Effects of an enhanced feeding model on productivity and sustainability of broilers and hybrid chickens under Egyptian small-scale family systems

Highlights

• •An enhanced feeding model improved the growth performance of broilers and hybrid chicks under family-based systems.
• •Feed conversion ratio and body weight gain were significantly improved compared with conventional feeding.
• •The model demonstrated adaptability to local resources in small-scale Egyptian poultry production.
• •Nutritional interventions can strengthen rural food security and promote production sustainability.

Abstract

Small-scale family poultry systems, which are prevalent in Egyptian rural areas, serve as a critical source of income and nutrition for many households. These systems are characterized by low input that relies on local resources and traditional feeding practices. So, this study was conducted to assess the performance of broiler and hybrid chickens under small-scale systems in Egyptian rural areas, by utilizing alternative balanced feeds from reasonably priced and readily available feed sources in place of traditional feeds that are dependent on household food waste and certain grains. A total of 3200 one-day-old chicks were distributed among two studies. 1600 chicks Ross 308 in 1st study and 1600 chicks Gimmizah hybrid in 2nd study), and each study were divided into two groups of 800 each. Eight households (as eight replicates) made up the first group, which served as a control group and raised 100 chicks each using traditional feeding practices. The second group included eight households (eight replicates), all of which used the enhanced feeding model and raised 100 chicks at each household. The results showed that, in Ross 308, the final live body weight (LBW) was higher in the enhanced feeding model (2500.27 g) compared to 1700.92 g in traditional practice. The daily and total feed intake (FI) were lower in the enhanced feeding model (119.59 and 5381.76 g, respectively), compared to 213.56 and 9610.32 g in the traditional feeding practice. In the Gimmizah hybrid, the final LBW increased from 2178.12 g in traditional feeding practices to 2710.97 g in the enhanced feed model. The daily and total FI were lower in the enhanced feeding model (101.43 and 7100.14 g, respectively), compared to (166.55 and 11658.34 g, respectively) in the traditional feeding practice. In conclusion, the enhanced feeding model had a significant impact on the production performance, carcass parameters, and economic efficiency of Ross 308 and Gimmizah hybrid chickens under Egyptian rural family small-scale conditions.

Introduction

Broiler chicken production is vital in addressing food security and providing livelihoods for rural communities in developing countries, including Egypt. After South Africa, Egypt is the continent's second-largest producer of commercial chicken (Nkukwana, 2018; Attia et al., 2024). Broiler chicken production provides an important source of revenue generation (Attia et al., 2022; Youssef et al., 2024a, b). Furthermore, it plays an important role in reducing malnutrition by providing the cheapest source of protein and boosting the country’s agricultural sector (Da Silva and Ranking, 2013). Due to its low-fat content, low cost, and few cultural barriers, broiler chicken meat is the most popular white meat consumed globally, other than rabbit, and other poultry (Adeyonu and Odozi, 2022; Mohamed et al., 2025).

Small-scale family poultry systems, which are prevalent in Egyptian rural areas, serve as a critical source of income and nutrition for many households. These systems are characterized by low-input, semi-intensive production methods that rely on local resources and traditional feeding practices (Gharib et al., 2012; El-Menawey et al., 2019). Despite their economic and social importance, small-scale broiler production systems often face many challenges, including poor management practices, limited access to high-quality inputs such as feed stuff, and disease outbreaks, which can hinder productivity and profitability (Shatokhin et al., 2017; Gharib et al., 2023).

The poultry industry in Egypt has witnessed significant growth over the past decades, driven by the increasing demand for poultry meat due to population growth and urban expansion (Sayedahmed et al., 2023). However, large-scale commercial production systems dominate the market, leaving small-scale farmers disadvantaged due to their inability to compete with industrialized operations. Small-scale producers often face problems such as high mortality rates, suboptimal growth performance, limited access to veterinary services, and improved breeds (Dhillon and Moncur, 2023). These constraints are further exacerbated by environmental stressors and inadequate housing conditions, which can negatively impact broiler health and productivity (Ramukhithi et al., 2023).

Understanding the performance of broiler chickens under small-scale family systems is essential for identifying strategies to improve productivity and sustainability in rural Egypt. Previous studies have highlighted the importance of improved management practices, such as better housing, nutrition, and disease control, in enhancing broiler growth performance and reducing mortality rates (Ramukhithi et al., 2023). Additionally, the characterization of production systems in regions like Al-Sharqia and Fayoum has provided valuable insights into the constraints faced by small-scale farmers, including limited access to credit, feed, and technical knowledge (Abdel-Aziz et al., 2013).

In rural Egyptian broiler production systems, providing a well-balanced feed is difficult, as diets containing grains, plant-based proteins, minerals, and vitamins are becoming increasingly unavailable and more costly for households. A carefully designed diet tailored to meet the nutritional needs of broilers, incorporating unconventional feed materials under household conditions, can enhance broiler productivity. Various studies have shown that using food waste for feeding broilers with different proportions performed comparably to those on a conventional corn and soy diet (Wadhwa et al., 2013; Stefanello et al., 2016).

