Forensic science or sciences? The recognition as an independent science and redefinition of expert practices based on transdisciplinary

Abstract

Forensic science explores scientific knowledge to clarify legal and legal issues. Since I started in this area of knowledge in mid-2007, my priority has been to create a centre of reference and excellence that would advance forensic science, an area sometimes based on self-taught practices. Along this pathway, I always considered that we were dealing with an articulated set of “Forensic Sciences” and not with a single “Forensic Science”, but I was, at least partially, wrong! This work discusses the competencies of the different forensic subspecialties, seeking to be the starting point for reformulating forensic teaching, research, and public and private forensic activity. It also highlights the concern of offering a certain level of professionalization to forensic science. For this reflection, it was important to follow a path that had its foundations in the study of the historical roots of forensic science, namely the first Portuguese forensic case, to study the revolutionary scientific contribution triggered by the “CSI effect”, to understand in depth the competencies of each of the forensic subspecialties and bring this knowledge to specialized pre- and postgraduate training, to promote innovation through peer review of empirical forensic practices to increase the scientific evidence, the development of certification mechanisms for forensic experts and their respective code of ethics, and to open the doors for artificial intelligence to assist the courts and the opportunity that forensic science represents in the development of other areas of health sciences, life, and social behaviour. Thus, it was born, very unconsciously, a scientific project for the transdisciplinary reformulation of forensic activity, but over time, it allowed me to realize that we can have specialists trained in all its dimensions and plenitude. The pillars for the modernization of this science and, ultimately, the law, which, together with education and health, are the three main pillars of society. Not punishing innocent people, leaving criminals unharmed through scientific evidence, seeking justice, and repairing the damage is the supreme spirit of Forensic Science. Our One Forensics model is now being considered to be implemented by other countries.

Introduction

Forensic science is based on the complex exercise of various disciplines, namely, chemical, biological, physical, and social sciences, and behaviour, that offer scientific solutions for re-establishing fundamental rights, such as justice [1, 2]. One of the most distinctive aspects distinguishing Forensic Science from other sciences is respecting the “chain of custody” when handling evidence. The concept of “Forensic Science” has been subject to various interpretations by different authors, particularly due to the influence of the judicial system of each region or country. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term “forensic” comes from the Latin word forēnsis (meaning market or forum) [3]. Originally, it was used to characterize areas/forums in ancient Rome where the Senate met to debate business, public, and governmental affairs and where trials were held. The accused and the accuser presented their considerations, and the one with the best argument won [3, 4].

After its first appearance in the English vocabulary in 1659, its modern use of the word “forensic” was gradually limited to the field of criminal investigation. Therefore, many people consider forensic sciences to be sciences of the forum or of law, especially criminal law, leading to the idea that forensic science and crime go hand in hand; this is not necessarily the case since today we speak, in a broad sense, of the application of science to questions of law [1, 2, 4]. In turn, the word “science” refers to the set of systematized methodologies used to understand the physical world and to predict future occurrences. In English, the word “science” from the Latin word scientia, meaning knowledge, learning, expertise, or experience [5, 6]. Among the many distinguished figures that I could mention in Forensic Science, perhaps the best known in the modern era is Edmond Locard (1877–1966; Figure 1), who enunciated the “Locard Exchange Principle” and his conviction that each contact always leaves a trace.

Figure 1.

Edmond Locard (1877–1966) is considered by many to be the pioneer of modern Forensic Science.

Currently, in Forensic Sciences (plural), we follow a multidisciplinary approach, probably due to the technical inability of its specialists to see “the whole”. In other words, with this approach to the problem, we cannot achieve the “spirit” and intellectual judgement expected from forensic expertise. It is, therefore, necessary to change the paradigm and explore transdisciplinary as a pillar for reformulating forensic activity and elevating Forensic Science to the status of science in its own right. This work precisely portrays this path taken, always supported by a group of noble professionals who, alongside me, walked this Mission of scientificizing Forensic Science, combating the perpetuation of the idea that the area of knowledge lives in the shadow of other scientific fields. It was a trajectory based on several pillars such as the: (i) study of the historical roots of forensic science, namely, the first Portuguese forensic case; (ii) evaluation of the (revolutionary) scientific contribution triggered by the “CSI effect”; (iii) an in-depth understanding of the skills of each of the forensic subspecialties and bringing this knowledge to pre- and postgraduate specialized training; (iv) innovation through peer review of empirical practices with little scientific evidence; (v) development of certification mechanisms for forensic specialists and their respective code of professional ethics; (vi) potential of artificial intelligence in assisting the courts; and (vii) opportunity that forensic science represents for the development of other areas of health, life, and social sciences and behaviour. And so, the foundations for the redefinition of Forensic Science were created. It is worth highlighting that many other emerging areas are gaining ground due to scientific advances, which force forensic specialists to be constantly updated. Despite the enormous diversity of these sciences, they are all united by common and fundamental points, which include the object of their intervention, which essentially falls on the person, as a victim of violence [7].

The birth of forensic science in Portugal: the famous crime of Rua das Flores

The “Rua das Flores Crime” is one of the most famous cases of poisoning that shook all Portuguese public opinion at the end of the 19th century. It demonstrated the weaknesses of forensic expert activity at the time and attested to the importance of toxicological analysis in resolving forensic cases [8–10]. Vicente Urbino de Freitas (1849–1913; Figure 2) was an outstanding doctor from Porto, graduated from the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Coimbra in 1875 and was a professor of Physiology at the Porto Medical-Surgical School, producing notable works on leprosy with several clinical cases showing the success of its therapies (Figure 3).

Figure 2.

Vicente Urbino de Freitas (1849–1913) wearing his Porto Medical-Surgical School costume.

Figure 3.

Vicente Urbino de Freitas and the success of his clinical practice in leprosy therapy.

During Holy Week, in the city of Porto, a mysterious package was delivered to numbers 74–76 of Rua das Flores (home of Vicente Urbino de Freitas’ in-laws) containing almonds and precisely three chocolate cakes, as many as there were children who lived there. Despite their grandmother’s reluctance, the children ate the cakes, and everyone felt sick. Uncle Vicente Urbino de Freitas was soon called, naturally, and he prescribed lemon balm enemas for the children. The eldest, Mário Guilherme Augusto Sampaio, died on 2 April 1890, with spasms and convulsions like his uncle José António de Sampaio Junior, who died 4 months earlier, on 2 January 1890, in the oldest hotel in the city of Porto, Grand Hotel in Paris.

Suspicion of the poisoning fell on Vicente Urbino de Freitas, accused of wanting to remain the sole heir to the fortune of his father-in-law, a rich linen merchant. The toxicological analyses of the corpses and suspected food were at the heart of the matter. Autopsies were carried out on the two victims, and the viscera were subjected to toxicological tests at the Porto Municipal Chemistry Laboratory (Figure 4A). According to the report written by the commission and presented on 7 October 1890, no alkaloids were detected in José’s viscera, a situation attributed to the advanced state of putrefaction but, in Mário’s viscera, the presence of the alkaloids morphine and narceine (both from opium) and possibly delphinine from the Delphinium staphisagria plant. In the collective of experts in toxicology and chemistry, the famous chemist Dr António Joaquim Ferreira da Silva (Figure 4B) played a crucial role. Vicente Urbino de Freitas, by virtue of the ruling of 1 December 1893, by the Criminal Court of São João Novo (Porto), was sentenced to 8 years in prison and exiled for 20 years to Angola for the murder of his nephew Mário.

Figure 4.

Oven and furnace room of elementary organic analyses of the Municipal Chemistry Laboratory of Porto (A) and its director, Dr António Joaquim Ferreira da Silva (B).

In 1913, Vicente Urbino de Freitas returned to Portugal, and, until the end of his life, he fought a legal battle, seeking new evidence that would enable him to obtain a favourable judicial order, but I was never able to obtain a review of the process. Due to the controversy that this major forensic case caused, >130 years later, it continues to generate much investigation and news. The doubt, however, persists, especially from an expert point of view. The truth is that the detection of morphine, and especially narceine and delphinine, seems virtual, given the scientific advances of the time. Vicente Urbino de Freitas died on 23 October 1913, in Lisbon (Figure 5), without ever being able to prove the innocence that he so proclaimed.

Figure 5.

News reporting the death of Vicente Urbino de Freitas in a Brazilian newspaper.

In the last publication on this subject, already in 2021 [8], all forensic evidence was recovered, restored, and analysed, especially the autopsy reports, toxicological analyses, and forensic psychiatric reports, together with a vast and remarkable collection of forensic medicine photographs from the 19th century XIX. More than 130 years later, the victim José António de Sampaio Junior was found preserved in a lead/zinc coffin (Figure 6), and history is being rewritten. . . What were once insurmountable technical difficulties, forensic evolution today offers new solutions for samples in an advanced state of decomposition.

Figure 6.

Exhumation of José António de Sampaio Junior carried out in November 2020.

The “Rua das Flores Crime” was the pillar for the preparation of the first legislative publication, Letter of Law of August 17, 1899 (Figure 7A), and for the creation of the regulations for Medical-Legal Services on November 16, 1899 (Figure 7B).

Figure 7.

Letter of Law of August 17, 1899 (A) and the regulation of Medical-Legal Services on November 16, 1899 (B).

