Color additives in chewing gum products sold through Indian online marketplaces: variances and compliance with food safety norms in India, the EU, and the USA

Abstract

Background

Chewing gum (CG) is a widely consumed confectionery product, and it often contains various synthetic color additives to enhance the visual appeal. However, the regulatory status of these colorants differs across regions.

Objective

This study aims to systematically identify the color additives found in the list of ingredients of chewing gum products available on Indian online marketplaces and to compare the regulatory frameworks governing these food colorants in India, the European Union (EU), and the United States of America (USA).

Methodology

Chewing gum products were identified from Indian online marketplaces namely Amazon Fresh, BigBasket, and Flipkart using “chewing gum” as the specific search keyword. The data on color additives listed in the ingredients list of these products were systematically collected, categorized, and evaluated. A comparative regulatory assessment of the food colorants used in chewing gum was also conducted, examining differences in their permitted or prohibited status across India, the EU, and the USA.

Results

The study assessed CG products [N = 51], identifying 15 different color additives. A total of around 80% of the chewing gum products contained one colorant, while 20% contained between 2 and 5 colorants. Notably, the study detected the presence of Ponceau 4R, Erythrosine, and Azorubine, which are banned in the USA, in addition to Titanium Dioxide that is banned in the EU for their association to potential health risks such as hyperactivity in children and carcinogenicity.

Conclusion

The study urges the Indian authorities to ban suspected harmful color additives and promote safer alternatives.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40795-025-01167-2.

Introduction

Chewing gum (CG) is a popular, non-digestible confection chewed for its flavor before being discarded [1]. Originating from ancient practices of chewing natural tree resins and gums, modern CG has evolved into a highly processed product containing a variety of ingredients [2]. The global CG market is valued at an estimated 25 billion United States Dollars (USD) [1], with the Indian market al.one accounting for over 109 million USD in 2023 [3]. This huge market reflects its widespread popularity across different age groups due to its convenience and variety of flavors. Even tobacco cigarette smokers often use CG to relieve stress and cover the smell of tobacco [1, 4]. Although CG has negligible nutritional value in terms of macronutrients like calories, fats, carbohydrates, and proteins, its ingredient composition plays a crucial role in determining its effects on health [5, 6]. CG can influence appetite regulation and metabolic health by reducing snack intake and lowering hunger, especially the sugar-free ones [7]. While CG supports stress relief and oral health, concerns remain regarding the potential risks of synthetic additives, particularly colorants [1, 8].

CG consists primarily of a gum base, sweeteners, colorants, texture enhancers, flavorings, and preservatives [9]. However, the gum base is indigestible, and manufacturers often do not disclose its specific composition. Among these ingredients, color additives have triggered increasing scrutiny due to their potential health risks, particularly in relation to allergic reactions and metabolic concerns.

Color additives are dyes or substances used to enhance the appearance of foods, beverages, cosmetics, and medications. Throughout history, natural colorants have been extracted from vegetables, such as carrots and saffron, as well as from minerals like iron [10]. Since the discovery of the first synthetic color additive in 1856, the food industry has begun developing artificial colors, which are still widely used today [11].

Manufacturers highly depend on artificial food colorants as they enhance product appearance, increase color intensity, and are economically less costly compared to natural alternatives [12].

However, growing concerns about certain synthetic colorants, such as tartrazine and Titanium Dioxide, have led to debates over their safety, with studies suggesting their association to allergic reactions, particularly in children [13, 14].

Along with these concerns, the small size of CG packaging often results in ingredients lists being printed in microscopic fonts, making it difficult for consumers to read and assess the presence of potentially harmful additives [15]. This lack of transparency may lead to uninformed purchasing decisions regarding products that contain controversial colorants.

Given the rising concerns about synthetic color additives in CG and their potential health implications, this study systematically examines the presence of these additives in CG products available on Indian online marketplaces. Additionally, it evaluates their regulatory status across the USA, the EU, and India to provide insight into global safety standards.

Methodology

The ingredients list of CG products available on Indian online marketplaces were collected in September 2024. The included data were from three online shopping marketplaces, namely Amazon Fresh, BigBasket, and Flipkart. The search was conducted using “chewing gum” as a specific keyword across the online marketplaces.

Inclusion criteria

The study includes:

• All types of CG products in different forms and flavors.

• Products priced at INR 200 or below per item.

• Products with a complete ingredients list, either provided in the product’s in-app description or visible on the pack of the item.