This study hypothesizes that employing an enhanced feeding model, which incorporates alternative, locally available, and cost-effective feed ingredients (such as white corn and carrot waste) in place of traditional household-based feeding practices, will enhance the growth performance, feed efficiency, carcass characteristics, blood biochemical parameters, and economic efficiency of both Ross 308 broiler and Gimmizah hybrid chickens under small-scale family production systems in rural Egypt. Accordingly, the study aims to evaluate the performance of these broiler and hybrid chicks, focusing on growth, mortality rates, and economic efficiency, while providing evidence-based recommendations for improving the sustainability and resilience of small-scale poultry production. The findings are expected to contribute to enhancing food security and livelihoods in rural communities through sustainable and practical poultry production practices.

Materials and methods

Ethical approval

Following the protocols set by the Agriculture Research Center, Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation, Giza, Egypt, the ethical statement for each treated chicken as part of the project with Ethical No. ARC RCFF 51 25 was carried out.

Experimental design, housing, and management

The trial was undertaken in the Al-Sharqia province, Egypt, during summer season. targeting households under the family small-scale production system that raised broiler and hybrid chicks. The inquiry into the topic was split into two studies: the first study focused on households that raised broiler breed (Ross 308), and the second study focused on households that raised hybrid chicks. The common broiler breed and hybrid strain kept in the study areas were the Ross 308 broiler breed and the Gimmizah hybrid strain. The Gimmizah is a chicken breed that was developed at El-Gimmizah Poultry Research station, Ministry of Agriculture, Gharbia, Egypt. The White Plymouth Rock and Dokki 4 were used to develop this breed through a selection and breeding system. This auto-sexed breed has body form and plumage color like the Barred Plymouth Rock. Gimmizah chicks' down is black on the dorsal surface and sides, except for a light grayish white patch on the head, while the ventral surface is creamy white (Mahmoud et al., 1982). Gimmizah chickens are noted for their excellent growth traits compared to other Egyptian strains present in the area, like Sinai. Studies have always shown that they are heavier and exhibit higher weight gain at various ages (Soltan et al., 2021).

A total of 3200 one-day-old chicks from the same local organization were distributed among two studies (Ross 308 broiler breed and the Gimmizah hybrid strain studies). 1600 one-day-old chicks for each study, which were split into two groups of 800 chicks each: The 1st was the control group, which followed traditional feeding practices (traditional nutrition, which relies on certain feed combinations and kitchen waste), whereas the 2nd group followed the enhanced feeding model (in the first study the Ross 308 chicks were fed a diet after the replacement of 45 % yellow corn with 30 % white corn and 15 % carrot waste using a premix without vitamins. In the second study the Gimmizah hybrid strain were fed a diet after the replacement of 60 % yellow corn with 40 % white corn and 20 % carrot waste using a premix without vitamins). Eight households (as eight replicates) made up the first group, which served as a control group and raised 100 chicks each using traditional feeding practices. The second group also included eight households (eight replicates), all of which used the enhanced feeding model and raised 100 chicks at each household.

Birds in both studies, including broiler and hybrid chicks, were housed in an indoor room (5 × 3 m) with windows (1.5 × 1 m) on a sawdust floor. The birds were provided with a 24-hour lighting program for the first three days, followed by a 23-hour/day and 1-hour dark lighting program until exsanguination time (42 and 70 days of age in Ross 308 (first study) and Gimmizah hybrid (second study), respectively). During the experimental periods, the average THI, air temperature (°C), and relative humidity (%) were recorded 91.27, 38.64°C, and 60.87 (%), respectively. The Temperature-Humidity Index (THI) was determined according to the formula of the National Research Council (1971) and Habeeb et al. (2018): THI = (1.8 × T + 32) (0.55- 0.0055 × RH) × (1.8 × T- 26) where T = air temperature in degrees Celsius and RH= relative humidity in percent. Moreover, all chicks were vaccinated against common diseases following the vaccination program for broiler and hybrid chickens.

Feed ingredients and nutrient composition of the enhanced feeding model diets

Ross 308 broiler breed diets (1st study)

In 1st study, the Ross 308 Chicks were fed a starter diet (22.51 % crude protein and 3047 kcal ME/kg diet) from 1 to 21 days of age, and then the finisher diet (20 % crude protein and 3198 kcal ME/kg diet) from 22 to 42 days of age. The Ross 308 chicks in the enhanced feeding model were fed a diet after the replacement of 45 % yellow corn with 30 % white corn and 15 % carrot waste using a premix without vitamins. A. The composition of the rations used in the enhanced feeding model is presented in Table 1 according to the National Research Council. Diets were designed to meet the nutritional requirements of broiler chicks during the study periods. The diets were created to satisfy the birds' dietary requirements, with a starter diet and a finisher diet. The ingredients used in the diets include yellow corn, white corn, soybean meal, corn gluten meal, carrot waste, vegetable oil, dicalcium phosphate, limestone, vitamin and mineral mixture, salt, L-lysine-HCl, DL-methionine, and choline chloride.

Table 1.

Feed ingredients and nutrient composition of the enhanced feeding model diets during different growth periods.