This work began almost 18 years ago and had repercussions worldwide. It was learning how to do research outside of databases like PubMed. But, despite the difficulties, I considered it a civic duty in view of the scientific area I embraced, especially when the forensic case is intertwined with the country’s history. Over time, this project was a source of immense scientific pleasure! On this journey, I came into contact with the great-grandson (João Vidal) of Vicente Urbino de Freitas. He said that in family legends, Vicente Urbino de Freitas has burned all his scientific research, recipes, etc. It was asked about his heritage, to which he replied: “Humanity was so bad to me, and thus I don’t see why I should be good to humanity”.

The birth of the Portuguese Association of Forensic Sciences

In pursuit of modernizing forensic activity in Portugal, the need to create an associative structure concerned with the forensic area became evident. The lack of a Portuguese Association of Forensic Sciences (APCF; www.apcforenses.org) proved the evolutionary delay compared to European counterparts. Founded at the end of January 2015, APCF was created to bring together professionals in the field and fill a huge organizational gap and lack of enthusiasm in forensic science in Portugal. According to its statutes, APCF currently has the following objectives:

• a) The promotion, development, and dissemination of scientific research in the field of forensic science;

• b) The promotion of the professional class of forensic graduates, masters, and doctorates;

• c) Cement the importance of forensic science at national and international levels;

• d) Represent its members before the competent authorities in seeking regulations of their professional activity;

• e) Represent its members in defending their statutory, social, economic, and ethical interests;

• f) Take part in defining the professional status and conditions for carrying out the activity, encouraging and publicizing forensic expertise and its importance;

• g) Integrate study committees with the government to safeguard the importance of the class;

• h) Issue opinions on your expert activity when consulted;

• i) Scientific, pedagogical, and expert collaboration with other public and private institutions.

To achieve its objectives, APCF uses whatever means it deems appropriate and will carry out the necessary and opportune actions, including:

• a) The design and development of scientific projects, alone or in conjunction with other institutions;

• b) Holding congresses, seminars, or other similar activities and encouraging the participation of its members in initiatives of the same type, in Portugal or abroad;

• c) The publication of scientific articles and other dissemination and research works;

• d) Carrying out expertise and consultancy upon request from public or private entities or individuals;

• e) The granting of scholarships, research grants, and scientific awards;

• f) Organize into sections with scientific autonomy.

Under paragraph f, the APCF has already been decisive in defining the competencies expected of specialists in each of the forensic subspecialties (listed below), and in creating a certification and ethical conduct regulation [11, 12].

The “CSI effect”

There is no doubt that the TV series modelled Crime Scene Investigation (CSI) awakened and brought Forensic Science to an unprecedented number of students and practitioners. For example, Portugal has grown more in the last 25 years than in the 100 years of history that preceded them. Nowadays, this area of knowledge is among the most popular sciences, but there is a huge barrier between the fiction and fantasy of the CSI TV series and reality [13]. The truth is that whenever an expert comes into contact with young researchers who want to enter this area of knowledge, they immediately raise questions such as: Does that equipment exist? Is that possible? Is that true? Can results come out so quickly? Are crimes always so violent? The differences are notable, especially in the romanticized and exaggerated way in which forensic evidence is obtained. It is very common to see characters working in the dark to create an atmosphere of drama. . . They travel in helicopters and Hummers, we don’t!!! They interrogate suspects and lead the investigation. . . and suddenly, we have the police forces doing laboratory activity. Although some law enforcement investigators are also registered CSIs, this is extremely rare (or utopian) to encounter in real life, given the complexity and expertise that analysing evidence requires. Additionally, it would be largely inappropriate for forensic experts to be involved in detective work, as this would compromise the impartiality of scientific evidence or be impractically time-consuming. So, in TV series, the results take about 20 s when Windows takes longer to open, but audiences want resolution.

The truth is that the machine for generating revenue and breaking audience records is a rare case of longevity. The CSI series, which premiered on 6 October 2000, in the USA, said goodbye on 27 September 2015 but left a legacy that is unequivocal. . . it sparked interest in this area of knowledge. With audiences of millions of viewers spread across around 200 countries and dozens of TV awards (among them Emmy awards), the CSI series was able to create an empire (which extends to video games) valued at a billion dollars (https://www.csiweb.com/who-we-are/csi-newsroom/csi-q4-fy-2022/), and work is already underway to resume the series soon.

This “CSI effect” precisely portrays a growth in expectations among victims and judicial players in forensic science, especially in crime scene investigation and DNA testing [14]. In other words, the “CSI effect” has changed how many trials are carried out today, where forensic evidence has acquired unprecedented relevance [15, 16]. Shelton et al. [17] found that “CSI-watchers” demonstrated slightly higher expectations for scientific evidence compared to “non-CSI-watchers”. However, these differences were only significant in attempted homicides or crimes involving a gun. Victims and their families now expect instant answers from techniques they saw in the series, such as DNA analysis and fingerprint collection, when actual forensic processing often takes months and without any guarantee of revealing a miracle solution to the case [18]. So real-life forensic experts warn that popular TV shows like CSI greatly distort the nature of crime scene investigators’ work, exaggerating ease, speed, effectiveness, drama, glamour, and influence.

I prefer to see the good side. . . Aside from the commercial dimension, I find enormous advantages, as it is evidenced by the scientific production that resulted from the TV series. The forensic area has grown the most in terms of the number of scientific articles (indexed and in journals with a high impact factor) and the accreditation of various study cycles that have brought academic and scientific expertise to the area. Additionally, real CSI forensic experts responded positively to the program’s influence and now enjoy reputations that benefit their expertise. There is evidence that their salaries have also improved as a result. I cannot, therefore, forget to thank the CSI series and similar ones, as the date of their birth luckily coincides with the opening opportunities for my training in forensics. It was the transition from an area of knowledge with touches of amateurism to its scientificization and the flourishing of multiple subspecialties, as listed below.

Forensic science subspecialties and structuring competencies

As already explained, forensic science currently has as its main objective to support the promotion of justice and the resolution of conflicts, through the production of expert evidence. It should be noted that this desire does not necessarily have to be resolved only through judicial or judicial means, as extrajudicial resolution is often anticipated [2]. But it is also committed to supporting the victim in terms of protection and security; rehabilitation; social and professional reintegration; support for mourning; and the prevention of violence, accidents, and various pathologies such as sudden cardiovascular death [19]. Hence, its role in social terms is increasingly important, with its areas of intervention being very diverse, which, in addition to the expert routine, also extends to scientific research, pedagogical activity, and extension activities. Alongside these objectives, another particularly noble one is the promotion of health. In fact, both the “injustice” of illegitimately subjecting someone to processes of violence (voluntary or involuntary), as well as the fact that justice is not served when it was truly deserved (e.g., lack of evidence), are at the basis of many of current health problems such as pain and occupational pathologies, probably well beyond what scientific research has revealed to us [20–22].

There are currently several different forensic subspecialties, and they continue to flourish, most of them working independently and detached from the forensic spirit [2, 23]. In some cases, we also continue to see the self-proclaimed specialist in a given forensic area, whose existence makes no sense at all but only intends to legitimize the professional to the expert practice, offering a “touch of forensic charm” as well and thereby, some notoriety. It is therefore important to clarify what is expected in terms of objectives and the six major skills expected for the main forensic areas that are already well established (Table 1), which cumulatively can train the specialist in forensic science (and not in forensic sciences). Although obviously fundamental for forensic training, the basic areas of life, health, social, and behavioural sciences were not the focus of this work. Moreover, it also excluded those “added skills” in forensic sciences advocated by some Professional Associations, which, while legitimately valuing professionals in this area, do not grant them the status of a forensic specialist in their entirety. These added skills provide professionals in their respective areas with knowledge, skills, and attitudes that allow them to practice their profession at a level of progressive complexity that they are faced with. Basically, it is about having a “forensic eye” so that nothing is lost regarding the evidence.

Table 1.

The five/six major competencies of the different forensic subspecialties generated with the contribution and approval of PhD professionals in the different subspecialties.