• Products with minimum customer rating of 3 stars, ensuring consumer acceptance and market relevance, as higher-rated products (4–5 stars) have been proven to influence purchase likelihood and are perceived as more useful in consumer decision-making [16, 17].

Exclusion criteria

The study excluded:

• CG products classified as doctor-recommended or medicated, as their formulation, purpose, and regulatory standards differ from those of regular CG products.

• Duplicate products that were available in multiple pack sizes, and those with identical names and ingredients list, to avoid duplication bias.

• Any other CG products not meeting the specified inclusion criteria, maintaining dataset consistency.

Data extraction

Figure 1 shows the process of extracting the data, which consists of different steps. Initially, a total of 223 CG products were found across the three online marketplaces. After applying automatic filtering for price and customer review ratings, the study reviewed 132 CG products, out of which only 51 products met the inclusion criteria.

Fig. 1.

Data extraction flowchart

Data collection and standardization

The list of ingredients of various CG products were recorded in a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet. Each list has been reviewed, and relevant data were extracted and entered into the MS spreadsheet. The recorded data included the color additives found in the list of ingredients, as well as the brands name and flavor of the CG product. The color additives extracted from the reviewed products have inconsistent naming, such as using International Numbering System (INS) code, E code or the chemical name of the color additive; therefore, the alternative names were also considered.

Identification of the regulatory status of color additives in the list of ingredients in chewing gum products

The regulatory status of color additives used in CG products sold on Indian online marketplaces was assessed based on information from three major regulatory authorities: the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI), the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). In India, edible food colors are regulated under the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006, and the Food Products Standards and Food Additives Regulations, 2011, specifically Chap. 3.1.2. In addition, the relevant appendices were considered [18]. In Europe, permitted food additives are governed by regulation (EC) No. 231/2012, which supplements regulation (EC) No. 1333/2008. The European Commission’s food additives database was used as a searchable tool to obtain information on authorized additives and their conditions of use [19]. Meanwhile, in the USA, color additives are regulated under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FD&C Act). The FDA’s Substances Added to Food inventory database was used in this study to search for details about each food additive and its regulations [20]. Each regulatory authority classifies color additives into different categories: allowed, which means they are approved for use within specific limits and conditions; banned, indicating they are prohibited due to safety concerns or insufficient toxicological data; and restricted or limited use, which means they are permitted only in specific products or at controlled concentrations based on risk assessments. Additionally, while many food colors have been approved, the EFSA requires warning labels to be displayed for certain additives to inform consumers about potential health risks [18–20].

Statistical analysis

A descriptive analysis of the frequency and distribution of color additives in the included CG products was conducted. The MS Excel spreadsheet version 2021 was used to conduct all the analyses.

Results

Description of the included products

The study included 51 CG products from 11 different brands. Among these, 18 were sugar-free, of which 13 were spice-/herbal-flavored and 5 were fruit-flavored. The remaining 33 products contained sugar, including 6 spice-/herbal-flavored and 27 fruit-flavored varieties.

Supplementary Table 1 presents the list of chewing gum products included in the study, with the following information: product code, letters (instead of brand names), flavor, sugar content, and product form.

Distribution of color additives frequency in chewing gum products

Figure 2 shows the distribution of color additives in chewing gum products (total N = 51). The majority of products contained one colorant (n = 41, 80.39%), while others contained two colorants (n = 4, 7.84%), three colorants (n = 3, 5.88%), four colorants (n = 2, 3.99%), or five colorants (n = 1, 1.96%).

Fig. 2.

Frequency of color additives present in chewing gum products

Types and distribution of color additives identified in chewing gum products

Figure 3 displays the overall color additives found in the CG products, which are 15 colorants, and they are Brilliant Blue FCF (n = 15, 21.1%), Tartrazine (n = 13, 18.3%), Caramel I-Plain (n = 8, 11.3%), Titanium Dioxide (n = 7, 9.9%), Ponceau 4R (n = 5, 7.0%), Erythrosine (n = 5, 7.0%), Sunset Yellow FCF (n = 4, 5.6%), Azorubine (n = 3, 4.2%), Carotenes (n = 3, 4.2%), Vegetable Carbon (n = 2, 2.8%), Amaranth (n = 2, 2.8%), Curcumin (n = 1, 1.4%), Carmines (n = 1, 1.4%), Allura Red AC (n = 1, 1.4%), and Anthocyanins (n = 1, 1.4%).

Fig. 3.