Ingredients	Broiler diets			Hybrid diets
	Starter 1-21 d	Finisher 22-42 d	Starter 1-21 d	Grower 22-42 d	Finisher 43-70 d
Yellow corn, grains (7.5 % CP)	31.35	34.10	22.80	24.00	24.80
White corn (9.1 % CP)	17.10	18.60	22.80	24.00	24.80
Soybean meal (45.8 % CP)	31.00	25.00	31.00	26.00	25.00
Corn gluten meal (60.8 % CP)	5.00	5.00	5.00	6.00	5.00
Carrot waste	8.55	9.30	11.40	12.00	12.40
Vegetable oil	3.02	4.44	3.06	4.04	4.48
Dicalcium phosphate	1.61	1.61	1.57	1.79	1.57
Limestone	0.81	0.56	0.80	0.54	0.55
Vit.&min. Mixture free vit. A1	0.40	0.40	0.40	0.40	0.40
Salt	0.40	0.40	0.40	0.40	0.40
L-lysine-HCl	0.42	0.32	0.43	0.50	0.33
DL-Methionine	0.27	0.20	0.27	0.26	0.20
Choline chloride	0.08	0.08	0.08	0.08	0.08
Total	100	100	100	100	100
Calculated values
Crude protein (CP)	22.51	20.00	22.62	21.27	19.15
Metabolizable energy (ME) (KCal/kg)	3047	3198	3040	3155	3190
Lysine	1.36	1.13	1.36	1.30	1.13
Methionine	0.63	0.53	0.63	0.60	0.53
Methionine + Cystine	0.96	0.85	0.96	0.94	0.85
Calcium	0.45	0.44	0.45	0.90	0.44
Available P	0.71	0.85	0.71	0.48	0.85
Vit. A (µg/100 g)	723.76	787.25	949.88	999.87	1033.20

¹Vitamin-mineral mixture supplied per kg of diet: Vit. (D3), 2000 I.U; Vit. (E), 10 mg; VIT. (K3), 2 mg; Vit. (B1), 1 mg; Vit. (B2), 5 mg; Vit. (B6), 1.5 mg; Vit. (B12), 10 µg; Biotin, 50 µg; Pantothenic acid, 10 mg; Niacin, 30 mg; Folic acid, 1 mg; Manganese, 60 mg; Zinc, 50 mg; Iron, 30 mg; Copper, 10 mg; Iodine, 1 mg; Selenium, 0.1 mg; and Cobalt, 0.1 mg.

The calculated analysis of the diets shows that the starter diet contains 22.51 % crude protein (CP), 3047 kcal/kg of metabolizable energy (ME), 1.36 % lysine, 0.63 % methionine, and 0.96 % methionine + cystine. The finisher diet contains 20.00 % CP, 3198 kcal/kg of ME, 1.13 % lysine, 0.53 % methionine, and 0.85 % methionine + cystine. The vitamin and mineral mixture used in the diets is free of vitamin A but contains other essential vitamins and minerals such as vitamin D3, vitamin E, vitamin K3, vitamin B1, vitamin B2, vitamin B6, vitamin B12, biotin, pantothenic acid, niacin, folic acid, manganese, zinc, iron, copper, iodine, selenium, and cobalt. It's worth noting that the diets were formulated to replace 45 % of the yellow corn with 30 % white corn and 15 % carrot waste, which is a unique feature of the enhanced feeding model. Using carrot waste as a feed ingredient is an innovative approach to reducing waste and promoting sustainability in poultry production.

Gimmizah hybrid strain diets (2nd study)

In 2nd study Gimmizah hybrid Chicks were fed a starter diet (22.62 % crude protein and 3040 kcal ME/kg diet) from 1 to 21 days of age, grower diet (21.27 % crude protein and 3155 kcal ME/kg diet) from 22 to 42 days of age, and then finisher diet (19.15 % crude protein and 3190 kcal ME/kg diet) from 43 to 70 days of age, as shown in Table 1. The Gimmizah hybrid chicks in the enhanced feeding model were fed a diet after the replacement of 60 % yellow corn with 40 % white corn and 20 % carrot waste using a premix without vitamins. A. The starter diet (1-21 days) contained 22.80 % yellow corn, 22.80 % white corn, 11.40 % carrot waste, 31 % soybean meal, 5 % corn gluten meal, and various additives, providing 22.62 % crude protein and 3040 kcal/kg metabolizable energy. The grower diet (22-42 days) contained 24 % yellow corn, 24 % white corn, 12 % carrot waste, 26 % soybean meal, 6 % corn gluten meal, and various additives, providing 21.27 % crude protein and 3155 kcal/kg metabolizable energy.

Also, the finisher diet (43-70 days) contained similar ingredients in different proportions, providing 19.15 % crude protein and 3190 kcal/kg metabolizable energy. Both diets were supplemented with essential amino acids and a comprehensive vitamin-mineral mixture to meet nutritional requirements.

Traits evaluated

Productive performance and relative organ weights

Body weight (BW), body weight gain (BWG), feed intake (FI), and the mortality rate of broilers were recorded weekly for each group during all periods of growth. The feed conversion ratio (FCR) was calculated by dividing feed intake by body weight gain and index of productivity as production number, which equals (kilograms of growth per day x (100 – mortality%) / FCR) x 100 (Timmerman et al., 2006). At 42 days of age for Ross 308 study and 70 days of age for Gimmizah hybrid chicks’ study (as common practices in small-scale family production system), 24 chicks were randomly selected from each group in Ross 308 and Gimmizah hybrid chicks’ studies (3 chicks from each household), weighed, exsanguinated according to Islamic guidelines, blood filtered, feathered, and then eviscerated. The carcass, liver, gizzard, heart, giblets, total edible parts, and abdominal fat were weighed (Arisha et al., 2024; Abd El-Aziz et al., 2025).