Forensic anthropology

Knowledge of human osteology to identify bones, their structure, and anatomical variations Identification of bone changes associated with pathology or resulting from fractures relevant to the identification process Estimation of biological profile (i.e., sex, age, height, and ancestry) from skeletal findings Identification of antemortem, perimortem, and postmortem injuries, as well as their nature (perforating, blunt, cutting, cutting-blunt, or explosion-caused trauma) in order to assist in determining the circumstances and cause of death Understanding the effect of taphonomic (climate, fauna, flora, soil, etc.) and cultural processes on the decomposition and preservation of human remains

Forensic archaeology

Knowledge of methods for locating human remains [cartography, ground penetrating radar (GPR), drones, search dogs, etc.] Stratigraphic understanding of the terrain and the chronology of objects and evidence, such as human remains Knowledge of protocols for the exhumation of corpses in different scenarios Recovery, transportation, conservation, and registration of human remains Preservation of contextual information and chain of custody

Forensic ballistics

Technical knowledge to identify the different types and mechanical systems of light weapons Ability to correctly identify the manufacturing methods of small arms Knowledge of the physical and chemical foundations for carrying out Forensic Ballistics examinations Training in the identification of different types of ammunition as well as their technical characteristics Technical mastery of firearms safety, regardless of their manufacture and condition

Forensic biomechanics

Ability to perform kinematic and dynamic analyses, analysing the different forms of movement of the different parts of the body (head, trunk, limbs), understanding the forces and reactions that act on them, and interpreting how such forces contribute to injuries in various scenarios. Ability to perform mathematical and statistical analysis of collected data, thus being able to apply mathematical models and statistical methods for data analysis and development of phenomenological predictive models (constitutive models) related to biomechanics Computer simulation and modelling, including experience with 3D modelling software (e.g., finite element method) as well as motion capture technology to recreate accident scenarios and evaluate injury mechanisms (e.g., multi-body method) Knowledge of injury biomechanics, including a detailed understanding of the mechanical response of soft and hard tissues, injury thresholds, and injury mechanisms to assess how specific forces can lead to specific types of injuries Familiarity with the various techniques used in forensic science, including scene reconstruction, data collection methods, and evidence analysis relevant to biomechanics

Forensic botany and palynology

Knowledge about plant diversity and scientific nomenclature Ability to identify plant anatomical and morphological structures Knowledge about plant physiology, ecology, and biodistribution Capacity to recognize samples of plant origin as an important factor in forensic and criminal investigation and evaluation Recognize, identify, and perform different types of analysis (anatomical, morphological, and chemical) on samples of plant origin

Criminology

Know the legal system, and functions of law enforcement and courts Know the etiological–explanatory theories of crime, the methods, and instruments for measuring crime Recognize the dimensions of the object of criminology: the criminal act, its participants, and the reaction to the crime Recognize the main investigation techniques in criminology: crime measurements, victimization surveys, and delinquency and security Mastering criminal policy strategies and ability to apply sociological perspectives to explain criminal behaviour and deviant actions

Documentoscopy

Know and identify authentic, fake, counterfeit, and/or falsified documents, understanding the various techniques of document tampering (e.g., erasures, obliterations, additions, substitutions) Know the various involuntary and voluntary factors that can affect handwriting and understand the changes in writing that can result from these factors Master the use of various equipment and techniques for document analysis (e.g., video-spectral equipment, electrostatic detection equipment, stereoscopic microscope, magnifying glasses, spectroscopy, and chromatography techniques) Possess the ability to analyse, compare, and identify different types of inks, printing systems, and documentary supports, performing relative dating whenever necessary and possible. Understand the diversity and specificity of security elements that may be present in genuine documents to compare them with the elements that may be present in the questioned document Understand the act of handwriting from a biological point of view, including all the specificities that contribute to the natural variability of writing and to its being individualized and individualizing, applying the comparative method in examinations of veracity and/or authorship of writing

Forensic entomology

Master the theoretical and practical aspects of the taxonomy of the main groups of forensic indicator insects, as well as understand the ecology of the species involved in the processes of cadaveric decomposition Recognize the ecological succession of sarcosaprophagous fauna Know how to collect, preserve, and package insects in forensic contexts, as well as collect, select, and interpret the relevant information necessary for entomological analysis. Know and apply methods for estimating the “postmortem interval” Know the scope and limits of Forensic Entomology and know how to interpret an expert report in this area

Crime scene investigation

Ability to organize and plan the approach to the death scene efficiently. This includes the initial assessment of conditions, setting priorities, and allocating tasks to ensure the scene is preserved and examined appropriately Know the procedures for collecting traces and samples, such as blood, fibres, fingerprints, and other physical traces, ensuring that the collection and preservation methods guarantee the future validity of the evidence Promote effective cooperation and communication with other investigators and team members. The expert must work in harmony with other experts, sharing critical information in a clear and objective manner Know the procedures necessary to ensure that the death scene is properly isolated and use personal protective equipment (PPE), both to protect the evidence and for the safety of the investigators themselves Document all actions and observations made at the scene, including the location of traces, the position of the body, and the condition of objects at the scene

Forensic physics

Master the process of measuring physical quantities, including the quantification of associated uncertainties and their propagation in data analysis Understand the physical laws associated with the description and origin of movement (kinematics and dynamics) and know how to apply them in concrete situations (including statics and collisions) after measuring/determining all relevant physical quantities, developing quantitative models that describe them adequately and as completely as possible, including temporal evolution Understand the physical laws associated with fluid statics and the fundamental principles of fluid dynamics and know how to apply this knowledge to concrete situations, including macroscopic interactions between solids and fluids. Know how to measure/determine relevant physical quantities, developing quantitative models that describe them adequately and as completely as possible Understand the laws of thermodynamics and know how to apply them to concrete situations involving fires and explosions, measuring/determining relevant physical quantities, and developing quantitative models that describe them adequately and as completely as possible Understand the nature of the different types of radiation (ionizing and nonionizing), the processes of radiation emission (including radioactivity) and interaction with matter, as well as the physical laws that govern these interactions, especially from a macroscopic perspective, and know to apply them in concrete situations

Fires and explosives

Understand the phenomena of combustion, deflagration, and explosion Identify the phenomena of ignition initiation and thermal decomposition Knowledge of the classification and division of explosives and their nomenclature Ability to perform laboratory tests to analyse traces of fire, accelerants, and explosives Knowledge of the national and European legal system relating to the storage, trade, and transport of pyrotechnic and explosive substances

Forensic photography

Know the origins of photography—brief historical review and the evolution of the camera Know the basic principles of photography (aperture, exposure time, photographic ISO) Know the camera accessories (e.g., filters, flash) Skills to master aspects of photography related to accuracy, sharpness, focus, resolution, and exposure Skills to apply photographic techniques in crime scene investigation Know the standards and guidelines—Scientific Working Group for Imaging Technologies (SWGIT)

Forensic genetics and biology

Genetic profile analysis and human identification capabilities (comparison of genetic profiles—STR and SNP—for the identification of victims or missing persons and kinship testing) Knowledge of advanced laboratory practices and validation of analytical protocols (nucleic acid extraction from difficult samples, real-time Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), capillary electrophoresis, and next-generation sequencing—NGS) Genetic knowledge for the investigation of bioterrorism and biological agents (identification of pathogens, detection of genetic modifications, tracing the origin of suspected strains, differentiation between natural and artificial sources of contamination) Mastery of biosafety protocols and handling of biological risk agents (correct handling of microbiological agents and toxins, decontamination, use of safe procedures for storage and transportation of traces) Ability to track and interpret microbiological and botanical traces (origin, dissemination routes, genetic modifications)

Forensic geology

Knowledge of the different geological materials frequently associated with forensic investigations (e.g., rock fragments, soils, sediments, minerals) regarding their formation processes, their geographical distribution, and their characterization and identification Master the different soil and sediment sampling strategies to be applied at the site under investigation, in surrounding areas, and in “alibi” locations, among others, documenting, collecting, storing, and preserving samples in order to guarantee their integrity and the maintenance of the chain of custody Know and know how to use the different analytical techniques and methodologies of geological matrices that allow the evaluation of their inorganic, organic, and biological properties Ability to process, compare, evaluate, and interpret the results obtained in the analysis of the geological matrices under study in order to provide information based on scientific facts. Explain geological evidence in a scientific but clear, simple, concise, and precise manner, whether when writing an expert report or when providing clarifications in court

Forensic computer science

Advanced scientific and technical knowledge in the field of operating systems, networks, cryptography, storage devices, and data recovery techniques Ability to implement and manage national/international standard procedures applied to forensic analysis, ensuring ethical and legal compliance

Know, develop, and apply specialized forensic tools appropriate to each task Ability to interpret large volumes of data and create reports suitable for different stakeholders, facilitating communication and decision-making Solving forensic cases related to cybercrime

Forensic scientific research

Ability to define a problem and operationalize research questions Know the “state of the art” on the topic to be investigated Detect ethical dilemmas implicit in a research project and deal with them in accordance with national and international regulations, with possible prior hearing by the ethics committee Apply methodological reasoning with correct interpretation of operational and epistemological limitations Master the structure of a scientific text

Forensic linguistics

Identify and compare writing styles to determine the authorship of anonymous or disputed texts. This includes using linguistic features such as word choice, syntactic structure, frequencies of certain expressions, and individual idiosyncrasies that may suggest or exclude possible suspects Ability to evaluate the content of statements, interviews, and testimonies, seek to understand the implicit meaning and communicative intention, and apply linguistic methods to assess the veracity of oral and written statements, identifying linguistic elements that may indicate inconsistencies, lack of spontaneity, or possible fabrication of information. Techniques include analysing pauses, hesitations, pronoun changes, and narrative coherence Comparing documents to identify plagiarism and the unauthorized use of linguistic material, whether in academic writing, advertising, or other contexts. The expert identifies patterns of copying and syntactic and lexical similarity to prove or refute cases of plagiarism Analyse translations in multilingual contexts to verify the accuracy and impartiality of translations and interpretations, which is essential in judicial contexts. This ensures that the original content is not distorted, intentionally or unintentionally, in translated documents and testimonies Analyse audio recordings and identify voice characteristics that may help identify the speaker, such as accent, intonation, frequency, and articulatory characteristics. This skill is essential in cases where the suspect’s voice has been captured, but the identity needs to be confirmed