Names and distribution of color additives present in chewing gum products

Regulatory comparison of color additives in India, the EU and the USA

Table 1 presents a comparative overview of regulations on color additives across India, the EU, and the USA, detailing their INS codes, names, classifications, regulatory status and their maximum permitted level in CG. The table indicates whether each additive is approved (), banned (), restricted with limited use (), or restricted in use (warning label required) (), highlighting key regulatory differences.

Table 1.

Comparative overview of regulations on color additives across india, the EU, and the USA

Discussion

The study revealed important findings about the frequency of color additives found in CG products available on the three Indian online marketplaces, in addition to significant health concerns linked to these products based on the literature.

Multiple color additives were identified in the studied CG products, and the majority of products 80.39% contained one colorant, whereas 7.84% contained 2 colorants, 5.88% contained 3 colorants, 3.99% contained 4 colorants and 1.96% contained 5 colorants. It is worth mentioning that having multiple color additives can synergistically contribute to a higher incidence of allergies and asthma [21]. In addition, research revealed that combining multiple colorants was associated with decreasing spatial working memory and showed anti-depression and anxiety-reduced behaviors in female rats and their offspring [22].

In the current study, 20% of CG products used between 2 and 5 colorants. However, as more colorants are added, the risk of adverse health effects also increases. Some CG products on the online marketplaces in India still contain colorant combinations in their list of ingredients. The number of colorants used in CG products is not the only risk factor, but the type of color additives used also plays a significant role. For instance, the present study revealed that Brilliant Blue FCF is the most widely used colorant, which is found in 15 CG products in the Indian online marketplaces. Although this colorant is permitted for use in the USA, it is restricted with limited use in CG products in the EU and India, as there are concerns about its potential neurodevelopmental effects in rats [22]. A study revealed that in male Wistar rats, ninety days of oral consumption of Brilliant Blue FCF significantly impacted hematological parameters, causing issues like megaloblastic anemia and thrombocytopenia. Additionally, this color additive significantly reduced the levels of immunoglobulins M (IgM) and G (IgG) [23]. Brilliant Blue FCF also significantly impacted neurobehavioral factors in mice [24]. Higher amounts of Brilliant Blue FCF combined with Sunset Yellow FCF in human lymphocyte cell cultures reduced the frequencies of mitotic indices and increased the frequency of micronucleus, which indicates significant cytotoxic and genotoxic effects [25].

Tartrazine was the second most commonly used colorant in CG products, appearing in 13 products. Although this colorant is permitted in the USA, it is restricted with limited use in CG products in the EU and India, but the EU requires products that contain Tartrazine to display a warning label. This regulation is based on studies suggesting a correlation between Tartrazine and hyperactivity in children, especially those with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) [26]. Additionally, in a study conducted on sixty male and female Swiss albino mice, a large dosage of Tartrazine reduced the trypsin and chymotrypsin enzymatic activities of proteases, which could negatively affect digestion [13]. Caramel I-Plain was present in 8 CG products. This colorant is deemed safe based on toxicological studies, with minimal adverse effects, and it is an approved food colorant by the three regulatory authorities [27].

Titanium Dioxide was present in 7 CG products. Recent studies have raised concerns about the safety of Titanium Dioxide as a food color additive. Similarly, a systematic review of 64 studies on rats exposed to Titanium Dioxide revealed that it can cause oxidative damage by increasing oxidative stress, particularly at higher doses and with long-term exposure [14]. In the Indian context, the maximum amount of Titanium Dioxide permitted in CG products is 10,000 mg/kg [18]. However, it is important to note that even minimal absorption of Titanium Dioxide raises concerns about its long-term accumulation and potential adverse effects [28]. A study showed that the estimated exposure values for Titanium Dioxide in German children reach approximately 2 mg/kg/day and in German adults between 0.5 and 1 mg/kg/day [29]. In 2022, the EU implemented a complete ban on Titanium Dioxide as a food additive, driven by concerns from the EFSA regarding its potential genotoxicity and carcinogenic impact [30]. In the USA, a petition was filed to stop using Titanium Dioxide in food, but has been under review by the FDA since 2023 [31]. On the other hand, it is still permitted with restrictions as a food coloring additive in India, despite these concerns [18].