Blood biochemical

The blood samples were taken from the chicks of each group at 41 and 69 days of age, for blood samples were collected from the wing vein of 24 chicks individuals of each group from each study in Ross 308 and Gimmizah hybrid chicks studies (3 chicks from each household), into 2 ml sterile vials and allowed to clot for 4 hours followed by serum separation using a centrifuge (10 minutes, 2000 rpm) before being stored at −20°C for later analysis. Serum measurements were made using commercially available kits (Biosystem S.A., Costa Brava, 30, Barcelona, Spain) following the manufacturer’s instructions. Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) as indicators of liver function, urea and creatinine as signs of kidney function, as well as cholesterol and triglycerides, were measured. Also, at the same time, other blood samples were aliquoted into 2 ml sterile vials with anti-coagulant and centrifuged for 10 min at 4000 rpm to measure hematological parameters including Hemoglobin content (Hgb), red blood cell count (RBCs), and white blood cells (WBCs) according to Sysmex software of automated hematology analyzer for animal, XT-2000iV analyzer (software version, 00-11, Sysmex, Kobe, Japan) (Youssef et al., 2023a,b).

Gross margin and benefit-cost ratio (BCR)

The gross margin and benefit-cost ratio were used to determine broiler production performance. First, the total variable cost/chick/production period (42 and 70 days for Ross 308 and Gimmizah hybrid chicks’ studies, respectively) was calculated as a sum of chick price, vaccine, medicine, electricity, and feed costs. Second, meat revenues for chicken’s live body weight at 42 and 70 days old (marketing or selling age) were used to calculate the benefits/chick/period (42 and 70 days). Third, gross margin was calculated by the formula: gross margin = total variable cost-benefit. Finally, the BCR was calculated using the formula: BCR = benefit/cost (Gittinger, 1982).

Statistical analysis

The paired samples t-test was used to compare the means of the collected data in the traditional and enhanced feeding model in two studies by SAS software (SAS, 2014). The fixed effects model used in the investigation was

$$Y_{ij}=\mu +M_i+{\epsilon }_{ij}$$

Where Y_ij is the value of the corresponding variable, μ is the overall mean of the corresponding variable, and M_i is the effect caused by the i^th feeding models where i = 1 and 2 (1 = traditional feeding practices, and 2 = Enhanced feeding model), and ε_ij is a random error related to the ij^th observation and is presumed to be independently and normally distributed. The significance difference (P ≤ 0.05).

Results

First study (Ross 308 broiler breed)

The production performance of Ross 308 boiler breeds under Egyptian rural family small-scale in Al-Sharqia province was compared between traditional and enhanced feeding models. The results are presented in Table 2. The initial body weight was similar between the two practices, averaging 42.26 g and 42.50 g for the traditional and enhanced feeding model, respectively. However, the final BW was significantly higher (+42.24 %) in the enhanced feeding model, averaging 2500.27 g compared to 1700.92 g in the traditional feeding practice. The daily increase in BW, total BWG, and production number were also significantly higher (+48.18, +48.14, and +402.41 %, respectively), in the enhanced feeding model, with averages of 54.62 g, 2457.77 g, and 245.83, respectively, compared to 36.86 g, 1658.66 g, and 48.93 in traditional feeding practice.

Table 2.

Production performance of Ross 308 and Gimmizah hybrid chicks under rural family small-scale in Al-Sharqia province, Egypt.

Production performance	Traditional feeding practices	Enhanced feeding model	Difference	Change (%)	SEM	P-value
Ross 308
Initial body weight (g)	42.26	42.50	0.24	0.57	0.29	0.8199Ns
Final body weight (g)	1700.92	2500.27	719.35	42.29	19.35	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Daily body weight gain (g)	36.86	54.62	17.76	48.18	2.65	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Total body weight gain (g)	1658.66	2457.77	799.11	48.18	18.19	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Daily feed intake (g)	213.56	119.59	−93.97	−44.00	4.11	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Total feed intake (g)	9610.32	5381.76	−4228.56	−44.00	35.34	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Total FCR	5.65	2.19	−3.46	−61.24	0.02	0.0121⁎⁎
Mortality rate/period (%)	25	8	−17	−68.00	1.05	0.0100⁎⁎
Production Number	48.93	245.83	196.90	402.41	6.32	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Gimmizah hybrid
Initial body weight (g)	38.10	38.80	0.70	1.84	0.05	0.7989Ns
Final body weight at 70 days (g)	2178.12	2710.97	532.85	24.46	8.56	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Daily body weight gain (g)	30.57	38.17	7.60	24.86	1.65	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Total body weight gain (g)	2140.02	2672.17	532.15	24.87	11.32	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Daily feed intake (g)	166.55	101.43	−65.12	−39.10	1.81	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Total feed intake (g)	11658.34	7100.14	−4558.20	−39.10	7.25	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Total FCR	5.45	2.66	−2.79	−51.19	0.01	0.0001⁎⁎⁎
Mortality rate/period (%)	17.00	6.00	−11.00	−64.71	0.92	0.0190⁎⁎
Production Number	72.45	210.08	137.62	189.95	1.87	<.0001⁎⁎⁎

Significantly different (Ns=non-significant, *=p < 0.05, **=p < 0.01, and ***=p < 0.001).