Forensic microbiology

Master the theoretical and practical aspects of microbiology, being able to identify and characterize microorganisms that may be involved in crime scenes Recognize and apply classical and reference microbiology methodologies (e.g., bacterial typing) that allow the analysis of microbial DNA in different samples and contexts Know the procedures for maintaining the integrity of biological samples, from collection, transport, and storage to analysis, ensuring that there is no contamination Interpret laboratory results and analyze biological data, establishing possible relationships between microbiological samples and forensic events, such as time and cause of death, suspected infections, sexual abuse, and intentional contamination, among others Identify the factors that affect microbial growth, demonstrating knowledge about the transmission, prevention, control, and treatment of infectious diseases. At the same time, understand the mechanisms of action of antimicrobial agents and mechanisms of bacterial resistance

Forensic medicine: clinic

Understand the biomechanics and mechanisms of injury production, as well as describe and interpret them accurately. This includes the analysis of injuries in cases of trauma and accidents as part of the assessment of personal injury Skills to conduct forensic medical examinations in cases of trauma, domestic violence, abuse, sexual assault, and post-traumatic personal injury. This requires clinical and forensic knowledge to assess and document injuries properly, as well as apply appropriate legal protocols Recognize the need for expert opinions and guide expert assessments accordingly for specialist consultation Ability to request and interpret additional tests, such as imaging tests, laboratory tests, and other diagnostic tests, to corroborate forensic conclusions in forensic clinical examinations Practical and technical knowledge to solve specific cases in forensic clinical examinations. This includes the application of theoretical knowledge in practice, the preparation of detailed forensic reports, and the ability to communicate conclusions clearly and in a well-founded manner in a legal and medical context

Forensic thanatology

Understand the mechanisms of injury production, as well as describe and interpret them accurately. This includes the analysis of injuries in cases of homicide, suicide, or accident, contributing to the determination of the forensic aetiology and cause of death Master the techniques for performing forensic autopsies, from the external examination of the body and clothing to the internal examination, in order to identify causes of death and collect the evidence necessary for investigation. This process includes chronatognosis and differential diagnosis between causes of death, such as accident, suicide, homicide, or natural causes Ability to request and interpret additional tests, such as imaging tests, laboratory tests (e.g., histopathology), and other diagnostic tests, to corroborate forensic conclusions in forensic autopsies Recognize the need for expert opinions and guide expert assessments accordingly for specialist consultation Practical and technical knowledge to solve specific cases in the context of autopsies. This includes the application of theoretical knowledge in practice, the preparation of detailed forensic reports, and the ability to communicate conclusions clearly and in a well-founded manner in a legal and medical context

Forensic dentistry

Understand the dental anatomy, tooth growth, and development and be able to identify unique features in dental arches that can be used to identify individuals Analyse and compare dental records (X-rays, moulds, clinical records) with the teeth or dental arches of an individual or corpse for the purposes of identification or elucidation of crimes Identify and interpret trauma/injuries to the orofacial region and document these injuries appropriately for use in legal proceedings

Analyse and interpret complementary exams, such as radiographs, tomography, and forensic photographs, as well as more advanced techniques, such as DNA analysis in oral tissues, to assist in the identification and forensic investigation Be familiar with the stages of tooth development and the changes associated with senescence of the dental arch, as this information is crucial for estimating age

Forensic veterinary medicine

Understand basic concepts of veterinary medicine, which allow recognizing, reporting, and explaining injuries associated with forensic cases involving animals based on scientific knowledge Understand the principles of forensic techniques applied to veterinary medicine, namely, the identification of animals, assessment of well-being and the degree and/or duration of pain, collection of samples and/or evidence, documentation of injuries and clinical results, ensuring chain of custody, and integration of data in the form of a report Monitor suspected cases, ensuring the identification, clinical triage, clinical monitoring and/or necropsy, collection, and processing of samples or traces, integrating multidisciplinary teams that may involve the authorities Master concepts that allow considering internal and external factors in clinical expression, translate the probability of the origin of lesions compared to other differential diagnoses, and understand the advantages and limitations of diagnostic methods or other analytical methodologies Be able to contextualize the knowledge of forensic veterinary medicine within the current legal framework, as well as the ethical and deontological principles that govern the profession of veterinary medicine

Forensic psychology

Conduct psychological assessments using validated techniques and tools in the area of mental health, risk factors, or others Conduct interviews to gather information from different sources in an appropriate manner and based on scientific evidence to understand psychological and/or behavioural dynamics, with frequent peer supervision Provide expert information and clarification and court testimony to explain complex psychological concepts Development of offender monitoring plans, psychological support for victims, and recommendations for rehabilitation programs Contribute to scientific research in the development of good practices in a forensic context based on a high level of specialization, ethical conduct, and the ability to interact with the legal system

Forensic chemistry

Master the theoretical (organic and inorganic chemistry) and practical aspects of chemistry and its application for the analysis of forensic samples (illicit drugs, fibres, paints, packaging, or explosive residues, among others) Understand the composition, structure, and physicochemical properties of matter in different physical states (solid, liquid, and gaseous), how these characteristics can be influenced by biological systems, and how they can influence the analysis of forensic evidence Know and apply the appropriate procedures for the collection, preservation, and handling of samples for forensic chemistry, ensuring the integrity of the chain of custody and avoiding contamination or destruction of evidence Master a wide range of analytical methodologies for characterizing the molecular structure and quantifying chemical substances present in different types of forensic samples Explain the principles of the techniques used in forensic chemistry and interpret the results obtained, communicating them in a clear and accessible way, both for professionals in the field and for inexperienced people, using understandable language and simple analogies

Forensic social service

Master the social service concepts and practices and integrating them into the legal system Identify the existence of different impacts of crime and violence from the point of view of social damage, with a focus on injuries and psychosocial consequences that can result in child/adolescent, young person, and adult/senior victim Understand the assumptions underlying the assessment of the psychosocial risk of victims of domestic violence and the risk of recidivism of individuals involved in criminal and/or civil proceedings and educational guardianship proceedings Master the home visit technique (private or institutional context) and forensic interview protocols Clarify family dynamics, particularly in the context of exercising parental responsibilities in situations of conflict/violence

Forensic toxicology

Master the theoretical and practical aspects of toxicology, as well as the basic principles of epidemiology and surveillance of poisoning, as they can reveal relevant trends in poisonings Understand the disposition of xenobiotics in biological systems, including absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME), and how toxicokinetics contribute to substance toxicity Know and identify the factors that affect ADME and, consequently, the pharmacological or toxicological responses, with a particular focus on toxicogenetics, toxicogenomics and species specificities Recognize the analytical screening and confirmation methodologies used in toxicological analyses Explain the reasons for the vulnerability of different organs and physiological systems to the toxic effects of xenobiotics

Lophoscopy

Know and be able to identify the physical patterns of the epidermal ridges present on the fingers, palms of the hands, and soles of the feet of human beings Know and be able to evaluate and identify the different types of characteristic points that exist in the physical pattern of the epidermal ridges of the fingers, palms of the hands, and soles of the feet Master the techniques for collecting epidermal impressions and be able to evaluate the different surfaces on which they may be placed, selecting and applying the best techniques for developing and lifting fingerprints, palm prints, and/or plantar prints Understand the legal requirements for assigning positive human identification and be able to perform a comparative study of the physical patterns and characteristic points of the fingerprints, palm prints, and/or plantar prints under analysis, ideally mastering the use of auxiliary software Explain the lophoscopic evidence in a scientific yet clear, simple, concise, and precise manner, both when writing the expert report and when providing clarifications in court

Road accidentology

Master the theoretical and practical concepts of vehicle dynamics, including the kinematics and dynamics of moving vehicles, in order to understand the factors that influence the behaviour of vehicles before, during, and after a collision Understand the principles of vehicle damage and deformation analysis, including the relationship between dissipated energy and visible damage, allowing for the proper interpretation of vehicle damage to determine the severity of the impact and its causes Know and apply accident reconstruction methodologies using specialized simulation software to model the accident scenario, including vehicle trajectories, speeds, braking distances, and collision points. In addition, it is essential to present scientific calculations and formulas, such as the laws of physics applied to the geometry and dynamics of the accident, to ensure a rigorous and technical basis for the analysis Recognize and interpret physical traces at the accident site, such as brake marks, skid marks, and vehicle fragments, to associate this evidence with the collision dynamics and reconstruct the event based on concrete data Explain the implications of traffic regulations and road legislation in the context of the investigation, assessing the compliance of drivers’ actions with the rules in force and the influence of these rules on the avoidability of the accident

Forensic academic training in Portugal

Portugal today has three Cycle of Studies (i.e., bachelor, master, and doctorate) in Forensic Sciences and several continuing and postgraduate training courses [24, 25]. In short, while the undergraduate degree is an essentially technical and basic training phase, the master’s degree and doctorate are more oriented towards innovation and the advancement of knowledge, with the doctorate being the level where scientific contribution reaches its peak, with a direct impact on the progress of forensic science.