It was observed that Ponceau 4R was present in 5 products, and Erythrosine was also present in 5 products. The regulatory status of these two colorants varies by region. In the USA, both colorants are banned due to potential health concerns. Ponceau 4R, in particular, has raised concerns due to its potential health implications. Studies in mice have shown that Ponceau 4R impacted DNA migration and neurobehavioral aspects [32]. In the EU, products containing Ponceau 4R are required to display warning labels, as research suggested that this food colorant caused higher hyperactivity levels in toddlers aged three when combined with other substances like preservative sodium benzoate [32]. Despite the varying regulatory status in the USA and the EU, these two colorants are still permitted in India under restricted use.

Erythrosine has also been linked to potential side effects on rats, including serotonergic inhibition and corticosterone changes, which may impact brain function [33, 34]. With the evidence that high levels of Erythrosine caused cancer in male rats through a hormonal mechanism, these findings contributed to the FDA’s ban on the use of Erythrosine in food as of January 15, 2025 [35]. However, despite its ban in the USA, Erythrosine remains approved for restricted use in India and the EU, and it is authorized only for very specific uses in the EU, limited to particular products like canned fruit [18, 19].

Sunset Yellow FCF was present in 4 CG products, while Azorubine was present in 3 products. Both colorants are approved for use in India under certain restrictions, despite their link to ADHD. In the EU, while both colorants are permitted, products containing them must display warning labels due to potential health concerns. In the USA, Sunset Yellow FCF is approved for use, although evidence suggested harmful effects at higher doses, including significant histopathological liver damage observed in rats [36]. On the other hand, Azorubine is not permitted in the USA in food products. Notably, recent studies indicate that exposure to Azorubine combined with Bisphenol A (BPA) significantly increased health-related risks in zebra fish embryos, including different negative neurodevelopmental effects like oxidative stress [37].

Carotenes, Amaranth and Vegetable Carbon were each identified in 3 CG products. Carotenes colorant is approved in all three regions. On the other hand, Amaranth is banned in India and the USA to protect public health [18, 20], although it was detected in some CG products in the Indian online market. In the EU, Amaranth is allowed based on the ADI of 0.15 mg/kg bw/day established by EFSA, and it is authorized only in certain food categories, but it is not listed among the permitted additives for CG products [19, 38]. Vegetable Carbon is banned in the USA due to safety concerns. This colorant is prohibited because of the potential presence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, which have carcinogenic properties [39, 40]. In India, Vegetable Carbon is considered restricted with limited use, since it is not listed among the generally permitted colors as per the FSSAI. But its application is only allowed in specific products through case-by-case approval under the Non-Specified Food & Food Ingredients regulations [18, 41]. In the EU, it is authorized for use in CG products under Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) [19].

Anthocyanins, Curcumin, Carmines and Allura Red AC were each identified in 1 CG product. Anthocyanins, and Curcumin are generally considered safe colorants within ADI limits and allowed by the three authorities. Carmines is banned in India and restricted with limited use in the EU, but it is still allowed in the USA [18–20]. Carmines can cause sensitive reactions in individuals vulnerable to allergies. These reactions were caused by IgE-mediated responses to protein compounds in Carmines [42, 43]. Allura Red AC has been linked to ADHD, and potential genotoxicity at high doses [44], and India restricted its use in many products, but without providing information about the maximum recommended level of this colorant in CG products. The EU requires displaying warning labels on products containing Allura Red AC, but it is allowed in the USA [18–20].

In addition to the previously mentioned findings, it should be noted that the maximum permitted levels of color additives in CG products significantly differ from one country to another.

In India, most natural color additives are regulated under the term GMP, while synthetic color additives are generally limited to 100 mg/kg. Notably, Titanium Dioxide is permitted at a higher level of 10,000 mg/kg in CG products in India [18]. Although some colorants are allowed in multiple food products as per FSSAI’s regulations, there was no data available on their maximum recommended level in CG products [18].

In the EU and the USA, several colorants were banned or restricted, but they are still being used in CG products sold on Indian online marketplaces. In the USA, most permitted color additives follow GMP, but particular colorants are banned. Titanium Dioxide is permitted up to 12,500 mg/kg in CG products [20]. The FDA bans Erythrosine, Ponceau 4R, Azorubine, Amaranth, and Vegetable Carbon. In contrast, the EU applies different, substance-specific limits, such as 10 mg/kg for Ponceau 4R and Sunset Yellow FCF, and 300 mg/kg for colorants belonging to Group III (a group of related colorants that share a combined maximum limit), such as Brilliant Blue FCF and tartrazine. This means that if only one colorant from Group III is used, it may be added with up to 300 mg/kg in CG products, except for the Azorubine which should not exceed 50 mg/kg. However, if multiple colorants from Group III are used together, their combined maximum limit must not exceed 300 mg/kg [19]. Moreover, The EU prohibits the use of Titanium Dioxide in food products, including CG, due to concerns related to safety, and requires warning labels for several synthetic colorants [19]. These discrepancies show varying regulatory approaches. Coherent international standards would help addressing the inconsistencies and ensure safety for consumers in international food market.