In addition, the daily and total FI were significantly lower (−44 %) in the enhanced feeding model, with averages of 119.59 g and 5381.76 g, respectively, compared to 213.56 g and 9610.32 g in the traditional feeding practice. The FCR was improved, and the total FCR was lower (−61.24 %) in the enhanced feeding model, with an average of 2.19 compared to 5.65 in the traditional feeding practice. The mortality rate was lower (−68 %) in the enhanced feeding model, with an average of 8 % compared to 25 % in the traditional feeding practice.

The carcass parameters of Ross 308 broiler breeds under Egyptian rural family small-scale in Al-Sharqia province were compared between traditional and the enhanced feeding models. The results are presented in Table 3. The carcass weight was significantly higher (+67.68 %) in the enhanced feeding model, with an average of 1805.95 g compared to 1077.02 g in the traditional feeding practice. The liver weight, gizzard weight, heart weight, and giblet weight were also significantly higher (+68.35, +77.23, +78.44, and +73.41 %, respectively) in the enhanced feeding model, with averages of 40.27 g, 40.09 g, 11.92 g, and 92.28 g, respectively, compared to 23.92 g, 22.62 g, 6.68 g, and 53.22 g in traditional feeding practice. The total edible parts weight was significantly higher (+67.95 %) in the enhanced feeding model, with an average of 1898.23 g compared to 1130.24 g in traditional feeding practice. However, the abdominal fat weight was significantly lower (−77.96 %) in the enhanced feeding model, with an average of 10.66 g compared to 48.36 g in the traditional feeding practice.

Table 3.

Carcass parameters of Ross 308 and Gimmizah hybrid chicks under rural family small-scale in Al-Sharqia province, Egypt.

Carcass traits	Traditional feeding practices	Enhanced feeding model	Difference	Change (%)	SEM	P-value
Ross 308
Carcass weight (g)	1077.02	1805.95	728.92	67.68	4.65	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Liver weight (g)	23.92	40.27	16.35	68.35	1.02	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Gizzard weight (g)	22.62	40.09	17.47	77.23	1.34	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Heart weight (g)	6.68	11.92	5.24	78.44	2.11	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Giblets weight (g)	53.22	92.28	39.07	73.41	1.76	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Total edible parts weight (g)	1130.24	1898.23	767.99	67.95	7.03	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Abdominal fat weight (g)	48.36	10.66	−37.70	−77.96	0.95	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Gimmizah hybrid
Carcass weight (g)	1357.40	1958.13	600.73	44.26	6.15	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Liver weight (g)	30.15	43.67	13.52	44.84	0.97	0.0001⁎⁎⁎
Gizzard weight (g)	28.51	43.47	14.97	52.51	1.24	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Heart weight (g)	8.42	12.92	4.51	53.56	1.11	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Giblets weight (g)	67.07	100.06	32.99	49.19	1.32	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Total edible parts weight (g)	1424.47	2058.19	633.72	44.49	5.22	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Abdominal fat weight (g)	46.29	10.77	−35.52	−76.73	0.52	<.0001⁎⁎⁎

Significantly different (***=p < 0.001).

The Blood constituents of Ross 308 broiler breed on small rural farms in Al-Sharqia province of Egypt were compared between traditional and the enhanced feeding models. The results are presented in Table 4. The Cholesterol, Triglycerides, Urea, and Creatinine were significantly lower (−15.99, −22.26, −24.68, and −24.15 %, respectively) in the enhanced feeding model, with averages of 117.73, 98.87, 311.24 and 57.67 (mg/dl), respectively, compared to 140.13, 127.18, 413.00 and 76.00 (mg/dl) in the traditional feeding practice, the Haemoglobin was improved (+13.40 %) in the enhanced feeding model, with an average of 9.56 % compared to 8.43 % in the traditional feeding practice, as well as the as indicators of liver function, AST was improved (+4.02 %) in the enhanced feeding model compared to the traditional feeding practice Furthermore, there was no statistically significant difference in the percentage of ALT.

Table 4.

Blood serum constituents of Ross 308 and Gimmizah hybrid chicks under rural family small-scale in Al-Sharqia province, Egypt.

Blood serum constituents	Traditional feeding practices	Enhanced feeding model	Difference	Change (%)	SEM	P-value
Ross 308
Cholesterol (mg/dl)	140.13	117.73	−22.4	−15.99	0.35	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Triglycerides (mg/dL)	127.18	98.87	−28.31	−22.26	0.12	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Urea (mg/dl)	413.22	311.24	−101.98	−24.68	1.63	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Creatinine (mg/dl)	76.03	57.67	−18.36	−24.15	0.55	0.0105⁎⁎
AST (U/L)	4.23	4.06	−0.17	−4.02	0.01	0.0335*
ALT (U/L)	0.30	0.30	0	0	0.01	0.8825Ns
Hgb (%)	8.43	9.56	1.13	13.40	0.02	0.0432*
RBCs (Cells/µL)	2.88	2.54	−0.34	−11.81	0.01	0.4406Ns
WBCs (19-30×103/mm3)	28.76	22.84	−5.92	−20.58	0.27	0.0187⁎⁎
Gimmizah hybrid
Cholesterol (mg/dl)	158.64	122.86	−35.78	−22.55	0.22	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Triglycerides (mg/dL)	128.50	94.80	−33.70	−26.23	1.02	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Urea (mg/dl)	416.80	342.64	−74.16	−17.79	1.70	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Creatinine (mg/dl)	75.80	56.32	−19.48	−25.70	0.34	0.0190⁎⁎
AST (U/L)	4.36	3.78	−0.58	−13.30	0.01	0.0554*
ALT (U/L)	0.28	0.30	0.02	7.14	0.01	0.2896Ns
Hgb (%)	8.80	9.88	1.08	12.27	0.01	0.0407*
RBCs (Cells/µL)	2.46	2.39	−0.07	−2.85	0.01	0.9235Ns
WBCs (19-30×103/mm3)	28.25	24.88	−3.37	−11.93	0.03	0.0372*