At the first Cycle of Studies (i.e., the bachelor) in Forensic Sciences level, there are two in Portugal. The one at the University Institute of Health Sciences has this name, and, at the Egas Moniz University Institute, it is called Forensic and Criminal Sciences. Including the word “criminal” in the designation is unnecessary because the forensic area has application not only in criminal law but also in civil, labour, family, and minors’ law, among others. A degree in Forensic Science must offer training focused mainly on the Chemical, Biological, Biochemical, Medical, Mathematics, Biomedical, Social, and Behavioural Sciences domains applied to the forensic area. The training provided should provide students with knowledge and skills in various scientific areas of forensic science intervention, suitable for investigation at the crime scene, collection and preservation of evidence, preparation of the expert report, and presentation of the same in court. The curriculum plan must include at least 180 European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) credits and prioritize training through specialists with doctorates and routine forensic practice in different subspecialties, with several classes taking place in a real scenario. The existence of graduates in this area of knowledge is the necessary condition to pursue Forensic Science as only they are capable of practicing transdisciplinary, according to validly recognized procedures and respecting scientific, social, and ethical principles in accordance with what is established by the judicial system. This is the only cycle of studies of an eminently professional nature; it is beginning to become clear that a further 60 ECTS credits (240 ECTS credits in total) will be needed to carry out a robust curricular internship in a real expert environment as the main focus is above all the acquisition of expert technical skills. In other words, undergraduate teaching tends to be more focused on applying previously established knowledge and acquiring operational skills, with less emphasis on innovation or contribution to scientific advancement in the area.

Portugal also currently has the second (i.e., the master) and third (i.e., the doctorate) Cycles of Studies in Forensic Sciences, which began in 2003 and 2007, respectively, with the third cycle being almost pioneering throughout the world [24, 25]. At the level of the second Cycle of Studies, Portugal has two so designated (the first at the University of Porto and the other taught at the University Institute of Health Sciences) and then a vast set of other master’s degrees that offer more specific skills within the forensic area such as the Master’s in Forensic Genetics from the Faculty of Sciences of the University of Porto, the Master’s in Clinical, Analytical and Forensic Toxicology from the Faculty of Pharmacy of the University of Porto and the Master’s in Forensic Medicine (this one looking more like a Master’s in Forensic Sciences generalist and not so focused on Legal Medicine) from the Abel Salazar Institute of Biomedical Sciences, also from the University of Porto, and the Master’s in Anthropology and the Master’s in Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences, both from the University of Coimbra, among others. The master’s degree in forensic sciences deepens the training acquired during undergraduate studies, allowing the student to specialize in one or more forensic subareas. This level of training requires a higher degree of critical analysis and the ability to integrate scientific knowledge. Furthermore, the master’s degree is where peer review begins to play a more prominent role since the work produced by students begins to be evaluated more rigorously in terms of scientific methodology and the relevance of the results. The master’s degree also prepares students for more responsible positions in forensic laboratories, criminal investigation bodies, or specialized consultancy. To complete this cycle of studies, at least 120 ECTS credits of training must be completed and include the completion of a dissertation as one of the fundamental elements of this training, as it allows the student to carry out original research under guidance, applying the knowledge acquired in practical situations and often innovative.

A doctorate represents par excellence, the most advanced level of forensic academic training, and is oriented toward creating new and original knowledge. In the doctorate, the aim is to develop highly qualified researchers capable of questioning, innovating, and actively contributing to advancing forensic science. Doctoral candidates must demonstrate a deep understanding of the scientific and technical challenges in their work area, developing cutting-edge research that challenges established knowledge. The ability to work completely independently is one of the key skills acquired in the doctorate, and producing an original thesis, subject to peer review and assessment, is the culmination of this training. The doctorate is aimed mainly at those who intend to pursue a high-level academic or research career, with doctors being responsible for training new generations of professionals and leading forensic scientific projects. In the forensic context, doctoral students have the responsibility to promote the scientificization of the area, introducing new methodologies and practices based on evidence. The most complex cases, specifically those that deviate from the standard forensic routine, should be reserved for them. To complete this cycle of studies, at least 240 ECTS credits of training must be completed, and completing a thesis is one of the fundamental elements of this elite training. Currently, Portugal has a single third Cycle of Studies in Forensic Sciences at the University of Porto.

Postgraduate education that does not confer a degree is also diversified today, sometimes jeopardizing the seriousness and image of the forensic professional since, as government entities less scrutinize it, it is promoted by different institutions (including nonuniversity institutions) that, by selling training with very appealing titles, end up conferring and attesting diplomas that in practice do not translate into real acquired knowledge. In other words, they perpetuate the idea of the “expert as skilled” to the detriment of the qualified forensic specialist.

Pedagogical innovation: teaching forensic science based on peer review

It is important that the skills acquired have pillars based on validated and proven scientific knowledge and not just on self-taught processes, transformed over the years into vices and certainties that inevitably lead to judicial and judicial errors. The growing challenges of today’s society, namely, of an economic, social, and scientific nature; the massification of access to information; and the constant advent of new information, quickly and very early, motivated a revolution in the ways of thinking and teaching [26]. The need I felt to renew the paradigm of teaching forensic sciences (plural) in Portugal, guided by little scientificization and the privilege of self-taught and empirical practices often based on the concept of “expert as skilled”, involved me in the search for new models training for an area with a shortage of qualified professionals in several of its subspecialties. This feeling is also claimed by the judicial world and the need to meet the expectations of a society for which knowledge has increasingly more economic, social, and political values, etc.

In recent years, university activity has privileged and valued scientific productivity more, with teaching being a field left to the free will of each professor without due scrutiny by peers. I asked myself, in moments of restlessness and frustration, if I was teaching really correct and valuable content in this forensic area where self-teaching was the hallmark. When I had my first experience as a researcher, I always had the unconditional support of the guidance team in defining the best strategies for scientific work. But would I, as a researcher, have been properly prepared for the role of Professor? When my advisors taught me how to research deep down, they also gave me the foundations to find better solutions for teaching, even if indirectly. If the scientific component was subject to peer review, I hypothesized and asked myself why we did not humbly assume this reality in teaching/learning, too.

In the case of scientific literature, peer review constitutes an assessment of the solidity of the topic, its originality and interest to the scientific community, and the adequacy and rigour of the methodology used, including statistics, results, discussion, and conclusions and also the relevance of the citations [27]. It is basically the scientific method that helps to “separate the wheat from the chaff”, that is, to separate good science from bad-quality science [28]. Based on the importance that this peer review has acquired in recent years, since I took on a “forensic mission” (although without realizing it) I have been particularly attentive and committed to the use of this scientific scrutiny as a pedagogical modality-oriented towards the scientificization of forensic science in Portugal and around the world. For this reason, forensic classes began a few years ago to be written in the format of review/didactic articles, book chapters, or books, always with the concern of valuing science to the detriment of other forms of skill or expertise. For the success of this process, it was crucial to respect binomial teaching/research. In the absence of qualified forensic specialists in various subspecialties, it was the way I found to correct myself and, ultimately, create the foundations to form a critical mass capable of promoting the dissemination of knowledge. This peer review teaching route also represents an effort of humility and honesty in the face of scientific knowledge and, very particularly, the transmission of solid and safe knowledge, as well as raising students’ awareness of the fundamental importance of basing professional practice and teaching on scientific evidence and not just on our routines and mere opinions. Along the way, I found myself identifying existing professionals in other areas of knowledge but with a profile that would be the messengers of scientific creation in the forensic subspecialty. It was, and still continues to be, an arduous task, but today, I see that the Mission was fruitful and created the foundations of forensic science in Portugal. In other words, it was conceiving the multidisciplinary nature of multiple forensic areas, so the forensic transdisciplinary is plausible today, as explained below.

Certification of forensic experts

Scientific and technological development, which has been occurring since the last century, requires a constant effort to update itself on the part of forensic experts, reflected, in particular, in growing expectations and demand on the part of victims who believe and hope to be able to find solutions to all their problems. This quality is increasingly sought with greater rigour and systematic validation of forensic practices and procedures, whether through audits, proficiency tests, or accreditation. In other words, society asks and demands a new approach to the exercise of expert activity. New techniques and methodologies of forensic laboratory investigation in the fields of toxicology, genetics and epigenetics, physics, chemistry, and now more recently driven by artificial intelligence (AI) tools have allowed for a faster and “different” way (because it is based on scientific evidence) of producing forensic evidence.

For this reason, the certification of forensic experts has always been a necessary reality, but it has never even been put into a draft project for future implementation. With the “CSI effect”, academic training in this field has flourished in many countries, resulting in evident discrepancies in the skills and quality of experts, with obvious compromise in judicial decisions. In other words, the certification of forensic experts is of utmost importance to ensure scientific rigour in such a sensitive sector of society. To respond to this need, the APCF pragmatically established a Regulation for the Professional Practice of Forensic Experts, defining the general requirements for their recognition, which should value experience and adequate pedagogical training for each of the five levels of certification [12]. This general regulation can be easily applied to the main forensic subspecialties. Certification is also relevant to qualify professionals to deliver scientific and reliable forensic reports, avoiding compromising judicial and court decisions [29, 30]. The truth is that we are witnessing in this area the involvement of forensic institutions that are not properly scrutinized and regulated, relying on self-taught operational procedures and limited budgetary investment to develop specific operational standards and policies for the forensic area [31]. Certification, therefore, represents a relevant procedure to recognize and formally attest that an expert is competent enough to carry out specific tasks. The objective of this regulation was to pragmatically define the general principles relating to the professional practice of forensic experts. The main objective was (and continues to be) to limit biased opinions based solely on empiricism, perception, and “innate talent” without statistical support based on scientific evidence.