A promising solution to address the health and environmental challenges and mitigate the health concerns associated with artificial food colorants is the adoption of natural alternatives derived from vegetable and fruit waste, such as peels and roots. For instance, grape skins, a by-product of wine production, are rich in Anthocyanins, producing deep purple and red pigments [45]. Rich in various benefits, red beetroot pulp offers betalains, which are suitable for producing a natural pink or red pigment [46]. Turmeric roots, often underutilized in food processing, are an abundant source of Curcumin for yellow pigments [47]. The information in hand indicates that the quality of CG products is very poor, similar to other unhealthy products found on the Indian online marketplaces, according to previous research [48]. Food manufacturers in India need to reduce their reliance on synthetic additives, especially in CG products; therefore, these eco-friendly and natural alternatives not only enhance product safety but also help reuse and reduce food waste, aligning with sustainable waste management practices and economy principles. Notably, incorporating such sustainable practices into food production can significantly promote public health.

Conclusion

The study highlights significant concerns about the regulatory status of colorants present in CG products available on Indian online marketplaces. The USA and the EU have banned or restricted the use of many color additives found in the CG due to their potential to cause health-related issues, which emphasizes the need for a reconsideration of their safety in India. To address these concerns, the FSSAI could foster the development of healthier CG products by promoting the use of safer and nature-derived coloring additive alternatives that exist in vegetables, fruits, etc. It is critical to raise public awareness about the importance of reading the ingredients list of products and understanding the health-related impact of additives. Furthermore, implementing a comprehensive scoring system to assess the healthiness of CG products based on the number and type of food additives, as well as their toxicological profiles, could improve consumer information, encourage industry reformulation, and help consumers make informed decisions about the safety and healthiness of food products.

Limitations of the study

The studied data solely rely on the list of ingredients of CG products, but laboratory tests are necessary to determine the precise level of color additives usage. Additionally, it should be noted that the study does not consider the full nutritional profile or other additives present in CG products, such as sweeteners, making it challenging to identify the overall health impact based on all the ingredients.

This research included only CG products with customer ratings between 3 and 5 stars. However, information on purchase quantity and frequency could not be considered, as the online marketplaces do not provide such datalimits accurate understanding of the actual exposure of the additives to the consumers. Furthermore, the analysis was limited to products within the defined price range and rating criteria, reflecting only the products available in the selected platforms under these specific conditions.

The focus of the research was on the descriptive analysis of color additives in CG products, and it linked the findings with the regulatory status of these colorants to highlight their significance for regulatory compliance and consumer safety. However, due to the small sample size and the categorical nature of the data, inferential statistical analyses were not performed. Therefore, the findings should be interpreted in light of these limitations. Future studies with larger datasets would enable more detailed statistical analyses, and implementing laboratory tests may address these gaps.

Supplementary Information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Abbreviations

CG

Chewing gum

USD

United States Dollars

INR

Indian Rupee

FSSAI

Food Safety and Standards Authority of India

FDA

U.S. Food and Drug Administration

EFSA

European Food Safety Authority

ADI

Acceptable Daily Intake

ADHD

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

INS

International Numbering System

FD&C

Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act

Author contributions

BA designed the study and performed data collection. BA and AA did the literature search and drafted the manuscript. AJ provided overall supervision and critically revised the manuscript. AA did the proofreading and editing to improve the manuscript’s clarity. All authors approved the final version to be submitted.

Funding

Open access funding provided by SRM Institute of Science and Technology for SRMIST – Medical & Health Sciences. This research received no funding.

Data availability

The data supporting the findings of this study are available upon request from the corresponding author.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

The ethical approval was granted under the reference number [0047/IEC/2023] on 11th December 2023 by the Institutional Ethics Committee at the SRM School of Public Health.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Informed consent

Not applicable.

Use of GenAI in writing

ChatGPT was used to paraphrase some parts in the introduction section. QuillBot was used for paraphrasing, grammar checking, and English editing in general.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.