Significantly different (Ns=non-significant,.

^⁎=p < 0.05,.

^⁎⁎=p < 0.01, and.

^⁎⁎⁎=p < 0.001).

AST: Aspartate transaminase, ALT: Alanine aminotransferase, Hgb=Hemoglobin, RBCs=Red blood cells, WBCs=White blood cells, and SEM: Standard error of the means.

The economic efficiency of Ross 308 broiler breeds under Egyptian rural family small-scale in Al-Sharqia province was compared between traditional and the enhanced feeding models. The results are presented in Table 5. For the Ross 308 breed, the variable costs were higher (+7.12 %) in the enhanced feeding model, with an average of 139.73 LE per chick/period compared to 130.44 LE in the traditional feeding practice. The total feed cost was significantly higher (+2.67 %) in the enhanced feeding model, with an average of 118.40 LE compared to 115.32 LE in the traditional feeding practice. However, the benefit from meat revenues was significantly higher (+46.99 %) in the enhanced feeding model, with an average of 212.52 LE compared to 144.58 LE in traditional feeding practice. As a result, the gross margin and benefit-cost ratio (BCR) were significantly higher (+415.15 and +36.94 %, respectively) in the enhanced feeding model, with averages of 72.79 LE and 1.52, respectively, compared to 14.13 LE and 1.11 in the traditional feeding practice.

Table 5.

Economic efficiency of Ross 308 and Gimmizah hybrid chicks under rural family small-scale in Al-Sharqia province, Egypt/chick/period (LE).

Economic efficiency (LE)	Traditional feeding Practices	Enhanced feeding model	Difference	Change (%)	SEM	P-value
Ross 308
Variable cost
Chick price	13	13	0	0	0.04	1.0000Ns
Total feed cost	115.32	118.40	3.08	2.67	1.11	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Litter cost	0.12	0.33	0.21	175.00	0.01	0.0411*
Veterinary cost	1	6	5	500.00	0.12	0.0242*
Water and electricity cost	1	2	1	100.00	0.19	0.0221*
Total variable cost	130.44	139.73	9.29	7.12	0.01	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Benefit
Meat revenues	144.58	212.52	67.94	46.99	1.12	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Economic efficiency
Gross margin1	14.13	72.79	58.66	415.15	0.11	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
BCR2	1.11	1.52	0.41	36.94	0.04	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Gimmizah hybrid
Variable cost
Chick price	11.50	11.50	0	0	0.11	1.0000Ns
Total feed cost	139.90	156.20	16.30	11.65	2.97	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Litter cost	0.12	0.33	0.21	175.00	0.02	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Veterinary cost	1	5	4	400.00	0.44	<.0001⁎⁎⁎
Water and electricity cost	1	2	1	100.00	0.15	0.0286*
Total variable cost	153.52	175.03	21.51	14.01	2.43	0.0004⁎⁎⁎
Benefit
Meat revenues	206.92	284.65	77.73	37.57	3.12	0.0154⁎⁎
Economic efficiency
Gross margin1	53.40	109.62	56.22	105.28	2.98	0.0210*
BCR2	1.35	1.63	0.28	20.74	0.01	0.0233*

¹Gross margin = total variable cost-Benefit, and.

²BCR=Benefit cost ratio (Benefit/Cost).

Significantly different (Ns=non-significant,.

^⁎=p < 0.05,.

^⁎⁎=p < 0.01, and.

^⁎⁎⁎=p < 0.001).

Second study (Gimmizah hybrid strain)

Production performance data (Table 2) revealed significant improvements with the enhanced feeding model for the Gimmizah hybrid. The improvements were observed for the Gimmizah hybrid, with final body weight increasing from 2178.12 g to 2710.97 g (+24.46 %), daily BWG improving from 30.57 g to 38.17 g (+24.86 %), and FCR improving from 5.45 to 2.66 (−51.19 %). Mortality rates decreased from 17 % to 6 % (−64.71 %), and the production number increased from 72.45 to 210.08 (+189.95 %).

Moreover, the daily and total FI were significantly lower in the enhanced feeding model, with averages of 101.43 g and 7100.14 g, respectively, compared to 166.55 g and 11658.34 g (−39.10 %) in the traditional feeding practice. The carcass parameters (Table 3) showed significant improvements with the enhanced feeding model for Gimmizah hybrids. For the Gimmizah hybrid, carcass weight increased from 1357.40 g to 1958.13 g (+44.26 %), giblets weight increased from 67.07 g to 100.06 g (+49.19 %), total edible parts increased from 1424.47 g to 2058.19 g (+44.49 %), and abdominal fat decreased from 46.29 g to 10.77 g (−76.73 %).