In order to prepare this regulation, it was first necessary to define the general attributes and competencies of the forensic expert as a qualified professional who has forensic work experience and education certified by a training entity and/or who has obtained a bachelor’s degree, master’s degree, doctorate, and/or aggregation in Forensic Sciences. The general competencies of forensic experts include: (i) offering qualified competence to the administration of Justice; (ii) practicing forensic science in compliance with the legis artis of each subspecialty; and (iii) contributing to scientific research and teaching within the scope of their training. This status of forensic specialists qualifies them to exercise their professional activity in forums where forensic expertise is required, namely, in the following: (i) courts in support of prosecutors, lawyers, and judges; (ii) law firms; (iii) security forces/organizations; (iv) technical–scientific police laboratories; (v) public and private forensic institutes; (vi) border controls; (vii) company security offices/departments; (viii) insurance companies; (ix) auditing companies; (x) social reintegration services; (xi) victim assistance centers; (xii) child and youth protection commissions; (xiii) hospitals and health centres; (xiv) private consultancy for prosecution/defense; and (xv) scientific training or research.

The forensic expert’s code of ethics

In addition to the certification of skills, integrating law, science, and technology often leads forensic experts to face important ethical challenges. The possible interference with personal rights and freedoms requires that the professional practice of the forensic expert be guided by compliance with technical–scientific competence under the aegis of the highest ethical principles [11]. However, the absence of specific regulations has made the performance of forensic professionals unclear and can harm professional credibility, as well as the scientific domain as a whole. Ethical pillars are essential to support professional practice, following international recommendations in this regard [32]. We recently proposed a code of ethics and conduct that not only is based on the professional particularities that characterize forensic practice but also considers the ethical issues that are mandatory to ensure high levels of reliability and credibility of forensic experts. From the scientific proposal, it was clear that a forensic expert must [11]:

• Use the professional title that was assigned;

• To freely promote the high values of Justice in the pursuit of material truth;

• Work not only in the district or region where you are domiciled, legally linked, or registered but also at a national or international level, cooperating with other experts, always within your legal and regulatory framework;

• Refuse any interference in your professional activity when ethical or technical–scientific aspects of the practice are questioned, regardless of your functions, hierarchy, or place of activity;

• Practice profession without suffering discrimination on the grounds of religion, race, sex, colour, sexual orientation, age, social status, political opinion, or any other nature;

• Point out flaws, without prejudice, in the procedures and regulations of the institutions where they work when these prove to be unworthy of the exercise of the profession or harmful to Justice;

• Have fair and satisfactory working conditions that guarantee the right to effective employment and adequate working hours, enabling personal fulfilment and reconciling work and family life, ensuring respect for the ethics of the profession;

• Seek adequate remuneration in accordance with the quality standards of the scientific–technical services provided;

• Have adequate access to ongoing training for professional updating and improvement, being able to call on external and international collaborators to expand their knowledge and skills;

• Carry out specific tasks related to your professional activity, contributing to protecting the public interest;

• Comply with and ensure compliance with legislation related to the exercise of the profession;

• Observe applicable international conventions and recommendations, ratified or adopted by the competent authorities;

• Do not accept services outside their areas of expertise or for which they do not have adequate scientific qualifications;

• Do not seek self-promotion or competitive advantage through falsification, exaggeration, or misrepresenting credentials and qualifications;

• Recognize that their primary responsibility is general welfare, placing the victim above personal or commercial interests and promoting equitable access to quality and safe services;

• Maintain the chain of custody where applicable;

• Regularly review the work, recognizing flaws that require changes in attitude, avoiding invalid methods, and improving your practices with new scientifically based methodologies and technologies;

• Act impartially, avoiding bias that favours the contracting party and not working based on fees dependent on results;

• Request exemption or declare oneself ineligible when there are legitimate reasons, personal or professional, or in case of a conflict of interest, financial, labour, or another nature;

• Report violations of professional standards and unethical, illegal, or scientifically questionable behaviour by other forensic professionals;

• Maintain detailed, clear, and accurate written records of all analyses and conclusions, allowing review by independent authorities;

• Provide objective, clear, and timely reports and testimonies using unambiguous terms and disclose all known limitations that may prevent bias in judicial decisions;

• Assuming express responsibility for a report by means of signature only if you have played a central role in the assessment or in direct or indirect supervision;

• Do not comment publicly, including on social media, on pending professional matters in which they are directly involved or subject to professional secrecy.

The truth is that ethical misconduct impacts the forensic specialist both professionally and personally, but it can also negatively affect the credibility of the profession and the perception that it is not a reliable science. Establishing a code of ethics and conduct for forensic experts gives organizations credibility and a willingness to take responsibility, demonstrating higher goals and decreasing the frequency of personal biases. The reader should consult [11] to delve deeper into this subject.

Public and private forensic expert activity in Portugal

The organization in each country or region conditions the achievement of forensic expert activity. In Portugal and under the authority of the Ministry of Justice, forensic activity is carried out at the National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences (INMLCF, IP) and the Scientific Police Laboratory (LPC) of the Judicial Police (PJ). Law No. 45/2004, of August 19, establishes the legal regime for medico-legal and forensic expertise, amended by Decree-Law No. 53/2021, of June 16. From the outset, the title of these legislative documents contains a confusing linguistic plot that is contrary to scientific truth. In fact, when speaking of medico-legal and forensic expertise, it suggests that the so-called medico-legal expertise is not forensics when, in practice, it is correctly called Forensic Medicine. Article 2 defines that these examinations are carried out obligatorily in the INMLCF’s delegations and medico-legal and forensic offices in accordance with the respective statutes. Articles 23 and 24 also define that forensic genetics, biology, toxicology, psychiatry, and psychology exams and expertise are requested by the competent authority from the INMLCF delegation in the territorial area of the court that requests them. However, the legislation needs to be revised since it was designed before the exponential scientificization of forensic science.

It defines articles 41 and 43 of Decree-Law No. 137/2019, of September 13, which approves the organizational structure of the PJ, that its LPC also develops expert activity in the various domains of forensic science, namely, audio and sound, ballistics, biology, criminalistics, documents and currency, drugs and toxicology, handwriting, criminalistic imaging, computer science and telecommunications, physics, lophoscopy, marks and tools, chemistry, and computer science.

Under the aegis of the Ministry of Internal Administration, the Public Security Police (PSP) and the National Republican Guard (GNR) have scientific police units with forensic activities. Considering Law No. 53/2007, of August 31, which defined the mission, attributions, and bases of the internal organization of the PSP, and in accordance with article 16 of dispatch No. 1168/2024, of January 31, the Division of Technical Police and Forensic Sciences (DPTCF) is responsible for carrying out expert assessments in the various areas of forensic science, namely, forensic images and multimedia, criminalistics in general, documents and currency, drugs and toxicology, graphotechnics, digital environment, cybercrime, telecommunications, physics, lophoscopy, mechanical marks, tools, and chemistry, among others, issuing forensic reports and ensuring technical and scientific support of Criminal Investigation System of the Public Security Police (SICPSP) operations or at the request of the Judicial Authorities. According to article 18 of Order No. 8362/2024 of July 25, the Division of Criminalistics and Forensic Sciences (DCCF), integrated into the Criminal Investigation Directorate of the GNR, is responsible for: (a) preparing, disseminating, and ensuring compliance with technical standards in the field of criminalistics; (b) carrying out criminalistic expertise and ensuring support to the units in technical–scientific police activities and the use of centralized resources; and (c) ensuring, within the scope of its competences, coordination with other entities, namely in matters of scientific police. Specifically, the GNR is already qualified for forensic activity: (i) in the judicial inspection of the crime scene; (ii) in the scope of human identification and operating the Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS); (iii) in the scope of road accidents; and (iv) in the scope of break-ins, false keys, make and model of footwear or tires, cuts, etc., to recognize the type of tool or object potentially causing that mark.

Insurance companies, public or private hospitals, research laboratories, public or private universities, the Food and Economic Security Authority (ASAE), and the Social Security Institute can also carry out expert activities. Regarding the inspections carried out at ASAE, article 2 of Ordinance No. 35/2013, of January 30, defines the Department of Food Risks and Laboratories (DRAL) as the nuclear organic unit responsible for developing ASAE’s laboratory activity. This activity is ensured by the Food Safety Laboratory (LSA) and other laboratories that constitute it. They are the Laboratory of Beverages and Wine Products (LBPV), the Laboratory of Physical Chemistry (LFQ), and the Laboratory of Microbiology (LM).

In the case of private services, these can perform all types of expert assessments, with the exception of forensic autopsies. Regardless of whether the expert intervention may occur within the institutional framework of an official public entity or in the exercise of expert activity on an individual basis, what is relevant is the quality with which it is produced [2]. In other words, public expert assessments (carried out by government agencies) and private expert assessments (carried out by professionals or companies hired by one of the parties involved) have their specific advantages, which contribute to the efficiency and justice of the legal system. The notion so often proclaimed that public expert assessments are immaculate and impartial because the judicial bodies or competent authorities appoint the experts and, therefore, have no direct relationship with any of the parties involved in the process has long been illegitimate since the expert began to be governed by a code of professional ethics that requires independence. Therefore, whether it is public or private expertise, it is always conducted objectively, without favouritism, and always supported by the expert’s scientific skills, thus ensuring the credibility of the judicial process. It should be noted, in fact, that private expert activity has grown significantly in recent years (often promoted by retirees from public service), given the need felt by lawyers, insurance companies, and even citizens who use the justice system to challenge judicial decisions supported by forensic evidence produced by other bodies, even official ones. In fact, the right to adversarial proceedings must be widely accepted and counterevidence, provided it is carried out by an expert with equal or greater competence than the one who carried out the first expert assessment, allows discussion and safer and more well-founded judicial decisions, promoting the true implementation of justice. On the other hand, private expert assessments can be a fundamental tool in guiding the resolution of cases outside the formal justice system through out-of-court settlements, therefore, reducing the financial and emotional costs and the traditional delay associated with the resolution of cases in court will translate into an undeniable advantage for the parties involved [2]. Another point that seems already very significant and differentiating is that private experts often have more autonomy to prepare more detailed and personalized expert reports.

