWB among Turkish seafarers. Moreover, this association was fully mediated by IoU.

First, a significant association was proposed between EF and the MWB of Turkish seafarers. The results indicated that this association, thus supporting the first hypothesis of this study, H₁. Many different studies on this fear in a Turkish sample group were theoretically framed in response to the recent significant earthquakes in Türkiye.^15,54,55 Although numerous studies have been conducted on the mental health of seafarers, the absence of effective strategies to deal with this problem demands further investigation into various concepts related to this issue.^11,56

Second, an analysis was conducted on the association between EF and the IoU of Turkish seafarers. The results validated H₂, which stated that EF and IoU were associated. These results were consistent with those of Torpus et al. ⁵⁵ who explored a positive association between IoU and EF. Bilge et al. ⁵⁷ conducted a study following the major earthquakes in Türkiye on February 6, 2023. They revealed that IoU was one of the variables explaining post-traumatic stress disorder. This result might offer a key indicator for explaining the mental health issues experienced by seafarers following major earthquakes.

Third, the association between the MWB of Turkish seafarers and their IoU was investigated. The results revealed that this association was significant, supporting the third hypothesis H₃. Similarly, a study involving a Turkish sample found that IoU directly affected MWB. ³³ Furthermore, the results of the present study were consistent with those of another study reporting a negative association between mental health and IoU. ⁵⁸ The human factor plays a crucial role in ship management and control, highlighting the criticality of the capacity to respond swiftly and effectively in any circumstance onboard. The capacity to solve problems can be adversely affected by the inability of people to cope with uncertainty. This may hamper their capacity to plan strategically and make decisions in the face of uncertainty. The study conducted with a sample specific to life on shipboard provided key information to understand the issues due to the lack of capacity for managing uncertainty.

Fourth, the mediating role of IoU in the association between MWB and EF of Turkish seafarers was tested. The results indicated that IoU played a full-mediating role in this association, supporting hypothesis H₄. People who are afraid of uncertainty may develop psychological disorders. A study investigating the MWB of the community affected by the earthquake reported that the earthquake deteriorated the quality of life of individuals and that psychological disorders could continue even after the earthquake. ⁵⁹ Unpredictable shocks with societal and economic ramifications may influence the mental health of people. Based on the impacts stemming from fear, the risk perceptions of seafarers toward their jobs can increase due to fear and IoU. In fact, this assumption was supported by this study.

Conclusions

The study investigated the associations among EF, IoU, and MWB among Turkish seafarers. Given Türkiye's geological predisposition to frequent seismic activities, coupled with recent catastrophic earthquakes, seafarers’ mental health challenges associated with these fears and uncertainties have become particularly pronounced. While general mental health issues among seafarers have been studied extensively in the recent literature, the present study uniquely addressed the specific association between EF, IoU, and their combined predictive effect on MWB. Therefore, the study made possible a conceptual re-evaluation of the mechanisms of psychological resilience in the case of seafarers living in isolation and uncertainty during their voyages. Moreover, the employ of analytical methodologies and culturally adapted measurement tools that have been validated significantly enhanced the reliability and applicability of the results. The study indicated significant associations among EF, IoU, and the MWB of seafarers. The study also found that IoU fully mediated the association between EF and MWB of Turkish seafarers, indicating that EF indirectly predict MWB through IoU. These results emphasize the necessity of implementing strategies that target psychological determinants, EF, and IoU, with the objective of enhancing seafarers’ overall MWB. First, professional counseling services should be provided to seafarers for mental support while they are away from their homes and social lives. Second, more enhanced communication technologies should be employed so that the seafarers can communicate regularly and effectively with their families. Empowering the means of communication can help seafarers manage uncertainty, thus positively influencing their mental health.

Limitations and future research

This study had some limitations that should be considered before extrapolating its results. First, seafarers’ access to information from social media, television, or news sources may be limited due to the long time spent on board and relative isolation from life on shore. Therefore, the study does not have a variable that directly measures media consumption. However, in future studies, it would be useful to conduct more detailed analyses using additional variables that include participants’ media consumption habits, measure the doomscrolling effect, or their exposure to natural disaster-related information. Second, seafarers lead isolated lives aboard ships that serve as both their workplace and home, far from their families and society. In addition to the inability to leave the ship, seafarers face many challenges and must survive with limited resources in extreme context such as pandemics or war. Whether the study can be generalized to other occupational groups that experience similar isolation and limited communication is a matter of debate. The limited number of studies in these fields makes it difficult to make direct comparisons. Therefore, the study have aspects that are specific to the maritime sector. In the future, these uncertainties could be further explored by conducting comparative studies with different occupational groups. Third, self-report measures are susceptible to subjective biases because they are based on the participants’ interpretations of their own experiences and circumstances. Fourth, because the study was cross-sectional, cause-and-effect relationships could not be determined. This was particularly clear considering that the Turkish participants in this study were actively employed on ships. The data obtained using observational methods or experimental studies in clinical settings are usually considered to be more suitable for identifying cause-and-effect relationships. Therefore, adopting this kind of methodology in future studies may be beneficial. Fifth, this study used three different latent variables to evaluate the MWB of Turkish seafarers. However, the maritime industry is dynamic and constantly evolving, and the sector-specific challenges are diversifying daily. Future studies should include other variables reflecting the dynamics of the maritime industry besides the variables used in this study. This may allow for a ranking of the variables considering the strength of the associations.