The Blood constituents of Gimmizah hybrid chicks on small rural farms in Al-Sharqia province of Egypt were compared between traditional and the enhanced feeding models. The results are presented in Table 4. The Cholesterol, Triglycerides, Urea, and Creatinine were significantly lower (−22.55, −26.23, −17.79, and −25.70 %, respectively), in the enhanced feeding model, with averages of 122.86, 94.80, 342.64 and 56.32 (mg/dl), respectively, compared to 158.64, 128.50, 416.80 and 75.80 (mg/dl) in the traditional feeding practice, the Haemoglobin was improved in the enhanced feeding model, with an average of 9.88 % compared to 8.80 % (+12.27 %) in the traditional feeding practice, as well as the as indicators of liver function, AST was improved (+13.30 %) in the enhanced feeding model compared to the traditional feeding practice Furthermore, there was no statistically significant difference in the percentage of ALT.

Economic analysis (Table 5) demonstrated improved efficiency with the enhanced feeding model for the Gimmizah hybrid. For the Gimmizah hybrid, total variable costs increased from 153.52 LE to 175.03 LE (+14.01 %), but meat revenues increased from 206.92 LE to 284.65 LE (+37.57 %), resulting in a higher gross margin of 109.62 LE compared to 53.40 LE (+105.28 %). The benefit-cost ratio improved from 1.35 to 1.63 (+20.74 %).

Discussion

The results of this study showed that the enhanced feeding model has a significant impact on the productive performance, carcass parameters, and economic efficiency of Ross 308 and Gimmizah hybrid chicks under the conditions of small-scale Egyptian rural households. The enhanced feeding model resulted in an improved growth rate, FCR, and mortality rate for both breeds. According to the current study, broiler diets that partially substituted white corn and carrot waste for yellow corn enhanced the growth performance, carcass yield, and blood biochemical parameters of Ross 308 and Gimmizah hybrid chicks. In addition to meeting the nutritional needs of broilers, the improved feeding model, which substituted 30 % white corn and 15 % carrot waste for 45 % of yellow corn, offered practical advantages over traditional feed ingredients. Because of its high starch content, palatability, and comparatively stable nutrient composition, yellow corn has long been the main energy source in poultry diets. However, there are drawbacks to depending only on one grain source, such as unstable prices, limited supply, and issues with the sustainable use of feed resources (Kaul et al., 2019). A partial substitution of white corn maintains growth performance while lowering reliance on yellow corn by offering a different cereal grain with similar metabolizable energy values (Salim et al., 2010). Although white corn lacks important carotenoid pigments like xanthophylls, which give broiler skin and shanks their distinctive yellow coloration, it is nutritionally comparable to yellow corn in terms of crude protein and metabolizable energy. White corn has the benefit of being widely available in some areas and frequently at a lower cost, even though pigmentation differences may influence consumer preferences in particular markets. Therefore, adding it can lower feed costs without sacrificing the vital nutrient balance needed for broiler growth and productivity (Moyo et al., 2022).

The presence of bioactive compounds in carrots and the balanced nutrient profile of the prepared diets may be the cause of the improved growth performance in birds fed carrot waste. The β-carotene, dietary fiber, and phenolic compounds found in carrot residues may improve nutrient utilization as well as promote antioxidant defense mechanisms (Ikram et al., 2024). Specifically, β-carotene is a precursor of vitamin A, which is necessary for immunological function, growth, and epithelial integrity (Beer et al., 2024). The carotenoid content of carrot waste probably made up for the lack of vitamin A in the vitamin premix used in this study, which explains the positive effects seen on performance and health indicators. Better nutrient absorption and protein accretion made possible by the addition of carrot waste may be the cause of the beneficial effects on carcass characteristics. Broilers fed the improved diet showed improved muscle yields in the breast and thighs, indicating that the dietary change encouraged effective protein and energy metabolism. Furthermore, by promoting the growth of beneficial microbiota and improving digestive efficiency, the fiber fraction of carrot residues may have improved gut health (Mall and Patel, 2024). These findings are consistent with previous studies that have shown that improved management practices can lead to better growth performance and reduced mortality rates in broilers (Wilson et al., 2022; Mramba and Mwantambo, 2024).

Chicken production in developing countries is affected by a lack of knowledge of poultry management among farmers (Meskerem, 2017). Most farmers rely on information from family, friends, neighbors, and experience Msoffe and Ngulube, 2016, leading to inadequate knowledge and increased chicken diseases. A study by Mramba and Mwantambo (2024) revealed that the main type of information needed by smallholder farmers was on chicken disease management, highlighting the importance of extension services for poultry farmers. Since poultry production is mainly managed by smallholder farmers, knowledge of poultry disease management, nutrition, and housing is crucial to improving production (Mramba and Mwantambo, 2024). Also, El-Menawey and Hamouda (2018) found that the adoption of management intervention packages resulted in lower mortality and increased productive performance compared to non-adopting groups in Egyptian villages. They attributed this to farmers not benefiting from advances in technology and lacking access to important inputs, such as commercial feeds, high-quality breeds, and extension services.