In other geographies, private forensic consultancy companies are a recurring and successful practice, particularly in filling the gaps left by state laboratories in areas where differentiated expertise is required [33, 34]. In particular, private laboratories have greater flexibility in updating and implementing technical–scientific advances, as they are not as dependent on public funds. From the outset, this would imply greater speed in judicial proceedings. Another crucial point is to ensure the principle of full adversarial proceedings as a pillar of justice. Public expertise must continue to ensure equal rights in resolving disputes, regardless of economic condition.

Multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary science

Etymologically, the word discipline originated from the Latin disciplina and means “education received by a disciple from his master”. This term, in turn, comes directly from discipulus. A disciple is “one who learns and is guided by his mentor”. Three categories of relationships between disciplines are known: interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary, and transdisciplinary (Table 2).

Table 2.

Comparison between the interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary, and transdisciplinary forensic science(s) approaches.

Method/approach	Interdisciplinary	Multidisciplinary	Transdisciplinary
Nature of interaction	Integration between disciplines, with dialogue and exchange of methods and concepts. It is addictive.	Disciplines work independently but around the same theme or problem. It is interactive.	Overcoming disciplinary boundaries, integrating scientific knowledge with other knowledge, such as popular or artistic knowledge. It is holistic.
Objective	Creating new perspectives and methods by combining disciplines.	Solving a problem or approaching a topic using different disciplines without deep integration.	Develop holistic and innovative solutions that transcend disciplinary divides, uniting science, society, and practice.
Structure	Collaborative, with disciplines dialoguing to develop combined approaches.	Parallel, with specialized disciplines working autonomously, without much interaction between them.	Integrative, bringing together different forms of knowledge (academic, empirical, cultural) in a unified process.
Result	Production of new knowledge or theories through the synthesis of disciplines.	Separate contributions from different disciplines without creating new fields.	Creation of new ways of thinking and acting with a broader impact on society and science.
Example	Forensic cases that integrate more than one forensic area to find new solutions, such as forensic biomechanics.	Forensic cases involving experts in genetics, medicine, toxicology, ballistics, and psychology, where each one works in their area.	Forensic case in which the expert explores the forensic spirit in its entirety and emancipates it by seeking the solution in an integrated way.

The “interdisciplinary approach” qualifies what is common to two or more disciplines or other branches of knowledge and seeks a process of connection between them [35]. In other words, interdisciplinarity is a process of connection between disciplines that seeks to overcome the fragmented traditional pedagogical process of teaching–learning. For interdisciplinary projects to flourish, scientists must recognize the potential contribution of other disciplines in answering key research questions [36]. For example, complex problems facing our society, such as climate change, are unlikely to be overcome by a single academic discipline [37]. In other words, with the application of interdisciplinarity in science, new aggregating disciplines emerge, which unite specific areas of knowledge to understand phenomena that would be incomprehensible with the knowledge of only one area, as is the case with bioengineering, which unites the areas of biology and engineering. The same can be said for the area of bioinformatics, which combines molecular biology and computing.

The “multidisciplinary approach”, in turn, brings together a set of disciplines studied simultaneously but without needing them to be related to each other and without the disciplines involved in the process being modified or enriched themselves [38]. It provides less specialized cooperative knowledge than the interdisciplinary method but is more eclectic. Multidisciplinary corresponds to the traditional curriculum structure in university study plans, which is fragmented into several disciplines. According to the concept of multidisciplinary, information from several subjects is used to study a given element without any concern for interconnecting the disciplines [39]. Thus, each subject contributes information specific to its field of knowledge without considering that there is an integration between them. This form of relationship between disciplines limits knowledge transfer, as it prevents a relationship between the various types of knowledge. However, multidisciplinary was considered important to end an extremely specialized education concentrated in a single discipline. The origin of multidisciplinary lies in the idea that knowledge can be divided into parts (disciplines), which is then achieved from a certain subdivision of a specific knowledge domain. Several references to the multidisciplinary approach of forensic sciences are described in the literature, this being the most frequent practice when its specialists come together, each contributing their expertise in the forensic subspecialty [40–42].

The “transdisciplinary approach” is the most advanced concept. This form of teaching and investigation requires not only the addition of different disciplines but also the organization and contextualization of knowledge [43]. The boundaries of disciplines are broken, and the phenomena are understood in their entirety. Transdisciplinary is a scientific approach that aims at the unity of knowledge [44]. In this way, it seeks to stimulate a new understanding of reality by articulating elements that pass between, beyond, and across disciplines in a search for understanding the complexity of the real world. Transdisciplinary denotes a research strategy that crosses disciplinary boundaries to create a holistic approach. Jean Piaget introduced the use of this term in 1970, and, in 1987, the International Center for Transdisciplinary Research and Studies (CIRET; Center International de Recherches et d` Études Transdisciplinaires) adopted the Charter of Transdisciplinary (https://inters.org/Freitas-Morin-Nicolescu-Transdisciplinarity) in 1994 at the 1st World Congress of Transdisciplinary held in Portugal [45]. Article 3 of this letter mentions that transdisciplinary does not seek the domination of several disciplines but the opening of all disciplines to what crosses and exceeds them. Transdisciplinary is, therefore, today a discipline and a way of being [43]. As mentioned, it does not only mean that disciplines collaborate with each other, but it also means that there is an organizing thought that goes beyond the disciplines themselves. As the prefix “trans” indicates, transdisciplinary concerns what is simultaneously between disciplines, across disciplines, and beyond each discipline. Its goal is to understand the current world, one of its imperatives being the unity of knowledge. However, for this so-called transdisciplinary system to exist, there must be organized thought, the so-called complex knowledge. Transdisciplinary in the area of public health emphasizes the integration of diverse individuals, skills, perspectives, and knowledge across disciplines to break down traditional boundaries and develop holistic approaches that connect the boundaries between ecosystems and human health [46]. Today, we are witnessing a growing presence of transdisciplinary in the area of health research with a view to increasing the efficiency of care [47], and it has been tested in forensic mental health expertise in cases of child sexual abuse in India [48] and in the approach to forensic mental health in adolescents [49]. However, in these forensic examples, I seriously doubt whether the concept of transdisciplinary was used more in the colloquial sense than in its scientific dimension.

The beginning of a new forensic era in Portugal: a vision of what is between and beyond

As explained above, it is time to take deeper consideration of transdisciplinary in the forensic area. When we look at forensic sciences and their experts, we see that they come together to solve a given case, and each one contributes their knowledge. However, the forensic spirit does not materialize often because scattered knowledge does not allow us to see what exists beyond its specialty. That is why the ideal term to be achieved is “forensic science”, in the singular, where we must interpret the case as a whole, highlighting the application of a single discipline or specific scientific method. Using the terminology of “forensic sciences” in the plural recognizes that the field includes several scientific disciplines collaborating in expert investigation but without being able to “see between the lines” and with clear judicial and judicial prejudice. Let’s imagine a puzzle where the multiple pieces that represent the forensic subspecialties come to fit together completely, but in the end, we cannot reveal the image that the puzzle hides. This is the most practised approach since the beginning of forensics. Now, let’s imagine another scenario where the puzzle pieces continue to fit together completely, but the picture behind the puzzle reveals itself in this case. Forensic Science is the Eureka that the victim desires when seeking justice. It is the interjection “I found” or “I discovered”, pronounced by the forensic specialist when a solution is found for a complex problem.

How did I change my mind? Where did I find the balance between the multidisciplinary approach (more universally recognized) and the transdisciplinary one? Basically, it was like any research project. . . We know how it starts; nonetheless, we do not know how it ends. However, in this particular case, I had never realized I was promoting a research project. Indeed, I only became aware that I was carrying out a forensic investigation when, during the process, I realized that the results of the forensic training were contrary to the knowledge installed and taken for granted. While teaching forensic sciences in the three cycles of studies and a in very close relationship with the creation of study plans by my coordination functions, I never questioned the multidisciplinary perspective of forensic sciences. In 2012, when I started coordinating the first degree in Forensic Sciences in Portugal, I was very far from imagining that this constant process of creating curricular plans, including master’s degrees and a doctoral program in the area, would make me see the forensic world from another perspective. I have always heard that teachers learn from their students every day. These are nice phrases that undoubtedly look good in rhetoric. But the truth is that the students with degrees in forensic science showed me that they possessed an intellectual resourcefulness that the Law in Portugal never envisioned as a reality. Along the way, I found myself thinking in moments of introspection about whether I had innovated and contributed to creating a new science, Forensic Science.