The carcass parameters of the broilers were also significantly affected by the enhanced feeding model. The results show that the enhanced feeding model resulted in increased carcass weight, liver weight, gizzard weight, heart weight, and giblets weight, and decreased abdominal fat weight for both breeds. These findings are consistent with previous studies that have shown that improved nutrition and management practices can lead to better carcass quality and yield in broilers (Thema et al., 2022). In addition to slowing the growth of broilers, poor quality feed can also lead to feed-related diseases, increased mortality rates, increased average production costs, and ultimately reduced profit margins (Adeyonu and Odozi, 2022). The results of this study show that the enhanced feeding model had a significant impact on production performance. The results of Ali and Hossain (2010) observed that farmers who used management interventions such as chick separation and balanced chick feeding rations increased their household income and chicken profitability.

The positive effects of supplementing carrot waste were also evident in blood biochemical parameters. Healthy blood lipid profiles and metabolic activity indicators suggest that the presence of natural antioxidants and carotenoids may have enhanced lipid metabolism and decreased oxidative stress. This implies that broiler productivity and health may be supported by the protective physiological effect of carrot waste (Malav et al., 2025). From a sustainability standpoint, feeding leftover carrots to chickens is a sensible way to lower feed expenses and lessen the buildup of agricultural waste. The results demonstrate how agro-industrial residues can be incorporated into broiler feeding systems without sacrificing adequate nutrition. By turning waste materials into feed resources with added value, such practices are in line with the principles of the circular economy (Malenica et al., 2022). Supplementation of poultry feed with agro-industrial byproducts, such as carrot waste, has been found to have positive impacts on blood biochemical parameters, reflecting enhanced metabolic health and nutrition status. Carrot waste, rich in carotenoids like β-carotene, dietary fiber, and phenolic compounds, was associated with greater nutrient use and antioxidant protection in broilers. Specifically, β-carotene is a vitamin A precursor important for immune function, growth, and integrity of epithelial tissues. The carotenoid content of carrot byproducts can compensate for vitamin A shortages in vitamin premixes and thus support enhanced performance and health indicators (Ikram et al., 2024). Moreover, the fiber content of carrot residues may promote enhanced intestinal health through beneficial microbiota development stimulation and enhanced digestive efficiency. These effects contribute to improved biochemical parameters in the blood, including lipid profiles and markers of metabolic activity, that show carotenoids and natural antioxidants in carrot waste help lipid metabolism and counteract oxidative stress in broiler chickens (Pop et al., 2021).

The economic efficiency of broiler production was also significantly affected by the enhanced feeding model. The results show that the enhanced feeding model increased the gross margin and benefit-cost ratio (BCR) for both breeds. These findings are consistent with previous studies that have shown that improved feeding practices can lead to better economic efficiency and profitability in broiler production (Fouda et al., 2017; Das et al., 2024).

In addition, El-Menawey and Hamouda (2018) found that total variable costs and total revenue per bird per year are higher in adoption groups than in non-adoption groups. Also, Abdel-Aziz et al. (2013) study in Egypt on family poultry production systems mentioned that the total variable costs per bird per year and total revenues are higher in the medium-scale (enhanced feeding practices) than in the small-scale (scavenging system) family chicken production system.

Overall, the results of this study suggest that the enhanced feeding model can improve the production performance, carcass parameters, and economic efficiency of Ross 308 and Gimmizah hybrid chicks under Egyptian rural family small-scale conditions. These findings have important implications for the development of sustainable and profitable broiler production systems in Egypt and other developing countries. The results of this study also highlight the importance of considering the economic efficiency of broiler production when developing feeding strategies. The enhanced feeding model used in this study was designed to improve the economic efficiency of broiler production, and the results show that it was successful in doing so. The use of improved management practices, such as better nutrition, can help to improve the economic efficiency of broiler production by reducing the cost of production and increasing the revenue generated.

Conclusion

The results of this study indicate that, in small-scale rural families in Egypt, the enhanced feeding model had significantly impacted the Ross 308 and Gimmizah hybrid chickens improved production performance, growth rate, feed conversion ratio, mortality rate, carcass parameters, and economic efficiency. The results have important implications for the developing of sustainable and profitable broiler production systems in Egypt considering the consequences of climate change, particularly the country's hot summers.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported and funded by the Deanship of Scientific Research at Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU) (grant number IMSIU-DDRSP-RP25).

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Reda E. Hamouda: Writing – original draft, Project administration, Investigation, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. Islam M. Youssef: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Resources, Methodology, Data curation. Hassan B. Gharib: Investigation, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. Mohamed A. El-Menawey: Investigation, Formal analysis, Writing – review & editing. Mai A.M. Youssif: Writing – original draft, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. Moustafa A. Osman: Writing – original draft, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. Yasser A. Abdel-Aziz: Investigation, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. Hassan A. Rudayni: Resources, Data curation, Formal analysis, Writing – review & editing. Ahmed A. Allam: Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Abdullah S. Alawam: Supervision, Project administration, Funding acquisition. Asmaa F. Khafaga: Resources, Formal analysis, Writing – review & editing. Mohamed E. Abd El-Hack: Data curation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Amal A. Abdel-Halim: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Project administration.

Disclosures

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability

Data will be made available on request.