Let us look at the opposite. The multidisciplinary approach to forensic science promotes collaboration between different areas of knowledge, where each contributes its own methodologies and perspectives to solving a forensic problem. In forensic sciences, this means that professionals from different subspecialties work together without necessarily merging methods or significantly crossing epistemological boundaries. Genetics studies DNA, toxicology analyses xenobiotics, anthropology studies skeletal remains, entomology studies insects, lophoscopy studies fingerprints, etc., but if we look closely, each specialist continues to work in their own field and at a distance from the others. Each discipline works to provide specialized information that contributes to solving the forensic case. It is the above-mentioned “puzzle without Eureka”.

The transdisciplinary approach to forensic science goes beyond simple collaboration between subspecialties. It involves the fusion and integration of knowledge and methods from different areas, creating new ways of thinking and approaching problems. In forensic science, transdisciplinary implies that the boundaries between disciplines are overcome, allowing the creation of new hybrid approaches that emerge from the constant dialogue between different areas. The characteristics of the transdisciplinary forensic approach are the: (i) integration of knowledge because instead of specialists working separately, their disciplines are integrated to solve complex problems. For example, the analysis of a crime scene may require an approach that combines chemistry, toxicology, genetics, and psychology in a very cohesive way; (ii) creation of new methods and approaches, such as the use of advanced mathematical models to predict criminal patterns or the combined use of molecular biology and artificial intelligence to accelerate DNA identification; (iii) resolution of complex problems, since forensic cases often involve biological, chemical, physical, psychological, and social, among other factors.

Despite the lack of deep integration in the multidisciplinary approach, because disciplines may not communicate effectively, resulting in fragmented solutions that make it difficult to solve complex problems, this approach also has its advantages. These are the deep specializations where each area of knowledge offers the best possible contribution based on its expertise and the inherent greater ease of organization and structuring. Therefore, I cannot deny that the multidisciplinary view can sometimes provide relevant information for forensic resolution, but it only makes sense in the context of transmultidisciplinary. For example, a given traumatic case may deserve a specialized and in-depth opinion from an orthopaedist, an ophthalmologist, or a gynaecologist. This is because, at this evolutionary stage of knowledge, the level of specificity of these medical areas cannot be confined to a transdisciplinary forensic specialist, typically more laboratory and technical. Therefore, another specialist is called upon to provide their interpretative judgement in a transmultidisciplinary approach. This will probably always be the most holistic and innovative approach to solving forensic cases.

In short, the multidisciplinary approach and the transdisciplinary approach represent two important ways of dealing with scientific knowledge in forensic science. While multidisciplinary allows the collaboration of specialists from different areas, keeping their specializations intact, transdisciplinary aims to overcome disciplinary boundaries, generating new approaches and more integrated solutions, especially for more complex approaches, typically found in forensic scenarios.

Forensic science elevated to the status of independent science

In this evolutionary path of creation, I see today that forensic science, on its own merit, deserves the status of an autonomous science as an organized system of knowledge that seeks to understand and explain natural, social, or technological phenomena through rigorous methods, observations, experiments, and analyses. Like other sciences [50], the following are characteristics of forensic science: (i) the scientific method, which involves observation, the formulation of hypotheses, the carrying out of experiments, the collection of data, and rigorous analysis, phases that allow the verification and validation of hypotheses; (ii) empiricism in which scientific knowledge is derived from experience, measurements and experimentation, rather than from assumptions or beliefs; (iii) objectivity and impartiality, since scientists seek to minimize prejudices and personal influences, focusing on results and evidence that can be tested and replicated; (iv) falsifiability, since scientific hypotheses must be falsifiable, that is, there must be the possibility that they can be proven false through observation or experiment; (v) revisability, since new evidence or discoveries may lead to the modification or rejection of existing theories, reflecting the dynamic nature of science; (vi) internal coherence, ensuring that scientific theories are consistent with each other and fit within a larger framework of knowledge. In other words, a new discovery should not contradict well-established theories unless there is convincing evidence; and (vii) generality, since scientific laws and theories generally seek to explain not just specific cases but a broad set of phenomena, i.e., a good scientific theory should be able to make predictions about future events or outcomes under different conditions.

Conclusions and perspectives and future challenges

The social response to a conflict or a violation of rights that is expressed through the formal mechanisms of a democratic state governed by the rule of law is, in most cases, based on the production of evidence before a court that assesses it in accordance with the applicable procedural law. Forensic science, through expertise as the issuance of a technical–scientific opinion/judgement, is situated at the intersection between science and justice and has an essential role in applying the law. However, there is still a long way to go. In addition, Forensic Science offers a new world of opportunities and challenges for research in all scientific areas [51]. In the coming years, this professional area is expected to undergo significant transformations that promote the transdisciplinary of forensic science, driven by new scientific discoveries, technological advances, and social changes. These developments will create innovative opportunities and ethical and operational challenges requiring careful preparation [11, 12]. AI and machine learning algorithms will also profoundly impact how evidence is analysed [52] and, if well managed, offer a unique opportunity to move courts to the 2.0 level. The quality of input/prompt will determine the quality of output. These tools will allow us to automate laborious and time-consuming tasks, such as analysing DNA patterns, fingerprints, and video recordings. Specifically, ChatGPT (and other Large Language Models) in forensic science represents a new world of opportunities in this domain, possibly improving judicial decisions’ time efficiency and accuracy. With AI, it will be possible to identify complex correlations between data that would escape manual analysis and even predict emerging criminal patterns. A relevant example is the use of AI in forensic video analysis, which can already identify critical events in hours of footage in just a few minutes. In addition, automated systems will be used to reconstruct crime scenes accurately using 3D modelling [53]. Presenting evidence through immersive virtual reality experiences in courtrooms will help different justice actors better understand complex dynamics. But for this future to be successful, it will be essential to develop AI systems that are transparent, auditable, and free of bias, ensuring that their decisions can be explained and justified in court. And as crimes become more complex and transnational, greater international collaboration will be required. Creating global networks for sharing information and standardizing forensic procedures will help combat crimes that cross borders.

Additionally, with the increasing reliance on digital technologies, digital forensics will become one of the most critical areas. Cybercrimes such as identity theft, ransomware, and financial fraud constantly evolve, requiring sophisticated tools to track digital evidence. In addition, new threats such as deepfakes and AI attacks will increase the complexity of investigations. Cryptocurrency tracking and metadata analysis tools will be key to combating financial crimes, while social media analysis algorithms will help identify terrorist or criminal activity.

In terms of genetics, DNA has been one of the most important revolutions in forensic science, but the future promises even more advances with the use of new genetic approaches. These approaches include genetic phenotyping, which will allow the reconstruction of physical characteristics such as eye, skin, and hair colour from DNA samples; exploring the forensic microbiome as a tool for individual identification; and chemistry and biotechnology, which will also allow the development of new techniques for the rapid detection of toxic substances and new psychoactive substances that are currently difficult to analyze. Nanotechnology is also expected to open new frontiers in forensic science [54]. In the future, nanoscale sensors will be able to identify explosive residues and xenobiotics in increasingly smaller concentrations. Portable spectrometry and chemical analysis tools at the crime scene will eliminate the need to transport different samples to laboratories, reducing investigation times.

I am also convinced that the environmental forensics area will assume an increasingly relevant role [55]. As environmental crimes become more common—such as animal trafficking, industrial pollution, and illegal deforestation—it will be necessary to develop innovative techniques to investigate these cases and stop global warming. Forensic science could be used to trace the origin of products such as illegal timber, minerals from conflict zones, or trafficked animals. Furthermore, research efforts will focus on the sustainability of forensic laboratories, introducing less environmentally polluting methods and replacing toxic chemical reagents with environmentally friendly alternatives.

Naturally, all these forensic science advances will bring important ethical challenges. For example, using AI and predictive algorithms raises questions about bias, transparency, and discrimination. Privacy will also be a growing concern, especially regarding in-depth genome studies. It will, therefore, be essential to develop clear regulations and ethical codes to ensure that these new tools are used fairly and transparently, preserving individual rights and preventing abuse.

In conclusion, the future will only be fruitful with investment in education and ongoing training of forensic professionals, preparing them to deal with new challenges and involving them in transdisciplinary investigation units that integrate science, technology, ethics, and law. It is certain to me that the separation of routine forensic activity from investigation will never result in good forensic investigations. This is a major focus on combat, ensuring that forensic activity is always interconnected with scientific investigation. Forensic practice without science is now unethical and deceiving since casework is not, with due respect, as cholesterol and triglycerides in clinical analysis of routine. Similarly to the One Health concept that revolutionized health, One Forensics is the pathway to professionalize forensic expertise since only transdisciplinary approaches can solve complex cases [56]. The future of forensic science promises to be full of innovations that will revolutionize the way forensic cases are investigated and justice is applied. In addition to solving them more quickly and effectively, the forensic science of the future will play a crucial role in the health of populations and in building a fairer and safer society, where scientific truth will be a fundamental foundation of justice. Our One Forensics model to modernize forensic science is now being considered to be implemented by other countries.

Compliance with ethical standards

Not applicable.

Disclosure statement

Ricardo Jorge Dinis-Oliveira holds the position of Editorial Board Member for Forensic Sciences Research and is blinded from reviewing or making decisions for this manuscript. In particular, the author deny employment, consultancies, honoraria, stock ownership, grants, or patents received or pending and royalties that could condition the scientific content.

Funding

The author has no relevant affiliations or financial involvement with any organization or entity with a financial interest in the subject matter discussed in this work.